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Chapter 1
The Science of Psychology
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Defining Psychology
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
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Psychology as a Science
Theories: formulations of relationships among
observed events. Based on empirical evidence. Allows for prediction.
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What Psychologists do
Pure research no immediate application, research for its own sake.
Applied research designed to find solutions to specific personal or
social problems.
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What else do psychologists do?
_______ psychologists: Help people with psychological disorders.
_______ psychologists: Similar to clinical psychologist but clients typically have
adjustment problems and not serious psychological disorders.
_______ psychologists: Employed by school systems to assist students with
problems that interfere with learning.
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Fields of Psychology
_______ psychologists: Focus on motivation, intelligence, testing, and student and
teacher behavior. ________ psychologists:
Study the changes that occur throughout the life span.
________ psychologists: Primarily concerned with individual’s thoughts, feelings, and
behavior in social situations.
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Fields of Psychology
______ psychologists: Examine the ways in which behavior and
mental processes are related to health. ______ psychologists:
Help people improve their performance in various sports.
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Where Psychology Comes From: A History
Behaviorism Gestalt Psychology Psychoanalysis
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Behaviorism
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) Founder of American Behaviorism. Believed that psychology should limit itself
to observable, measurable behavior. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Believed organisms learn to behave in certain ways because of reinforcement.
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Gestalt Psychology: Making Psychology Whole
Gestalt translates to “pattern” or “organized whole”.
Demonstrated that learning is a accomplished by insight, not by mechanical repetition.
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Figure 1.2 The Importance of Context. Gestalt psychologists have shown that our perceptions depend not only on our sensory impressions but also on the context of our impressions. You will interpret a man running toward you very differently depending on whether you are on a deserted street at night or at the track in the morning.
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Psychoanalysis:
Focus on the unconscious - a seething cauldron of conflicting impulses, urges and wishes. Founded by Sigmund Freud. Often called psychodynamic.
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Today’s Perspectives:
Evolutionary and Biological Cognitive Humanistic Psychodynamic Learning/behavioral Sociocultural
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The Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives
Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental processes.
Genes can be transmitted from generation to generation.
Biological perspective seek the links between the electrical and chemical activity of the brain.
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The Humanistic Perspective.
Humanism stresses the human capacity for self-
fulfillment and the importance of conscious, subjective experience.
Founders: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
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The Cognitive Perspective
Focus on mental processes -- those things we refer to as the mind.
Study thinking, memory, intelligence.
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The Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud’s influence continues to be felt though contemporary psychodynamic theory.
Diminished emphasis on sex and aggression; continued focus on unconscious influences.
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Learning and Behaviorism
Learning through repetition and reinforcement.
Social-cognitive theorists (formerly termed social learning theorists) suggest that people can modify or even
create their environments. Intentional learning by observing others.
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The Sociocultural Perspective
Addresses the many ways in which people differ from one another.
Study influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes.
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The Scientific Method
Scientific method is an organized way of using experience and testing ideas in order to expand and refine knowledge. Hypothesis: is a specific statement about
behavior or mental processes that is tested through research.
Test the hypothesis through controlled methods such as the experiment.
Replication: repeating a study to see if the findings hold up over time with different subjects.
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Figure 1.4 The Scientific Method. The scientific method is a systematic way of organizing and expanding scientific knowledge. Daily experiences, common beliefs, and scientific observations all contribute to the development of theories. Psychological theories explain observations and lead to hypotheses about behavior and mental processes. Observations can confirm the theory or lead to its refinement or abandonment.
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Samples and Populations
Sample Individuals from a segment of the population who are
studied. Population
Group targeted for study. Types of Sampling.
Random sample: each member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected to participate. Stratified sample:
selection is made so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample.
Volunteer bias: people who volunteer as participants differ systematically
from people who do not.
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Methods of Observation
The Case Study. Information collected about individuals and small groups. Anecdotes
Typically unscientific accounts of people’s behavior.
The Survey. Employs questionnaires and interviews or public records.
Naturalistic Observation. Observe people in their natural habitats. Avoid interfering with the observed behaviors.
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Correlation
Is observed behavior or trait related to (correlated) with another?
Expressed as a correlation coefficient; a number the varies between +1.00 and -1.00. Positive correlation: higher scores on one variable
tend to correspond with higher scores on the second variable. Low with low. (e.g. Intelligence test scores and academic performance).
Negative correlation: Higher scores on one variable tend to correspond with lower scores on the second. (e.g. Amount of experience stress and functioning of the immune system).
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Figure 1.5 Positive and Negative Correlations. When there is a positive correlation between variables, as there is between intelligence and achievement, one increases as the other increases. By and large the higher people score on intelligence tests, the better their academic performance is likely to be, as in the diagram on the left. (Each dot represents an individual’s intelligence test score and grade point average.) But there is a negative correlation between stress and health. As the amount of stress we experience increases, the functioning of our immune system tends to decrease. Correlational research
may suggest but does not demonstrate cause and effect.
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Correlations
***********************************Correlational studies may suggest but do
not prove cause and effect!*************************************
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Figure 1.6 Correlational Relationships, Cause, and Effect. Correlational relationships may suggest but do not demonstrate cause and effect. In part A, there is a correlations between variables X and Y. Does this mean that X causes Y or Y causes X or do other factors affect both X and Y. Consider the examples of academic grades (X) and juvenile delinquency (Y) in part B. Do poor grades lead to delinquency, Does delinquency lead to poor grades, or do other variables such as broken home or peer influences contribute to poor grades and delinquency.
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Experiments
The preferred method for answering questions about cause and effect. Independent variable:
manipulated by the experimenters so that the effects of various levels may be determined.
Dependent variable: the measured outcome or result.
Experimental and Control Groups Experimental groups obtain the treatment. Control groups do not receive the treatment.
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Experiments
Blind and Double Blind Experiments. Placebo or “sugar pill”. Blind:
control for the expectations of effects by creating conditions where the subjects are unaware of the treatment.
Double blind: neither the subjects nor the experimenters know
who has obtained the treatment.
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Figure 1.7 The Experimental Conditions in the Lang Study. The taste of vodka cannot be discerned when vodka is mixed with tonic water. For this reason it was possible for subjects in the Lang study on the effects of alcohol to be kept blind as to whether or not they had actually drunk alcohol. Blind studies allow psychologists to control for the effects of subjects’ expectations.
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Ethical Issues in Psychological Research and
Practice Basic standards.
Concern for individual dignity, human welfare and scientific integrity.
Do no harm. Informed consent: individuals give consent
before they can participate in research. Confidentiality is kept.
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Critical Thinking, Science, and Pseudoscience.
Pseudoscience: false science. Critical thinking: taking nothing for granted.
Thoughtfully analyzing and probing questions, statements and arguments of others.
Skills: Development of skepticism. Ability to inquire about cause and effect. Increase curiosity about behavior. Knowledge of research methods. Ability to analyze arguments carefully.
