Exhumation Processes in 14 Countries - Journal for Social Action-On Assess

8/8/2019 Exhumation Processes in 14 Countries - Journal for Social Action-On Assess

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ExhumationprocessesinfourteencountriesinLatinAmerica

SusanaNavarroGarca(1)

PauPrezSales(2)

AlbertoFernndezLiria(3)

(1) Psychologist. CoordinatorofPsychosocialWorkinExhumationProcesses.Community

StudyandPsychosocialActionTeam(ECAP)Guatemala(Guatemala)

(2) Psychiatrist.

Community

Action

Group.

La

Paz

University

Hospital.

Madrid

(Spain)

(3) Psychiatrist.CommunityActionGroup.PrncipedeAsturiasUniversityHospital.Madrid

(Spain)

CORRESPONDENCE

SusanaNavarroGarca

[email protected]

2da.Avenida111,Zona3.ColoniaBran,Guatemala,C.A


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SUMMARYExhumationprocessesaredescribed infourteenLatinAmericancountries.Theyhave

beenclassifiedintofourcategories:1)collectivemassacres(Guatemala,ElSalvador,Colombia

andPeru,2)personsdetainedanddisappearedasaresultofstatepolicies(Chile,Argentina,

Uruguay,BrazilandParaguay),3)collectiveviolence(Venezuela,MexicoandPanama)and4)

selectivedeathsunderdemocraticregimes(EcuadorandHonduras).Theeventsaredescribed

that made it necessary to start the exhumation process and other processes, analysing

psychosocialaccompaniment for relatives,whether ithasbeenprovided,andattempting to

drawlessonsfromeachexperienceonordertodevelopprocessesstilloutstandinginthisand

othercontinents.


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IntroductionTheeuphemism,forceddisappearance,isusedforadramaticeventthathasoccurred

frequently inmany countriesof LatinAmerica (Amnesty,1994).Exhumationprocesseshave

been carried out in many of these countries in order to locate remains, determine what

happenedand to serveasabasis forjusticeand reparations (PrezSales&NavarroGarca,

2007).

Systematicstudiesoftheseexperienceshaverecentlybeenpublished inSpanishand

have resulted in collections of narratives (Prez Sales & Navarro Garca, 2007) by the

organisations

involved.

Networks

have

also

been

developed

for

sharing

experiences

and

for

debateamongtheseorganisations, includingsignificantmilestonessuchasthefirstcongress,

heldinGuatemalain2007,andasecondonethatwillbeheldinBogotin2010(Ecap,Gac,&

Geza,2007).

In this work the exhumation processes developed during the last fifteen years in

fourteencountries inLatinAmericahavebeenreviewed.Eachcountryhassuffereddifferent

patternsofhumanrightsviolationsconsideredinfourcategories:

1) collectivemassacres (Guatemala(NavarroGarcaetal.,2007),ElSalvador(Hernndez,

2007), Colombia(Gmez Lpez & Martn Beristain, 2007) and Peru(Stornaiuolo,

Chauca,&BacaSoto,2007)),

2) personsdetainedanddisappearedasaresultofstatepolicies(Chile(BaezaFernndez

etal.,2007),Argentina(Tumini,Garay,Bancheri,&.2007),Uruguay(Nadal,Pirotto,&

Robaina,2007),Brazil(Bouas&Vital,2007)andParaguay(Portillo,2007)),

3) collective violence (Venezuela(Carrillo, 2007), Mexico(Limas Hernndez, 2007) and

Panama(Sanjur,2007)),and

4) selective deaths under democratic regimes (Ecuador(Donoso, 2007) and

Honduras(Oliva,2007))


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In the majority of countries there has been no psychosocial accompaniment

incorporated into theexhumationprocessesand in thosecaseswhere ithasbeenprovided

therearenoworkprotocols.Inmanycasesaccompanimenthasbeenprovidedonlyatspecific

times.

Favourable sentences by the InterAmerican Court of Human Rights which has

convicted the statesare seenas victories, particularly when the states have accepted their

responsibility, but at the same time noncompliance of all the measures requested by the

court, especially the application of justice, has repeatedly occurred in all Latin American

countries.

