6
Journal of Counseling & Development Summer 2005 Volume 83 343 I want people to know to know that we are human. We live, we love, we hurt, we laugh, we cry…we just want to be seen and heard as human beings. — Shay (Study Participant) The Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1992 have mandated priority in services to those with the most severe disabilities. When gender and ethnicity are combined, women with severe work disabilities (SWDs) constitute the largest percentage of those with the most severe disabilities (Jans & Stoddard, 1999). Statistics indicating low educational attainment, unemployment or underemployment, high incidence of abuse, low self-esteem, and increased isolation (e.g., Cottone & Cottone, 1992; Danek, 1992; Fulton & Sarbonie, 1994; Hanna & Rogovsky, 1991; Nosek, Howland, & Young, 1997) highlight the problems faced by women with SWDs, yet much of the extant research has been conducted with women with disabilities who were em- ployed or pursuing an education (e.g., Nosek et al., 1994). Unquestionably, women with SWDs face substantial barriers to participation in social, educational, and work roles (Capella, 2002; Doren & Benz, 1998; Graham, Jordan, & Lamb, 1990). Statistical representation, however, does not tell the full story of their lives (Morris, 1992; Saleebey, 1997). An exclusive emphasis on problems may have hindered in- vestigations into aspects of existence that have meaning on personal, familial, and cultural levels (Marsella & Leong, 1995). The lives and experiences of women with SWDs con- sist of more than problems associated with disability, ethnicity, and gender status (Wendell, 1996), but rarely have they been approached from a perspective that seeks to un- derstand rather than to diagnose. This study was developed in response to the dearth of knowledge about the lives and views of women with SWDs. This study is significant in that qualitative approaches to investigation combined with a feminist standpoint meth- odology (Alcoff & Potter, 1993; Riger, 1992) and a strengths- based approach to interviewing (DeJong & Miller, 1995; Saleebey, 1997) gave five women with SWDs the opportunity to describe their lives, experiences, and decisions in an inter- personal context. Prolonged observation of the participants, in-depth interviews, and interactive viewing of videotaped interviews were used to identify emerging themes that can widen the view of women with SWDs so that more than merely a snapshot of problematic aspects of their lives is given. Theo- ries and interventions can effectively address the needs of women with SWDs only if derived from the women’s stand- point (Alcoff & Potter, 1993). Method Participants The present study used a theoretically driven sample (Lin- coln & Guba, 1985) rather than one selected on the basis of how well participants represented a larger pool of women with disabilities. The sample consisted of five women with physical or psychiatric disabilities, or both, who met the U.S. Census Bureau’s (2002) Current Population Survey cri- teria for severe work disability. None of the five women were employed at the time of the study because of long-term physi- cal or mental illness that prevented performance of any kind of work nor had any of them worked at all in the previous year because of illness or disability; all five were under 65 years of age and were covered by Medicare or were receiv- ing Social Security Insurance. Participants ranged in age from 30 to 63 years, were of European American descent, and lived with one or more se- vere disabilities. The five participants were referred to me by counseling professionals or through personal contacts; each participant chose her own pseudonym. Shay, age 30 and hav- ing a disability for 4 years, lived alone in a subsidized housing Dena L. Moore, College of Education and Technology, Eastern New Mexico University. Dena L. Moore is now affiliated with both LifeWorks, LLC, and Carefree Counseling in Lafayette, Louisiana. The author thanks Mark Isham for his assistance with this project. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dena L. Moore, Carefree Counseling, 101 Poydras Street, Lafayette, LA 70501 (e-mail: [email protected]). Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context Dena L. Moore The purpose of this investigation was to explore the ways that women with severe work disabilities (SWDs) attributed meaning to their lives, experiences, and decisions. The author used qualitative research methodology and grounded theory procedures to analyze data obtained from videotaped interviews, discussion of videotaped interviews, and prolonged and persistent participant observations to shed light on the lives and experiences of women with SWDs, a previously understudied group. Implications for counseling are discussed. © 2005 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. pp. 343–348

Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer 2005 ■ Volume 83 343

I want people to know to know that we are human. We live,we love, we hurt, we laugh, we cry…we just want to be

seen and heard as human beings.— Shay (Study Participant)

The Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1992 have mandatedpriority in services to those with the most severe disabilities.When gender and ethnicity are combined, women with severework disabilities (SWDs) constitute the largest percentage ofthose with the most severe disabilities (Jans & Stoddard, 1999).Statistics indicating low educational attainment, unemploymentor underemployment, high incidence of abuse, low self-esteem,and increased isolation (e.g., Cottone & Cottone, 1992; Danek,1992; Fulton & Sarbonie, 1994; Hanna & Rogovsky, 1991;Nosek, Howland, & Young, 1997) highlight the problems facedby women with SWDs, yet much of the extant research hasbeen conducted with women with disabilities who were em-ployed or pursuing an education (e.g., Nosek et al., 1994).Unquestionably, women with SWDs face substantial barriersto participation in social, educational, and work roles(Capella, 2002; Doren & Benz, 1998; Graham, Jordan, &Lamb, 1990). Statistical representation, however, does nottell the full story of their lives (Morris, 1992; Saleebey, 1997).An exclusive emphasis on problems may have hindered in-vestigations into aspects of existence that have meaning onpersonal, familial, and cultural levels (Marsella & Leong,1995). The lives and experiences of women with SWDs con-sist of more than problems associated with disability,ethnicity, and gender status (Wendell, 1996), but rarely havethey been approached from a perspective that seeks to un-derstand rather than to diagnose.

This study was developed in response to the dearth ofknowledge about the lives and views of women with SWDs.This study is significant in that qualitative approaches toinvestigation combined with a feminist standpoint meth-

odology (Alcoff & Potter, 1993; Riger, 1992) and a strengths-based approach to interviewing (DeJong & Miller, 1995;Saleebey, 1997) gave five women with SWDs the opportunityto describe their lives, experiences, and decisions in an inter-personal context. Prolonged observation of the participants,in-depth interviews, and interactive viewing of videotapedinterviews were used to identify emerging themes that canwiden the view of women with SWDs so that more than merelya snapshot of problematic aspects of their lives is given. Theo-ries and interventions can effectively address the needs ofwomen with SWDs only if derived from the women’s stand-point (Alcoff & Potter, 1993).

MethodParticipants

The present study used a theoretically driven sample (Lin-coln & Guba, 1985) rather than one selected on the basis ofhow well participants represented a larger pool of womenwith disabilities. The sample consisted of five women withphysical or psychiatric disabilities, or both, who met theU.S. Census Bureau’s (2002) Current Population Survey cri-teria for severe work disability. None of the five women wereemployed at the time of the study because of long-term physi-cal or mental illness that prevented performance of any kindof work nor had any of them worked at all in the previousyear because of illness or disability; all five were under 65years of age and were covered by Medicare or were receiv-ing Social Security Insurance.

Participants ranged in age from 30 to 63 years, were ofEuropean American descent, and lived with one or more se-vere disabilities. The five participants were referred to me bycounseling professionals or through personal contacts; eachparticipant chose her own pseudonym. Shay, age 30 and hav-ing a disability for 4 years, lived alone in a subsidized housing

Dena L. Moore, College of Education and Technology, Eastern New Mexico University. Dena L. Moore is now affiliated with bothLifeWorks, LLC, and Carefree Counseling in Lafayette, Louisiana. The author thanks Mark Isham for his assistance with thisproject. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dena L. Moore, Carefree Counseling, 101 Poydras Street,Lafayette, LA 70501 (e-mail: [email protected]).

Expanding the View: The Lives ofWomen With Severe WorkDisabilities in ContextDena L. Moore

The purpose of this investigation was to explore the ways that women with severe work disabilities (SWDs) attributedmeaning to their lives, experiences, and decisions. The author used qualitative research methodology and groundedtheory procedures to analyze data obtained from videotaped interviews, discussion of videotaped interviews, andprolonged and persistent participant observations to shed light on the lives and experiences of women with SWDs, apreviously understudied group. Implications for counseling are discussed.

