Expertise in teaching and coaching: A qualitative study of physical educators and athletic coaches

Brent Hardin

Florida State University, USA

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify, compare, and contrast the teaching attributes of expert coaches in their dual roles of physical education teacher and coach. The subjects had (a) a minimum of five years coaching experience, (b) a 70% or greater won/lost record or a record of two or more post season playoff titles (i.e., city, district, region, or state championships), (c) awards for outstanding coaching (e.g., coach of the year, divisional coach of the year), (d) leadership roles in establishing coaching training or sports clinics, and (e) accessibility to the researcher. The results of the study were derived using the constant comparative method to develop themes and categories from the data. Data sources included: (a) field observations, (b) structured and semi-structured interviews with the teacher/coaches, and (c) document analysis.

The major findings led to the development of five categories describing distinct differences between teaching and coaching. The five categories describing differences were: (a) planning, (b) instruction, (c) environment, (d) support, and (e) recognition. This project may provide a glimpse of an expert coach involved in the role of teaching and coaching.

Introduction

The study of expertise in teaching and coaching is a relatively young research endeavour. Research on experts in music, math, chess, and physics reveals some interesting consistencies regarding the constitution of experts. One of the most prominent efforts in this realm is that by Berliner (1986, 1988, 1994), whose work resulted in the identification of five distinct developmental stages of pedagogical expertise. Those stages include: (1) novice, (2) advanced beginner, (3) competent, (4) proficient and (5) expert. Berliner also identified several elements of expertise which may prove applicable to teacher/coaches. Some of the characteristics noted in experts include problem solving techniques, evaluation of self performance, and teaching flexibility. Each of these elements and stages, along with Berliner's theory of pedagogical expertise, will be discussed in depth in subsequent chapters.

Research in physical education has focused on the characteristics of expert and novice teachers. Housner and Griffey (1985) described the decision making processes of experienced and inexperienced physical education teachers. They found that experienced teachers made more decisions concerning the execution of instructional strategies than did inexperienced teachers. They also noted that during classes experienced teachers were concerned with student skill development while novice teachers focused on ensuring that the students were active, content, and obedient.

Siedentop and Eldar (1989) studied the relationship between expertise and experience in physical education and what emerged is the development of a behavioural interpretation of expertise:

Experts see things which non-experts do not see. Experts respond more rapidly than non-experts. Experts have larger response repertoires. Experts have more control of complex principles in their field. Experts plan differently than non-experts. Experts explain their performance differently than non-experts.

In an analysis of expert and novice basketball coaches' practice planning, Jones, Housner, and Kornspan (1995) compared 10 expert high school and 10 novice middle school basketball coaches as they planned for a 30 minute practice session. The purpose of this study was to provide a profile of how expert coaches plan. The results indicated that experts and novices exhibited qualitatively different planning behaviour. Experts focused more attention on information cues abut the skill levels, abilities, and characteristics of players than did novice coaches. Planning characteristics noted are as follows:

Experts spend more time planning. (60% more time than novices) Experts are more linguistic planners. Experts draw more heavily on past experience during planning.

Pieron and Gonclaves (1987) observed the feedback of teacher/coaches across both settings. Six male teacher/coaches were observed six times: three times in a physical education class setting and three times during coaching practice sessions in basketball. The findings indicated that feedback was used more frequently in coaching episodes than in teaching. The researchers also found that positive prescriptive feedback was used more frequently in coaching, whereas negative prescriptive feedback was more prevalent in teaching. In general it was noted that the student's motor engagement time was also much higher and seemed more skill specific in coaching than in teaching.

The dual career pattern of physical education teacher/coaches has fostered questions about role priorities, resulting in teacher/coach role conflict. Lock and Massengale's (1978) seminal study on teacher/coach role conflict appraised the extent and intensity of the conflict and suggested that role conflict is predictable. They noted that the responsibilities attached to each position may lead the individual to make a larger commitment to one role over another. Generally, when the teacher/coach must make a choice, the area of teaching suffers most. This is understandable as teacher/coaches are seldom fired for teaching inadequacy but are recurrently terminated for losing in athletics.

Only a handful of studies have compared teaching and coaching across both settings. The justification for more research along these lines is quite strong when one considers the number of high school coaches who are also teachers. The usefulness of research attempting to bridge the gap or even establish a link between the roles of teacher and coach expertise could be significant.