Exhumationexperiencesin14countriesofLatinAmerica1. Exhumationsinthecontextofgenocideandcollectivemassacres

1.1.GuatemalaThefactsMostofthedestructioncausedasaresultofpoliticalviolenceinGuatemalatookplace

between1980and1984.Massacresandforceddisappearanceswereaproductoftherazed

earthpolicy.Theperpetratorsofthesemassacresdestroyedfourhundredsmallvillages.

The reportGuatemala NeverAgainand the reportof theCommission forHistoricalClarificationrecordthattwohundredthousandpeoplewerekilledincollectivemassacresand

publicmurders,especiallypeopleof indigenousorigin,overhalfofthembeingthevictimsof

massacres.Thestatebearsthemainresponsibilityfortheseevents(96%ofallcases)(Navarro

Garcaetal.,2007).

DevelopmentoftheprocessGuatemala is the countrywhere exhumationprocesseshavebeenmost systematic,

resulting in more reflectionand representing a model for others. Between 1992and 2006,

about 700 exhumations were carried out with psychosocial accompaniment by several


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organisations. There are six institutions which provide psychosocial accompaniment for

relatives1andthreeforensicinstitutions.

Thefirstexhumationswerecarriedoutduringthearmedconflictin1988inthevillages

ofChayamche andPujujulito in the Departmentof Solol.They werepromotedentirelyby

civiliansandperformedbytechnicalassistantsfromthedepartments,justicesofthepeaceand

forensicdoctors.Duringthe1990s,andwithsupportfromtheEAAF,theGuatemalanForensic

Anthropology Team was created, later becoming the Forensic Anthropology Foundation of

Guatemala (FAFG).During thisdecade, changesoccurred in thewaypeopleunderstood the

problem

of

disappeared

persons,

and

movements

working

for

the

peace

process

made

it

possibletofocusexhumationprocessesonthesearchfortruthandhistoricalclarification.

Coordinationbetween forensicanthropology teamsandpsychosocial teamswasnot

easyandittookfiveyearsforthemtosignthefirstagreementtoworktogether.Currentlevels

ofcoordinationaretheresultofhardworkindifficultsituations.

TheCommissionforHistoricalClarification,TruthandJusticeinGuatemala,setupasa

result of the Oslo accords of 1994, recommended an active policy of exhumations,

representingaveryimportantchangeinthesociallegitimacyoftheprocess.

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsExhumations in Guatemala have always been based on the demands of relatives.

Unlikeothercountries,judgeshavenevertakenactionasamatterofcoursewithoutarequest

fromeitherpartyonreceivingnotificationoftestimoniesorevidence.

The first lesson to be learnt from exhumation processes in Guatemala is that

psychosocialworkisdeterminedbythecultureoftheindigenouspopulationwhichdetermines

themeaningthatpeoplegivetoevents.FortheMayanpopulationexhumationspermitthere

establishment of bonds with their ancestors and it is of central importance to work with

1 Community Study and Psychosocial Action Team ECAP, Mutual Support Group GAM, Maya

Saqbe Centre, Utz Kaslemal, Bridges of Peace and ODHAG.


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dreamsandpremonitions.This iswhy it isessential for teammembers tobe from the local

culture (Navarro Garca et al., 2007).

The second lesson is that exhumations should be understood as a long process of

whichexcavation isonlyonepartand,accordingtotheteams, it isnotnecessarilythemost

painful part or the one during which psychosocial support is most necessary. The idea of

excavationasapainfulexperienceandpsychologicalcrisisrequiringprofessionalattention is

not based on the experience of the teams. Emotional support during excavation has been

requestedbyeveryoneexcepttherelatives(NavarroGarcaetal.,2007).

Thus

there

is

a

need

to

work

at

all

times

with

the

relatives

who

should

play

an

active

partintheprocessandparticipateinalldecisions.Psychosocialteamsshouldtakethetimeto

become immersed inthecommunity, ideallyforseveralmonths,tobeabletodeveloptrust,

explaintheirwork,analysetherelativesexpectations,anddiscussreparationspoliciesandthe

possibilityofjustice.Furthermore,possibleconflict scenarios shouldbeconsideredwith the

community. It is essential to systematically include in this work critical reflection with the

relativesabouttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofinitiatinglegalproceedingsrelatedtothe

massacresand thestepsthatneedtobe taken for this. It is important tokeep inmind that

96%of theexhumations inGuatemalahavenot subsequently resulted in legalproceedings.