© 2005 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. pp. 343–348

Page 2: Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer 2005 ■ Volume 83344

Moore

complex. Shay was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis 2 yearsafter sustaining multiple injuries in a car accident. The severityof her disabilities required a paid care provider to assist withactivities of daily living. Shay’s goals included returning tocollege and pursuing a career in her field. Morgan sustainedmultiple injuries, including traumatic brain injury, in a car ac-cident that occurred in her senior year of college. After a year ofintensive rehabilitation, Morgan returned to college to com-plete her bachelor’s degree; she received a standing ovation ather graduation ceremony. At age 33 and having a severe dis-ability for 8 years, Morgan lived on her own in a subsidizedhousing complex. She was active in church and volunteer ac-tivities and maintained goals for employment. Lynn, age 46,was diagnosed with morbid obesity and experienced manyhealth-related complications and restrictions to activities ofdaily living. Lynn was active in encouraging and supportingfamily and friends. Her goals included helping to raise hergrandchild and reuniting with her estranged father. Tehea, age50, had experienced severe hearing impairment and psychiat-ric disability since early childhood. Tehea lived with two neph-ews in a subsidized housing complex and was seeking employ-ment. She was active in family and church affiliations and anonline support group. Her long-term goal was to teach hearing-impaired children. Janis, age 62, was diagnosed with juvenilediabetes early in life. She experienced multiple physical im-pairments related to the severity of the diabetes, including blind-ness, loss of toes, and heart disease, throughout her adult life.Janis lived in her own home with her grown daughter and a sonwith mental retardation. Her goals included finding a grouphome for her son, remaining involved in church activities, andhelping to raise her grandchildren.

Design and Procedure

Qualitative research methods incorporating grounded theorytechniques were used to investigate the meaning these fivewomen with SWDs attributed to their lives and experiences.Each participant was asked five primary interview ques-tions: (a) What were your reasons for deciding to participatein this study? (b) What do you hope others will gain fromour efforts? (c) How would you be different if a miracle hap-pened tonight? (d) What are your goals? and (e) What wouldyou like for people to know about you/about people withdisabilities? These questions served as a way to generatedata that were then used as a basis for further inquiry, toestablish relationships with participants, to focus subsequentinterviews and observations, and to provide closure to inter-views. The third question (How would you be different if amiracle happened overnight?) was incorporated as a way toexplore the participants’ strengths and goals and what theysaw as their future possibilities (DeJong & Miller, 1995).

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed in relation to the primary research ques-tion (i.e., How do women with SWDs attribute meaning to

their lives, experiences, and decisions?). Data collection andanalysis took place over a 6-month period and were concur-rent, cyclical, and continuous throughout the study (Strauss& Corbin, 1990). During data analysis, emergent categorieswere collapsed into higher order categories while staying asclose to the participants’ narratives as possible. The centralorganizing theme, or core story, was that element of the theorythat seemed to be most representative of the way that womenwith SWDs made meaning from their lives and experiences(Richie et al., 1997; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The recurringtheme of “contributing oneself to a larger world” was evidencedin the participants’ actions (e.g., caring for nieces/nephews),words (e.g., “I don’t want others to have to go through thisalone”), and future goals (e.g., wanting to work with others withdisabilities). The core story, being a part of something larger thanoneself, emerged in direct response to the primary research ques-tion regarding how women with SWDs make meaning of theirlives. The major components of the core story are describedusing direct quotes from participants to illustrate key points.

ResultsBeing a Part of Something Larger Than Oneself

The core story that emerged from the investigation involvedthe women contributing of themselves in order to be a partof something larger than themselves. “Being a part of some-thing larger than oneself ” became defined as those pro-cesses and activities in which the women engaged and thatwere consistent with, and subsequently lent themselves to,the continuation and expansion of an internal view of theself as a contributor to larger systems, including individual,family, organizational (e.g., education, work, and church), andnational systems. The most salient properties and dimensionsof the core story were developing and maintaining connec-tions to others, doing paid and unpaid work, and engaging inreligious or spiritual development.