The purpose of this study was to extend the research on teacher expertise to expertise in the dual role of teacher/coach. In particular this study was designed to identify, compare, and contrast the pedagogical attributes of five teacher/coaches.

Through the study of expert teacher/coaches in their natural environment we can learn more about the essentials of reliable sport instruction. This study explored the differences and similarities in how expert high school coaches taught and in how they coached. These findings can be used to enhance others' teaching and coaching.

Methodology A multiple case study design using ethnographic techniques was the primary approach used in this investigation. This study utilised the qualitative paradigm which allowed for relevant meaning to emerge from the data collected. Since this was not a study of the social behaviour of a particular group of culture-bearing entities it cannot be properly called an ethnography. However, ethnographic techniques provided an avenue for exploration and understanding of the behaviours of the selected expert coaches. These techniques included formal and informal interviews, field observation, and document analysis. Interview data and field notes were transcribed. These transcriptions were examined to determine the existence of reliable and profound themes and categories. The constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) aided in the identification of themes and categories, which were compared to the findings of other research on pedagogical expertise. Glaser & Strauss (1967) stated that comparing many differences and similarities in data tends to force the researcher to generate

theories, their properties, and their interrelations as he or she tries to understand the data. Multiple sources of qualitative data were triangulated for the purpose of establishing data trustworthiness.

Subject Selection Due to the abundance of distinct ways in which people conceptualise the construct of expertise, the identification of expert coaches posed a significant obstacle. However, previous studies on expert coaches provided guidelines for participant selection (Jones, Housner, and Kornspan 1995; Lacy & Darst, 1985; Claxton, 1988). The criteria employed to select expert coaches included (a) a minimum of five years coaching experience, (b) a 70% or greater won/lost record or a record of two or more post season playoff titles (i.e., city, district, region, or State championships), (c) recognition for outstanding coaching (e.g., coach of the year, divisional coach of the year), (d) leadership roles in establishing coaching training or sports clinics, and (e) accessibility to the researcher.

Data Collection Qualitative data gathering techniques were used in this study. The particular methods selected for this research included formal and informal interviews, field observations, and document analysis.

Each teacher/coach was interviewed formally prior to the completion of the study for the purpose of obtaining background information about their experience. A second formal interview was conducted after observation of the participant in both a teaching and coaching setting. Informal interviews with the teacher/coaches and all the participants were conducted during observations and visitations throughout the study. Appointments for interviews were made at the participant's convenience. All interviews were audio taped. Interviews were guided by practices outlined by Bogden & Biklen (1992). Interview questions were based on information drawn from: (a) field observations, (b) the research questions for this study, (c) Berliner's propositions of pedagogical expertise, (d) the literature review conducted for this study and (e) the researcher's own knowledge and experience as a teacher/coach.

Notes were taken during field observations throughout the course of this study. These notes were transcribed and used to generate questions for the interviews. Three observations in both the teaching and coaching setting for each teacher/coach were completed. The observations lasted approximately two hours each. A separate researcher's journal was kept to monitor the potential emergence of researcher bias (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992).

Documents were used as a secondary data source. This data provided information beyond the interview and clarified or corroborated data collected from those sources. Examples of documents that were analysed include: practice plans, bulletin boards, and letters to parents. This supplementary data provided a clearer understanding of the dual role of teacher/coach.

Data collection was conducted over an 12 week period during the Winter and Spring of 1998. Formal interviews were followed by field observations, and follow up interviews. Each interview lasted approximately 30 minutes to one hour and each observation lasted approximately two hours. One formal interview and three observations in each setting were completed for every teacher/coach.

Data Analysis Raw data were generated by multiple sources including: (a) field observations, (b) structured and semi-structured interviews with the teacher/coaches, and (c) document analysis.

Interview data and field notes were transcribed. The transcripts were analysed to determine the existence of themes and categories. The constant comparative method was used to assist in the assessment and classification of the themes and categories (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The constant comparison method is a process where categories are derived by constantly comparing one incident or unit of information with another (Merriam, 1988). This data analysis was an ongoing process. Goetz and LeCompte (1984) suggest the analysis strategy proceed by developing a system of classifications by discovering regularities within the data.

"Patterns and regularities then are transformed into categories into which subsequent items are sorted". The purpose of this analysis was to construct comprehensive profiles of each teacher/coach. Once constructed, the individual profiles were compared and contrasted. It was also be noted what characteristics, if any, are present in both roles of the teacher/coach. The many sources of qualitative data were coded and continuously cross-checked (triangulated) for the purpose of establishing reliability.