Teamsprovidingaccompanimentconsider thattheyhavenotbeensufficientlyawareofthis

reality and have not systematically included in their work the provision of information or

discussionofthepossibilityoflegalproceedings.

Before the excavation it is of fundamental importance to work on understanding

expectations of the results.The team shouldmake everyeffortpossible,using allavailable

means to locate all the possible relatives of the deceased; otherwise they run the risk of

causingmoreharmthangoodwiththeexhumation.

No less important is thedevolutionof theprocessand results to the families,which

shouldbedonesystematicallyandusingpopularmethodologiesandcollectiveactivities.The


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violencewasacollectiveeventandtheapproachshouldalsobecollective.Partofpsychosocial

accompaniment consistsofgivingmeaning to theexperienceofpoliticalviolence,analysing

with relatives and with the community the causes, the historical context and the current

politicalcontextandlessonsthatcanbelearnt.

For this interinstitutional support and coordination with organisations of victims

working intheregionareessential.Inplaceswheretherearenoorganisations itshouldbea

priorityfortheteamtofacilitateallpossibleconditionsforthefamiliestoestablishone.

Furthermore,beyond the local leveland to reinforce the transformationaleffectsof

the

process,

it

is

important

to

promote

municipal

and

departmental

contacts

to

provide

a

broaderperspectivewhichmayleadtoanunderstandingoftheoverallcontextofviolenceand

theway itaffectsthecountryasawhole,maintainingreportsabouttheexhumations inthe

media.

1.2.ElSalvadorThefactsExhumationprocessesinElSalvadorstartedintheframeworkestablishedbytheTruth

Commission setup by the Peace Accords in Mexico City between the governmentand the

FMLNinApril1991.TheTruthCommissioncorroboratedthegravityanddimensionofcrimes

committedbetween1980and1982,establishedasthebloodiestperiod inthehistoryofthe

country.Similarly,perpetrationofthecrimeswasnotonlyattributedto localauthorities,but

civilianswerealsodirectlyattackedaspartofastatepolicy.

AparadigmaticcasewasthemassacreofElMozote,whichoccurredon10December

1981,inthemunicipalityofMeangueraintheDepartmentofMorazn.Itwasperpetratedby

theAtlacatlInfantryBattalion.Themajorityofpeopletorturedandexecutedwerewomenand

children. In other departments, such as Chaletenango, similar events occurred as joint


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operationsbetweenmilitaryandparamilitary forcesand incollaborationwith theHonduran

army(Hernndez,2007).

Manyof thecommunitiesand survivorswere furthervictimisedafter themassacres

when obliged to live in refugee camps. It was only after 1990, when many people were

repatriated,thattherealconditionsexistedforinitiatingasearchfortestimonialinformation.

DevelopmentoftheprocessInviewofthefactthattherewereseveraldifferentversionsoftheeventsandbecause

of the existence of rumours and misinformation during the years of political violence,

exhumations,

such

as

the

exhumation

at

the

site

of

the

massacre

of

El

Mozote,

demonstrated

theveracityoftheevents,pointingtothoseresponsibleforhumanrightsviolations.Itwasalso

possibletodemonstratetheexistenceofanauthenticpolicyofkillingtheseedasthe logic

behindthemassacres.

From the beginning, the processes were led by organisations of relatives and non

governmental human rights organisations. The church played a facilitating role and no

psychosocialaccompanimentwasprovided.

Twodifferentstagescanbeidentified intheprocess:firstofalltheexhumation itself

andsecondlythecriminalprosecutionofperpetrators.

InviewofthenegligenceoftheAttorneyGeneral'sOffice,whichfailedtotakeaction

asamatterofcoursewithouttherequestofeitherparty,thefirststagewaspromotedbythe

relatives themselves, and they had to shoulder the burden of the search forjustice. The

judiciary limited itself to simply issuing permits for exhumations solely for humanitarian

purposes.

Subsequentlegalbattleshavecontinuedforaverylongtime.After17yearsofnational

litigation, in2006thecaseofElMozotewasacceptedbytheInterAmericanCommissionfor

HumanRightsinviewoftheabsenceofjusticeenforcementatthenationallevel.