Dimensions of Core Story

Connections to others. Participants engaged in numerousactivities to establish and maintain connections with othersas a way of being part of something larger than themselves.Sharing their experiences with others, caring for and aboutothers, giving advice, reaching out to others, mediating be-tween family members and neighbors, and minimizing theirown experiences (e.g., using humor, shifting the subject fromself to other, and listening) were some of the strategies used todevelop and maintain connections to others. For example,Shay lived in a small rural town with few resources other thana subsidized housing complex. She explained, “People comeover here all the time and ask for my help.” Shay sustained andsometimes generated these connections by phoning others,including her own care providers, to make sure they were notwanting for food or other resources, and she offered her listen-ing skills and advice to others in need. Lynn described her

Page 3: Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer 2005 ■ Volume 83 345

Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

view on this subject: “My door is always open. We’re here tohelp each other, not to say, ‘Well, hey, that’s their problem.’”

Difficult or conflicted circumstances also served as opportu-nities for the women to connect with others. Lynn, Tehea, Shay,and Janis saw themselves as “in the middle” of family relation-ships, yet even in these difficult and uncomfortable situations,the women’s views of themselves expanded as each helped tonavigate family members and friends through stormy relation-ships. Shay explained, “I feel like I am the problem solver, cheer-leader, and mediator . . . it helps me to see the bigger picture.”

The women often used humor and self-deprecation as away to connect with others and to lessen others’ discomfortregarding difficult issues or circumstances. The followingvignette illustrates this tactic:

I made the comment to Shay that she had been through a lot inthe last several months and asked her how she kept that fromaffecting her and how she viewed herself. Her care providerseemed tense and uncomfortable—an eternity seemed to passbefore Shay said, slowly and seriously, “Prozac.” We eruptedin laughter and the tension was broken.

“Reaching out to others” was the most often-citedresponse to the interview questions, regardless of theparticular question. Tehea explained, “I want to reach out tohelp others. I see that there are others outside that door likeme.” The process was exemplified by her goals: “I want toteach deaf kids that they can do it. If I can, anybody can . . .I’d hate to think that all I’ve been through is for nothing.”

Paid and unpaid work. For two participants, competitiveemployment remained a goal and a key component of themeaning-making process. Tehea described her view of paidemployment, “If I’m not working . . . I don’t feel like I’manybody. I want to be able to give back.” Morgan explained,“A career as a counselor would make me feel like I couldcontribute from what I have been through and like I am apart of society.” Both wanted to pursue careers that wouldenable them to contribute to the lives of others. The impor-tance of meaningful contribution is exemplified by Janis’swords, “The job I loved most was when I worked for theextension office. I could see that what I was doing was mak-ing an impact. I was helping people to help themselves.”

Four of the women believed that the feeling of being apart of something larger could be derived from unpaid work,that is, from their contributions as parent or caregiver. Janisspoke of raising a child with a disability, a role that continu-ally regenerated and renewed her sense of self:

When you adopt a disabled child, people think that you aredoing something for that child. He has given more to me thanI could ever give to him. I had to learn to fight. Professionalsdidn’t know about mental retardation. In fighting for him, Ilearned about consistency and discipline in my own life. Youhave to keep on, even when you don’t want to.

Formal and informal volunteer activities enabled each ofthe women to become a part of something larger than oneself.Janis taught parenting classes through her church. Tehea un-dertook administrative tasks for local and online supportgroups. Morgan explained, “volunteering keeps me involvedwith other people. The people here are my friends . . . we helpeach other.” Through their roles as a volunteer, parent, orcaregiver, in the words of Lynn, “unpaid work,” the womenfound opportunities to contribute of themselves to others andlarger systems, and, as a result, each came to a deeper under-standing of the meaning of her own life and experience.

Religion/spirituality. For three of the women, the churchcongregation was viewed as “family,” and membership servedas a way to give of themselves in a larger arena. Through churchinvolvement, each gained a larger view of herself as a personwith, in the words of Morgan and Janis, “something to give.”

Three of the women experienced a sense of deepening spiri-tuality as a result of life experiences. Janis explained, “When Iwas young, the discipline to go to church was external. Over theyears, and all the learning and discipline, especially with raisinga child with a disability . . . all of that became internal . . . myspirituality is deeper and more meaningful.”