Findings For the purposes of this report five distinct differences will be discussed when comparing the physical education setting to the coaching setting. The five categories describing these differences were: (a) planning, (b) instruction, (c) environment, (d) support, and (e) recognition.

Planning

Planning is defined as organisational strategy used to accomplish teaching or coaching goals. All five of the teacher/coaches planned more extensively for their athletic practices than for their physical education classes. Dan, for example estimated that he spent at least two hours planning each athletic practice. Conversely he pulled a lesson index card out of a stack he has "used for years" at the beginning of his physical education classes (Observation, Dan, 4/15/98). His practice plans were scheduled to the exact minute and even included water breaks. The class index cards were not time specific and listed only major headings of topics to be covered. When asked to explain this difference Dan remarked: The lessons in the P.E. class are not as explicit and detailed because the material that I cover with the P.E. students is not as complicated. I am teaching the basic principles in P.E. and I only need the cards as reminders of what I need to cover (Interview, Dan, (5/21/98). Sam used two page practice plans for his football practice but did not have any written planning documents for his weight training class (Observation, Sam, 5/8/98). Sam indicated that he planned from 30 minutes to 1 hour for each football practice, but that he did not need to spend a lot of time in planning his physical education class. He explained it this way: After about the first two weeks in weight training my role is more of a supervisor than anything else. I have already explained to the kids the safety rules, given them their workout plans and showed them how to use the equipment. After about the first two weeks, they show up, do their work, write it in the book and then leave. Most of my planning is done after that point in the class (Interview, Sam, 5/26/98).

Instruction Instruction is defined as imparting specific sport skill knowledge to students and athletes. The teacher/coaches spend a large percentage of their time instructing athletes in practice on topics such as sport specific skills, sport strategy, and fitness development. Conversely, most of the physical education classes observed involved a greater percentage of game play than did the athletic practices.

Tommy spent a large amount of time during his baseball practices instructing his players. Sometimes this instruction involved a short lecture and demonstration to introduce a drill or practice segment. Instruction was also given constantly throughout the practice drills. Only one practice observed involved an organised scrimmage and this was the last 15 minutes of a two hour practice (Observation, Tommy, 5/6/98).

A large amount of the class period in Tommy's physical education classes was spent playing whiffle ball games. He estimated that approximately 90% of his practices were devoted to drills and instruction and maybe 10% to actual scrimmage or game play. In his physical education classes Tommy estimates that 90% of the class is game play, depending upon the subject. His explanation of the difference was:

In baseball we get our game play in on game day. Especially after the season starts we may play two games a week sometimes. I have to use practices to teach or we just won't get any better. I try to make sure we spend most of the practices

working on skills and when we do scrimmage it's controlled and we are working on game situations. In P.E., I get 50 minutes. By the time they change and get in the gym that is cut down to about 40. I try skills and rules teaching at the beginning of the lesson and get into game play as quickly as possible. If I didn't do it that way, we just wouldn't get play (Interview, Tommy, 5/26/98). Jimmy estimated he spent about 30% of his practices on game play before the season and about 5% after the season starts. His rationale was: We're not going to get better by playing every day in practice. At the beginning we have to play a little to help get them in the flow of the game and in game like situations. After the season starts though, we work on fundamentals everyday (Interview, Jimmy, 5/19/98). Jimmy estimated that he spent 80% to 90% of his physical education class on game play. He explained: We're doing bowling now. We went over the rules the first few days and after that we play. My main thing is to get them exposed to the game. Plus, this in an elective and they have to pay 30 dollars. By the time we get over here, get our lanes and they get their shoes we only have about a half hour left to bowl their games (Interview, Jimmy, 5/19/98).

Environment Environment is defined as the surroundings, circumstances, and atmosphere the teacher/coach works in. The teaching environments in the classrooms were different from those in the athletic practices.

All of the teacher/coaches had short infrequent physical education classes compared to long frequent practices. Sam, for example, held football practice every day for two hours during the season. In the spring he had practice for two hours each day for two weeks. In the summer, his players were required to attend off season weight training classes for one hour each day. Near the end of the summer he held a three week football camp with practices twice a day. Sam often held his team overtime if he felt they had not grasped a teaching point or did not complete a drill correctly. Conversely, Sam's physical education weight training class met three times each week for 50 minutes each time. Since Sam must give the students time to change before and after class, the actual class time was generally only 30 minutes.