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendations


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ElSalvadorexemplifies thedifficultieswhichexist forworkingwith state institutions

when thestatehasbeen theperpetrator,especially inrelationto forensicmedicalteamsor

forensic anthropology teams. The search forjustice has been blocked when the military is

implicatedandbecauseofthelackofindependenceofthejudiciary.

Otherdifficultieshavearisenasaresultoftheamnestylaw,despitethefactthatthese

arecrimesagainsthumanityand,assuch,cannotbeamnestiedbecause theyare related to

inalienablerights.Thiselement ispresent inmanycountries inLatinAmericaandeffortsare

beingmadetorepealamnestyandfullstoplawsinothercountriessuchasArgentina.

1.3.Colombia

ThefactsInColombiaforceddisappearancesandmassacreshavebeensystematiceventsinthe

midstofalonglastingarmedconflict.AllparticipantsintheColombianconflict,withdiffering

levelsofresponsibility,haveuseddisappearanceandmassacresasaweaponofwar.

Since1977, recordsofvictimsof forceddisappearancehavebeenkept.Thereareat

least 7,000 cases according to the Association of Relatives of Detained and Disappeared

Persons (ASFADDES). During the 1970s and 1980s, most of the forced disappearances

committedbythestateorwiththestate'sacquiescencewereindividual,withjustafewcases

ofcollectivedisappearances.Sincethe1990s,therehasbeenamassive increase incollective

disappearancesandmassacres,both inthenumberofvictimsaswellasthefrequency.Since

2000, therehasbeenan increase in the individualand systematicdisappearanceofpersons

from the same region, due to a violent process of land resettlement. On many occasions

disappearanceswere linked tootherviolentevents suchas forceddisplacementwhichhave

affectedover3millionpeople(GmezLpez&MartnBeristain,2007).

Theemotional repercussionson familiesandcommunitiesareextensiveand serious

(Gmez Lpez & Martn Beristain, 2007). Constant uncertainty makes emotional closure


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impossible. Emotional pain is generalised among relatives and communities in addition to

constantfearforthoseremaininginregionswheretheseeventsoccurred.

DevelopmentoftheprocessExhumationshavebeenmade inasituationofactiveconflict,whichpresupposesan

absenceofguaranteesforrelatives,witnessesandteams,togetherwithdifficultyofaccessto

regionswheretherelativesarelocated.

Inzonesofparamilitarysupremacyskeletalremainshavebeenfoundand inguerrilla

zonestherearerecordsofkidnappingsofvictimswhosubsequentlydiedincaptivityandhave

been

buried

in

common

graves.

Because

of

the

violence

which

exists

in

Colombia,

this

type

of

casecanbefoundthroughoutthecountry.

Exhumationshavemadeitpossibletowincasesininternationaltribunals(caseofthe

19businessmen)(GmezLpez&MartnBeristain,2007).

Difficulties,lessonsandrecommendationsOnoccasionsthestatehasallegedlyusedexhumationsasawayofbreakingdownthe

families,preventingthemfromparticipating inexhumations,makingmassiveexhumationsof

clandestinegravesanddestroying theevidenceormakingnoeffort to identify remainsand

returnthemtothefamilies(GmezLpez&MartnBeristain,2007).

Inthefewcasesinwhichfamilieshavemanagedtoparticipateinexhumationscarried

outby the state, ithasbeenbecause theyhaveappliedpressure,but thewholeprocessof

applyingpressuretoachieveparticipationisextremelyexhaustingforthefamilies.

InthecontextofLaw975,recentexhumations,whicharehigherinnumberthanever

beforeinthehistoryofthecountry,havereproducedtheproblemsthathavebeentypicalof

thesearch fordisappearedpersons inthepastand theyareexceeding thecapacityofstate

entitiestorespondtothisproblem(GmezLpez&MartnBeristain,2007).

In Colombia there is no tradition of psychosocial accompaniment for exhumation

processes, although it has existed in other contexts related to the conflict. Families have


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receivedsupportfromcommunitiesandorganisationsofvictimsgeographicallyclosetothem.

However,apsychosocialresponseisrequiredinColombiatothesituationofdisappearanceto

helpvictimsdealwiththemanydifficulties(GmezLpez&MartnBeristain,2007).