Discussion and ImplicationsThe extant research about women with SWDs is sparse. Womenwith SWDs are often statistically represented in research lit-erature, yet little is known about their day-to-day lives, norabout what they view as valuable and meaningful. Research-ers may have presented problematic aspects of disability, gen-der, and ethnicity without consideration of other meaningfulaspects of life. Participants in the current study can be de-scribed as a group of resilient, relationally oriented womenwho have continually sought ways to contribute of them-selves to others and to larger systems (i.e., to the families,communities, and organizations of which they were a part).“Being a part of something larger than oneself ” was drivenby an internal set of values that served to carry the womenforward, even when current environments did not support them.Although each of the women had experienced adversity andpersonal loss, these experiences and the knowledge, in par-ticipants’ words “that there are others out there,” helped thewomen to persevere and served as a driving force behind thecore story.

These findings highlight the value of connections andcontributions of self to others across the life span and withinvarious contexts and are consistent with the work of Jordan,Kaplan, Miller, Stiver, and Surrey (1991). The self-in-relationmodel suggests that key aspects of women’s development,including adaptation to disability, occur within the contextof mutual attachments and connections to others. The womenviewed contributing to others and to larger systems as themost important aspects of their lives. They did not viewdisability in terms of loss of physical functioning, nor did

Page 4: Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer 2005 ■ Volume 83346

Moore

they view physical attributes as primary. The overall themethat permeated the women’s descriptions of their lives andexperiences involved a view of themselves as relational links(Cottone & Cottone, 1992) in many different systems. Dis-ability was salient only when it led to a loss of relationalpossibilities. Most often, the women viewed disability-relatedexperiences also as means to contribute—in Morgan’s words,“to make the world a better place for people with disabilities.”

Limitations of the Study

Sampling restrictions may have presented possible limita-tions with regard to ethnic diversity. The women in this sampleranged in age from 30 to 63 years, were of European Americandescent, and lived in the southern and southwestern regionsof the United States. The women were diverse with regard toage, life experience, disability type, and number of years sinceonset of disability. In addition, there may have been a re-sponse bias by women who agreed to participate. Finally, po-tential bias in data collection and interpretation could haveposed limitations and was addressed via triangulation of dif-ferent sources of data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) and by usingmember checks, peer debriefers, and an external auditorthroughout the research process.

Implications for Practice

Connections to others. Assessment of relational orientationand the relative weight placed on relationships should be anecessary component of counseling for all people. Partici-pants were actively involved in a variety of activities aimedat contributing to others’ lives; underlying these many ac-tivities were relationships that spanned many different sys-tems. Counselors can assess both the support given to thewoman and the areas in which the woman is contributing tothe support and development of others. Researchers (e.g.,Goodenow, Reisine, & Grady, 1990; Kayser, Sormanti, &Strainchamps, 1999) have investigated the bidirectional as-pects of social support among women with disabilities andhave found that support received and support given werekey components of adjustment to serious illness.

Counselors must also assess for loss of relationships andrelational opportunities in clients’ lives. Participants dis-cussed losses in terms of relationships to others or loss ofaccess to environments that had previously provided rela-tional opportunities rather than as loss of physical function-ing. Counselors can assist clients in identifying and access-ing viable opportunities for contribution and connection.Counselors can avail themselves of information related tolegitimate local and online support groups, formal and in-formal volunteer opportunities, churches, and other arenasthat might be potential avenues for fostering connections.

Paid and unpaid work. Counselors can explore the mean-ing of work to each client. Super (1994) posited that careerdevelopment involves a process of developing and imple-menting occupational self-concepts and that life satisfac-

tion is dependent on “the extent to which an individual findsadequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personal-ity traits, and self-concepts” (p. 207). For the participants, workinvolved much more than participation in paid employment.Cottone and Cottone (1992) pointed out that for women, workmay involve many unpaid duties, including child rearing anddomestic work. These tasks are often overlooked or devalued,or they may be viewed, in Lynn’s words, as “just the way I am.”Severity of disability did not stop participants from activelyseeking out ways to contribute.