Dan conducted soccer practice two hours each week day and one hour on Saturday. He had each physical education class three times each week for 55 minutes each class. Dan talked about his short physical education classes:

They are supposed to be getting 55 minutes three times a week, but the truth is they really only get about 35 minutes three times a week. They usually are released late from their other classes. When they show it takes five minutes to get them settled down and ready go. If I don't get them back on time then we get a memo about it, so we have to come back early to allow the kids time to clean up and change. Its not much time. That is why I try to get them involved in game play as quickly as possible (Interview, Dan, 5/21/98).

Student / Teacher Ratio All of the subjects had large physical education classes which they taught by themselves. The average student to teacher ratio for the five teacher/coaches was 30 to 1. All of the teacher/coaches had fewer participants in athletic practice and all had least two assistant coaches. The average athlete to coach ratio was 4 to 1.

Holly, for example, had approximately 30 students in each physical education class, which she taught by herself, while she had three assistant coaches to help with 12 varsity players at soccer practice. She discussed the large physical education classes:

The big classes are one thing I would change. I mean sometimes it is hard regulate order with 30 hyper kids, much less teach anything. I know we could do a better job if we had smaller classes (Interview, Holly, 5/21/98).

Sam had seven assistant coaches in football for approximately 45 players while he taught his weight training class of 35 students by himself. He reflected on his physical education class size:

It's really not that bad. The class size is dictated by the capacity of our weight room and the weight room was designed for 50 football players. So the P.E. students are not ever really backed up in here when they are working out in class (Interview, Sam 5/26/98).

Support Support is defined as the assistance, encouragement, and backing of the teacher/coaches by colleagues, administrators, parents and the community. All of the teacher/coaches believed that they received more support for coaching than for teaching.

Dan spoke about the lack of support for physical education by other teachers in his school:

They can't get the kids to my class on time. They are always at least five minutes late. If I get those students back to them late one time then I hear about it. Last week I get a note from the English teacher that five kids will be missing P.E. for the next few weeks because they need practice for the play. I hit the roof! I went to the principal and said, well I guess this means if I pull my students out of English to practice corner kicks because we have intramural games coming up that is going to be okay with her, right? It's like that all the time. You have to fight for respect, and it has been that way at every school I have been at (Interview, Dan, 5/21/98).

Jimmy acknowledged that it is much easier to procure parents' support for his athletic team than it is for his physical education classes. He talked about parental support for his baseball team:

I have kind of a wish list ready for baseball, because the parents are there ready and willing to help. At the beginning of the season this year I had a gang of them out here painting our press box and dug outs. Those practice pitching mounds were also put in by a parent who works in construction. They bring us food and drinks for our road trips, buy us T-shirts and practice hats. Even though it is a low profile sport we get a lot of support from the parents in baseball at this school (Interview, Jimmy, 5/19/98).

Jimmy described the parental support in his physical education classes:

To be perfectly honest, they don't really care. Every year we have open house at the school where the parents can come and talk to the teachers about how their children are doing in class. Do you know how many parents I have had come and talk me the last three years during open house about P.E.? None. I have several stop by to talk about baseball, but quite frankly, they could care less about my bowling class (Interview, Jimmy, 5/19/98).

Sam enjoyed a great deal of community support for his football team. He had five paid coaches and two volunteers from the community. Most of his practice equipment was purchased from proceeds from the concession stand which is operated by volunteers. Sam spoke about community support:

We got it pretty good here man. I mean, the football team is a big part of the town identity. I think people really like being involved. We get free gathered and water for the players after practice because the store owner up there is a booster. We can pick from restaurants up on the strip for free meals on game day for the team. People are standing in line to help. I swear I can't buy a meal in this town (Interview, Sam, 5/26/98).

Tommy saw a lack of support from school administrators for physical education classes. He gave the following example:

I have to give a grade in P.E., but it's really a joke. Because the grade does not count toward the student's official grade point average. This is an academic school and they are very conscious about getting all the kids into colleges. I think what happened is an overzealous P.E. teacher must have been giving out Cs and Ds and some parents complained. So now we really don't have any teeth in our grading

procedures. Once, the kids figured out the grades didn't count toward their grade point average it was over (Interview, Tommy, 5/29/98).

Recognition Recognition is defined as demonstrated appreciation, gratitude and respect. The teacher/coaches received a lot more recognition for their coaching than for their teaching. They felt there was not a great deal of external recognition given for being a good physical education teacher. All of the participants had been honoured individually for their coaching achievements. As a group they had received 29 coach of the year awards. None of the participants had ever received an award for teaching physical education.