Exhumationprocessesare fraughtwithdifficultiesand requiredifferent solutions in

order to adjust to the different typologies that can be considered for psychosocial

accompaniment.ThusGmez LpezandMartinBeristain (Gmez Lpez&MartnBeristain,

2007)distinguishbetween:a)Disappearanceswhentheremainshavebeenfoundorthereisa

possibility of finding them, b) Disappearances when the place of burial is unknown, and c)

Disappearances

when

it

will

be

difficult

to

recover

the

remains

of

victims.

1.4.PeruThefactsPeruisoneofthecountriesinwhichexhumationprocessesstartedduringtheinternal

armedconflictwhichlastedforalmost20years.Terrorandviolence,bothbythestateaswell

as by the Shining Path guerrillas and the Tupac Amaru revolutionary movement, created asituationinwhichmassacreswerefrequentlycommitted.

DevelopmentoftheprocessExhumationsarebasedonthelogicofknowledgeofthetruth;exhumationshavebeen

oneofthefunctionsoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission(CVR).Thedimensionsofthis

workareenormous.BetweenFebruary2001andAugust2003,theCVRreceivedabout17,000

testimoniesandselected1,923interviewsforthefinalreport.Theoverallnumberofvictimsis

about70,000people,40%ofwhomwereintheDepartmentofAyacucho.TheCVRestimated

that there were 4,644 burial sites and has made preliminary verification of another 2,200

probableburial

sites.

The

public

defence

office

has

recorded

about

8,304

disappeared

persons,

havingantemorteminformationaboutonly1,884ofthese(Stornaiuoloetal.,2007).

Seriousmistakeswerecommittedduringthefirstexhumationprocesses,attributedto

theinexperienceoftheteamsandtheabsenceofexperts,andresultinginthedestructionof

evidenceforlegalproceedings.

InPeru,exhumationscanonlybemadebyinstitutionslinkedtothepublicprosecution

office. Nongovernmental organisations, unless they are specifically asked to provide a

specialistreportbythepublicprosecutionofficeorbythecourts,havenodirectparticipation.


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In many cases the work of the Legal Medicine Institute (IML) is limited to the

excavationphaseand the identificationofbodiesand subsequentburial is leftpending.The

participationof families in theprocess isusually limitedornonexistent,and in some cases

theyhavenotevenbeenawareoftheexhumations.

TheIMLforensicteamdoesnotprovideanypsychosocialaccompaniment,nordoesit

coordinatewithother institutions thatdo so.Psychosocialaccompaniment,whenprovided,

hasbeenby socialorganisationsandessentiallyduring theexcavationphasewithvery little

priorworkdone. Innearlyalltheexhumationsworkhasbeendonewithschoolteachersbut

this,with fewexceptions,hasbeenvery specificand in thedepartments there isnomental

health network capable of providing followup to serious cases of emotional disorders.

Organisationswhichworkinthelegalorjudicialfieldhavenotalwaysbeenawareoftheneed

forpsychosocial

support.

Coordination

between

state

entities,

families,

victims

organisations

andhumanrightsorganisationsisverydeficient.

Many communities fail to accompany the victims and their families, leaving them

alone or demanding that families subject their decisions to community requirements. This

clearly shows that there is a need to incorporate community work so that communities

supportvictims.

Although,asinGuatemala,exhumationmaybecontemplatedbythecommunitiesasa

formofreestablishingtheirbondwiththedeceased,therearesomefamiliesthatdonotwant

theirrelativestobeexhumed,eitherbecausetheyrefusetoaccepttheirloss,orbecausethey

perceiveitasauselessexpenseinthecontextofextremepoverty.

The political exploitation of exhumations has been one of the obstacles to their

practice.

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsThelawsshouldbechangedtopreventtheviabilityoflegalproceedingsdependingon

whoisgoverningthecountry.

Cooperation agreements should be established between entities that provide

psychosocialaccompanimentandtheIML.

TheIMLshouldpubliciseitsexhumationcalendarinadvanceinordertoplanitswork,

establish prior relationships with the families and members of the communities and locate

survivors.

In places where the armed conflict led to confrontations between groups in the

community,aprocessofretrievingthevaluesandcommonhistoryshouldbeembarkedupon.

Thereconciliation

process

should

be

seen

in

the

long

term

and

it

should

not

be

forced

or

limitedtotheexhumation.