Continued education in all aspects of human diversity isof critical importance. Counselors must examine their ownassumptions, biases, and personal beliefs regarding disabil-ity, gender, and ethnicity and, most important, their views of“appropriate” outcomes for diverse groups of people. Al-though paid employment may be a goal for many womenwith SWDs, the counselor who views paid employment asthe only measure of success may overlook valuable oppor-tunities for connection and contribution. For participants,work involved myriad contributions, including caring forand about other people and larger systems. Counselors caninvestigate contributions to family, friends, and neighborsand involvement in both formal and informal volunteer ac-tivities. For example, Tehea was active in an online supportgroup and had taken a leadership role that involved manyspecific abilities and skills that might have gone unnoticedby a counselor who had unexamined biases about unpaidwork. These areas of participation offer valuable insight intomeaningful aspects of the client’s life. Once identified, vari-ous roles and activities can be used for discussion and de-velopment of clients’ strengths, aspirations, and goals.

Professionals can emphasize client self-determination byviewing the relationship as a partnership, with each person in-volved in specific tasks. For example, participants actively andconsistently sought avenues to contribute to others and to largersystems, even when environments or relationships wereunsupportive. Counselors should not assume that severity ofdisability is synonymous with inability. The women in this sampledid not view themselves as dependent or unable to care for them-selves or others, nor did they view themselves in terms of disabil-ity. When faced with difficulties, including those related to dis-ability, participants used problem-solving and coping skills thatenabled them to continue to contribute and care for themselves,others, and larger systems. A service provider who is focusedsolely on deficits, disability, or functional limitations may over-look the myriad ways that the clients are surviving, thriving, andcontributing of themselves. Once identified, unique strengthsand abilities can be explored, accessed, and transferred to otherareas of the client’s life (Saleebey, 1997). In addition, counselorsare advised to work with clients to seek out current and pastcoping and problem-solving efforts across a variety of life expe-riences, not only those related to disability.

Counselors must take the time to know each client as aperson first, including her or his unique idiosyncrasies. The

Page 5: Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer 2005 ■ Volume 83 347

Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

women in this sample often used humor and self-deprecation,or a combination of both, to describe themselves and theirlives and to put others at ease. The counselor with the viewof the client as a “victim of disability” (Lynch & Thomas,1994) might mistakenly assume that these behaviors are areflection of low self-esteem or failure to adapt to or acceptthe disability.

Religion/spirituality. Counselors may overlook this sig-nificant area in their assessments, yet church involvementand spirituality can be avenues that, when explored, helpclarify ways that clients attribute meaning and purpose totheir lives and experiences. Four of the women viewed them-selves as part of a larger, spiritual family. Each woman be-lieved that sharing her life and experiences with othersserved a higher purpose. Spirituality, expressed by Shay as“a connection to a higher power,” was viewed as a source ofstrength and purpose. Spirituality and church involvementmay offer opportunities to contribute and to establish differ-ent levels of connection. Spirituality and church involve-ment may not be synonymous and should be explored withinthe client’s frame of reference.

Finally, counselors would be well-advised to interviewclients in informal and open-ended formats. Personal narra-tives shared in informal contexts can provide both clientand counselor with opportunities to identify meaningfulaspects of existence, including the meaning of disability inthe individual’s life and in the lives of significant others.Listening to the personal narratives of women offers counse-lors an insider’s view into their lives and experiences, in-cluding contributions of self to others that may extend acrossa variety of systems.

ConclusionThe traditional medical model continues to drive much ofcounseling and rehabilitation research and practice. Saleebey(1997) argued that reliance on the medical model amonghuman service professionals disregards the inherent tendencyin human beings toward wholeness, self-actualization, andgrowth. Participants’ focus on meaningful and positive as-pects of existence did not preclude realistic evaluations oftheir lives; each of the women made active and consciouschoices, in Shay’s words, “to focus on what is going righteach day.” Counselors must listen to clients’ stories of theirlives, including stories of strength, resilience, success,dreams, and goals, while not losing sight of problems andfears. Janis’s words exemplify the importance of wideningthe view of women with SWDs so that more than a snapshotof problematic aspects of their lives and experiences is given:

There are people who wake up every day and try to figure outwhat is wrong. You can’t do that, because it just makes prob-lems real. The language we use, the very words we use, makesthings happen. Focusing on what is wrong, to the exclusion

of working each day to find what is right . . . just makesthings worse. Each of us has some kind of problem that canlimit us . . . but when we begin to look around, to help others,we realize we are not alone, we can help others, and some-how, that puts it all into perspective.