Holly commented on this:

In P.E. you really don't get the perks that you get when you coach a sport. Nobody, except for maybe your department head, and your colleagues, knows if you are doing a good job or not. When you are a coach, you have a crowd there watching your team perform every game and you can read about it in the paper the next day. So if you are a good physical education teacher you learn to do it without a lot of recognition and perks (Interview, Holly, 5/21/98).

Dan thought it was more difficult to be a good physical education teacher because of the lack of external recognition and stimulus:

In P.E. you don't have the external stimulus of people watching you and judging you on a daily basis. It's just you and the kids every day. You decide how you are going to measure success. You could roll out the ball every day and the kids most likely would be happy as clams. Coach is great! He lets us play kickball every day! But, three or four years down the road they don't have movement or fitness skills. That is not being a good physical education teacher in my estimation, but you could easily get away with it if you are a good coach (Interview, Dan, 5/21/98).

Jimmy commented about the difference in recognition between teaching and coaching:

It's like this. If I do a good job getting the guys prepared in practice the week leading up to a game and we come out and do well, then everybody is there to pat me on the back and tell me what a good job I did. If I had a kick butt action plan and did a great job teaching a badminton unit nobody would really care. However, if I coasted in practice one week and we get smoked on game day, then I am going hear about it (Interview, Jimmy, 5/21/98).

Discussion The findings of this study indicate that expert coaches do not generally exhibit the same pedagogical characteristics in their teaching role as in their coaching role. The five participants in this research project exhibited different behaviour in the coaching setting than in the teaching setting. Distinct differences were noted when the subjects taught physical education as compared to when they coached a practice. The participants were not extensive planners when they taught physical education, and allowed the students to play more in physical education.

The teacher/coaches made detailed plans for athletic practices but did not do so for physical education classes. While all of the participants used written plans in their coaching duties, only one used a written plan in teaching physical education. Dan estimated that he spent one to two hours on each practice plan while he pulled a pre- written lesson plan from a stack of index cards for physical education class. Holly admitted to sometimes deciding what to teach in physical education class the period before, but always had detailed typed practice plans for her coaches at soccer practice.

The teacher/coaches placed greater emphasis on instruction in their practices than they did in their physical education classrooms. Jimmy estimated that he spent approximately 10% of his physical education class teaching skills and 90% of his baseball practice on instruction, drilling and skill work. A large percentage of each physical education class was spent on game play. Sam indicated that after the first

week of his physical education class he basically became a "supervisor", while he spent the majority of his football practice instructing.

This study highlights the reality that the athletic practice environment and physical education class environment are different. In the athletic practice the teacher/coach enjoys more support and recognition. The teacher/coach also perceives more pressure to succeed in the coaching environment and knows that job security may depend on winning games. In contrast, the teacher/coach faces an adverse environment for teaching physical education. This conclusion is consistent with Lock and Massengale's (1978) identification of role conflict for teacher/coaches.

Based on the findings of this project, the following ideas for research in teaching and coaching are recommended:

1. Implement studies designed to determine the role of planning in expert teaching and coaching. One possibility might be to study the planning of expert teachers and the planning of expert coaches.

2. Investigate physical education teachers who have been recognised for their expert teaching in the physical education classroom. Determine if these teachers are also coaches and if they exhibit similar or different teaching characteristics in their coaching roles.

3. Expand the research on teacher/coach role conflict by conducting a qualitative study on the two different environments of the teacher/coach. Conduct extensive interviews with the teacher/coaches, parents, administrators, and local supporters concerning the factors influencing the teacher/coaches' pedagogical behaviour.

4. Conduct a study to determine teacher/coaches' perceptions of expert teachers and coaches. Distribute a questionnaire to teacher/coaches asking them to identify the characteristics of expert coaches and the characteristics of expert physical education teachers.

5. Compare coaches who teach physical education with coaches that teach other subjects. Do the teacher/coaches handle their teaching responsibilities similarly or differently? Do teachers of subjects other than physical education receive comparable support and recognition in teaching as in coaching?

This investigation extends the existing research on teaching and coaching expertise by examining teachers and coaches across both the teaching and coaching setting. The justification for more research along these lines is quite strong when one considers the number of high school coaches who are also teachers. The usefulness of research attempting to bridge the gap or even establish a link between the roles of teacher and coach expertise could be significant.

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