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inArgentina)ortheanthropologiststhemselves(suchasinGuatemala).Whenfamilies live in

urbanareas,thework isnotdonecollectively.Exhumationsareunderstoodtobespacesfor

confirmingadeathpreviouslysuspectedbutdeniedandastheendofasearchprocessanda

series of stages (unlike Argentina, for example). The need to include children and

grandchildren in ceremonies and symbolic processes has been indicated and to have

continuous accompaniment. In Chile experience has shown how new information about

clandestine graves has a complex effect on the families. Furthermore, the fact that as a

consequenceof thedoubledisappearance,onlysmallbone fragmentshavebeen found in

themajorityofcases,makesitdifficultfortherelativestosymbolisetheirloss.

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsThe

identification

process

may

last

up

to

5years,

which

often

leads

to

abreakdown

of

theprocess for the families.Mistaken identificationshavebeenmade, someofwhichhave

been very significant, suchas the caseofPatio29where yearsaftermaking identifications

usingclassicalmethods,relativeswhoalreadyhadtheirdoubts,askedforDNAconfirmation.

Thesesituationscanhaveaverynegativeeffectonthefamilies.Themilitaryhaveusedthese

falseidentifications introducingrumoursasreliableinformation asawayofbreakingdown

thefamiliesduringtheirsearch.ThishasalsooccurredinArgentinaandColombia.

Associationsof relativeshavebecomeexhaustedafteryearsofpain, frustrationand

failure to resolve cases. The nature of the legal proceedings themselves has sometimes

representedaretraumatisationforthefamilies,andaccompanimentprovidedbythestateas

wellasbyhumanrightsinstitutionshasbeeninsufficient.

This exhaustion and the fact that the majority of disappearances occurred over 20

yearsagohasmeantthattheissueisnotapriorityfortheassociationsofrelatives.Thisfeeling

ofdistance isevengreateramongpeopleofMapucheoriginwhosometimesappeartohave

veryambivalentattitudes (BaezaFernndezetal.,2007).There isa long listofreasonswhy,

withthepassageofyears,relativesmayoftenprefernottocarryoutanexhumation:fearof

not findinganything, fearof losingaversionofevents that theyhavealreadyacceptedand

findreassuring,fearofbringingupmatterstheyconsideredtheyhadalreadyresolved,social

pressure to forget or become reconciled or find alternative spaces of symbolisation and

communication with the deceased which do not require the loved one to be in a specific

physicalplace.

Thisdoesnotmeanthatforsomefamiliesitisnotveryimportanttofindtheremains

oftheir

loved

ones,

but

for

others

this

importance

seems

to

be

diminishing

(Baeza

Fernndez

etal.,2007).


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Anevaluation istobemadeoftheconsequencesofthefactthat it isthestate itself

thatprovidesaccompaniment,since thishasbeenexperiencedasnegativebysome families

andasreparatorybyothers.FortheMapuchepeople,thefuneralsofthefewpeoplelocated

have become political acts and have no reparatory value in their culture. Experiences of

unsuccessfulexcavationsandthefactofnothavingtakenintoaccountthemotivationsofthe

families(searchandjustice)seemtohaveledtoacertaindisillusionmentamongfamiliesand

human rightsorganisations, resulting in limitedparticipation (BaezaFernndezetal.,2007).

People may have different agendas to the human rights organisations. From the logic of a

relative,inpragmatictermsanexhumationmakessenseiflegalprocessesalmostpermanently

postponedcanbeunfrozen.

Adiscussionhasarisenabout theadvantagesanddisadvantagesof theexistenceof

DNAlaboratories

and

national

registries

of

disappeared

persons

in

relation

to

the

political

contextandtheroleofthestateasperpetrator.WithregardtoDNAevidence,therehasbeen

reticence in the sense that identifications have increased but proceedings have become

individualised.Thesearchandexhumationprocessesarenolongerpartofacollectiveprocess

belongingtothecommunity,butaprivatespaceforan individualor family.TheuseofDNA

hasbeendescribedasanadvantagewhichavoidsretraumatisationofrepeatedprocessesof

recognitionandgreaterreliabilityforrecognitionwhenpossible.

Inanycase,inthelightofexperience,itseemsclear1)thatinallactionsforreparation

ofdamagestheparticipationoffamiliesandhumanrightsorganisationsshouldberequired,2)

thatmeasuresshouldbetakenthatareconducivetothedevelopmentofjudicialproceedings

and 3) that it would be convenient to annul the Amnesty Law that has served to conceal

impunityinChile(BaezaFernndezetal.,2007).