ReferencesAlcoff, L., & Potter, E. (Eds.). (1993). Feminist epistemologies.

New York: Routledge.Capella, M. E. (2002). Inequities in the VR system: Do they still

exist? Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 45, 143–159.Cottone, L. P., & Cottone, R. R. (1992). Women with disabilities: On

the paradox of empowerment and the need for a trans-systemicand feminist perspective. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Coun-seling, 23(4), 20–25.

Danek, M. M. (1992). The status of women with disabilities revis-ited. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 23(4), 7–13.

DeJong, P., & Miller, S. D. (1995). How to interview for clientstrengths. Social Work, 40, 729–736.

Doren, B., & Benz, M. (1998). Employment inequality revisited:Predictors of better employment for young women with dis-abilities in transition. Journal of Special Education, 31, 425–442.

Fulton, S. A., & Sarbonie, E. J. (1994). Females with disabilities.The Journal of Special Education, 28, 149–165.

Goodenow, C., Reisine, S., & Grady, K. (1990). Quality of socialsupport and associated social and psychological functioning inwomen with rheumatoid arthritis. Health Psychology, 9, 266–284.

Graham, P., Jordan, A., & Lamb, B. (1990). An equal chance? Astudy of discrimination against disabled people in the labourmarket. London: Spastics Society.

Hanna, W. J., & Rogovsky, B. (1991). Women with disabilities: Twohandicaps plus. Disability, Handicap & Society, 6, 49–63.

Jans, L., & Stoddard, S. (1999). Chartbook on women and disabilityin the United States (InfoUse Report). Washington, DC: U.S.National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research.

Jordan, J. V., Kaplan, A. G., Miller, J. B., Stiver, I. P., & Surrey, J. P.(1991). Women’s growth in connection. New York: Guilford Press.

Kayser, K., Sormanti, M., & Strainchamps, E. (1999). Women copingwith cancer: The influence of relationship factors on psychosocialadjustment. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 725–739.

Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. London:Sage.

Lynch, R. T., & Thomas, K. R. (1994). People with disabilities asvictims: Changing an ill-advised paradigm. Journal of Rehabili-tation, 60, 8–11.

Marsella, A. J., & Leong, F. T. L (1995). Cross-cultural issues inpersonality and career assessment. Journal of Career Assessment,3, 202–218.

Morris, J. (1992). Personal and political: A feminist perspective on research-ing physical disability. Disability, Handicap & Society, 7, 157–166.

Nosek, M. A., Howland, C. A., & Young, M. E. (1997). Abuse ofwomen with disabilities: Policy implications. Journal of Disabil-ity Policy Studies, 8, 157–176.

Page 6: Expanding the View: The Lives of Women With Severe Work Disabilities in Context

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer 2005 ■ Volume 83348

Moore

Nosek, M. A., Howland, C. A., Young, M. E., Georgiou, D., Rintala,D. H., Foley, C. C., et al. (1994). Wellness models and sexualityamong women with physical disabilities. Journal of Applied Re-habilitation Counseling, 25(1), 50–58.

Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1992, 29 U.S.C. [section] 701 et seq.Richie, B. S., Fassinger, R. E., Linn, S. G., Johnson, J., Prosser, J., & Robinson,

S. (1997). Persistence, connection, and passion: A qualitative study of thecareer development of highly achieving African American-Black andWhite women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 133–148.

Riger, S. (1992). Epistemological debates, feminist voices. Ameri-can Psychologist, 47, 730–740.

Saleebey, D. (Ed.). (1997). The strengths perspective in social workpractice. New York: Longman.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research:Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park,CA: Sage.

Super, D. E. (1994). A life-span, life-space approach to career devel-opment. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, and Associates (Eds.), Careerchoice and development: Applying contemporary theories to prac-tice (pp. 197–261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

U.S. Census Bureau. (1993). Methodology for identifying personswith a work disability in the Current Population Survey. Re-trieved June 11, 2005, from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/disability/cps/cpsworkd.html

Wendell, S. (1996). The rejected body: Feminist philosophical re-flections on disability. New York: Routledge.