2.2.ArgentinaDevelopmentoftheprocessExhumations

with

scientific

techniques

were

started

when

the

political

context

permitted it in 1984 with the arrival of the American Association for the Advancement of

Sciences;itwasthefirstcountryinLatinAmericathatstartedtoperformexhumationsaspart

of the process of searching for disappeared persons, at the request of the National

CommissionontheDisappearedandtheGrandmothersofthePlazadeMayo.Duringthatvisit,

theArgentineForensicAnthropologyTeamwascreated(Tuminietal.,2007).

Theemphasis inthecurrentprocess inArgentina isontherelationbetweenforensic

anthropology as a technical discipline and psychosocial accompaniment, with examples of

theseexperiencesinBuenosAires,Crdoba,JujuyandthetownofRosario.


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Rightfromthestart,theorganisationsofrelativeshaveplayedanimportantroleinthe

search processes. Exhumations have formed part of a broader strategy in the struggle of

organisationsofrelativesofdisappearedpersons.

Thehumanrightsfield isconflictive.Ashappens inthecategoryofdisappearances,

inArgentina therehasnotalwaysbeen consensuswith regard toexhumations.There isno

doubt that exhumations, in themselves, cannot provide reparations for all the events

experienced: vacuums, impunity and misinformation. There are some organisations of

relativesthatrejecttheseusingpoliticalandideologicalarguments.

This has led to debate between people with different agendas in relation to

exhumations.Wheninterestsandthevisionsofhumanrightsgroupsfailtocoincidewiththose

ofthe families,dotheremainsofthedeceasedbelongtothe familiesorto thesocietyasa

whole?

If

an

exhumation

may

serve

to

document

human

rights

violations

and

legal

proceedingsagainstperpetrators,butthe familydoesnotwishtocarryouttheexhumation,

whichopinionshouldprevail?

Asinothercountries,suchasVenezuela,theoverridingmotiveisthesearchforjustice

and truthandnotmerelyemotionalelements,although theseelementsarepresentamong

organisationsof relatives. In the specific caseofHIJOS theapproach isbasedonapolitical

struggle,andwhenexhumationshavebeenperformed, thehumanandemotionalnatureof

theseprocesseshasbeenrevealed.

InArgentinaagreatdealofpsychologicalsupporthasbeenprovided for relativesof

disappearedpersonsandsurvivorsoftorture,andalargeamountoftheoreticalworkhasbeen

done,butexhumationprocesseshavenotbeenidentifiedasfieldswherethisworkisrelevant.

EachcaseisdifferentinArgentina,althoughthepresenceofrelativesduringthisphase

dependsonthelawsintheregionwheretheexhumation isbeingcarriedout.Alsopresentis

theconcernbytheforensicanthropologyteamthatrelativeswillhaveexpectationsofpositive

resultsfromtheexhumations,butimponderablefactorsrelatedtotheworkwilloftenresultin

thesenotbeingachieved(Tuminietal.,2007).

Aftertheexcavationphase,thefamiliesshouldparticipateactivelyandtheyshouldbe

theones todecidehow the remainsare tobe returned.Thereare somejustice institutions

thatbecomeinvolvedintheprocesses,insomecasesresultinginsymbolicactsofrecognition

(thereadingofrecords).

Relatives are sceptical about the application of justice in relation to disappeared

persons,believing that it isdifficult to trust thejudicial system,evenwhenappealing to its

implementation.


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There isaneed foropportunities fordiscussion for the teams (anthropology teams,

workers.)(Tuminietal.,2007).

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsIn addition to the above, the Argentine experience has demonstrated the need to

incorporate psychosocial work at all times during the exhumation processes, as well as

strengthening the participation of the society in general in the ritual of handing over the

remainstotherelativessincethiswouldrepresentsocialrecognitionoftheevents(Tuminiet

al.,2007).

2.3.UruguayThefactsTherepressionof leftistmovements inUruguaystartedattheendofthe1960seven

though the state was formally democratic. State terror in Uruguay after the coupd'tat in

1973wasverysimilartotheothercountriesofLatinAmerica,suchasArgentina.Theuseof

prolonged pressure and torture was systematic; 10,000 people were imprisoned out of a

populationof2.789.000between1972and1984.TheAssociationoftheMothersandFamilies

oftheDetainedDisappearedofUruguayhas identified200disappearedpersons (Nadalet

al.,2007).

DevelopmentoftheprocessFewexhumationshavebeencarriedout,buttheyhavehadahugesocialimpact,the

firstonebeingdescribedasanauthenticcollectiveprocess involving theUruguayanpeople.

Thishasbeentheexperienceinthemajorityofcountriesinwhichthefirstexhumationsunite

manysectorsofthepopulation.

Exhumationsaremadeunderanagreementbetweenthegovernmentandgroupsof

archaeologists.Due to theabsenceofexperienceandbackground inexhumationprocesses,

therehas

been

alack

of

coordination.

The

possible

location

of

disappeared

persons

in

different

countries,suchasArgentinaandChile,hasmadeitdifficulttofindthem.BecauseoftheLaw

on Impunity itwas impossibletoseek legalactionfora longtime. Itwasnotuntil2006that

somecasesweretakentotheUruguayanandChileancourts.

Exhumation processes have resulted in ethical positions being adopted by

archaeologists in their relation to the familiesofdisappearedpersons.The families scarcely

participate intheexcavationprocess.Theprocessesarestartedafter information isreceived

bythecommissionandinvestigationsarebegun.


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18

So far the relatives organisation has no defined policy for exhumation processes;

thesehavesimplyprovidedeffectiveemotionalsupportforfamilies.

There has been no psychosocial accompaniment for exhumation processes.

Organizations that haveprovidedpsychological support for families of disappeared persons

havedonesoafterfeelingmovedbytheexhumations.

Similarly to other countries,justice is more important than economic reparations.

Exhumationsareseenasasmallpartofamuchlargerprocess(Nadaletal.,2007).

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsTherehasbeendebateaboutpublicandprivaterolesinexhumationprocessesandthe

searchfordisappearedpersons:exhumationrepresentsapublicspace,whichobligesfamilies

and the teams toadoptapublic role forwhich theyarenotnecessarilypreparedordonot

necessarilywant.

How

can

this

be

combined

with

the

private

sphere?

Yearsoftherapeuticworkhaveshownthatcommitment,ornonneutrality,isthebasic

central element for working with the families of disappeared persons, as well as the

incorporation of social dimensions in therapeutic work. These lessons were a result of the

interrelationbetweentheneedsofrelativesandtheformandpositionofpsychologicalwork.

From the lessons learnt in this experience some possible recommendations can be

made,suchas1)Theneedtoseparatetheworkofthesearchandexhumationprocessesfrom

thepresidencyoftherepublic,creatinganindependentgovernmentalbody,2)Thecreationof

an interdisciplinary psychosocial work group in the framework of a truth commission, 3)

AnnulmentoftheStatePunitiveClaimExpirationLaw(LawonImpunity),4)Developmentofan

IntegralNationalReparationsProgramme(Nadaletal.,2007).

2.4.BrazilThefactsOver forty years after the establishment of the military regime in Brazil, Brazilian

societyhas

still

not

definitively

clarified

the

violations

which

occurred

during

the

period

of

stateterrorism.Itwasonlyafterthedeathsofsomeinternationallyknownopponentsin1975

thatthestateconsidered itnecessarytoattributetheirdeathstoaccidentalcausesortothe

resistance. Up to thatpoint, forceddisappearanceshadbeen thenorm. In Brazil there has

beenageneralisedpracticeofcommongravesinwhichunidentifiedpeopleareburied.Thisis

significant for the destitute as a mechanism of social cleansing. In Brazil social cleansing is

systematic and continues to occur at the hands of death squads that use these common

graves,withnoattemptbytheauthoritiestolocaterelativesortofindtheperpetrators.

Developmentoftheprocess


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InBraziltherehasbeennosupport from thejudicialauthorities forexhumationand

searchprocesses.Relatives,organisationsandprivateindividualshaveimplemented/financed

forensicprocessesvoluntarily,despitethefactthatinRiodeJaneiroover2,000remainshave

beenfound,whichhasrepresentedahugevolumeofwork.Ithasbeenthepersistenceofthe

familiesthathasallowedtheseprocessestoadvance.

There has been no accompaniment for families during this process, only individual

supportinsomecases.

Exhumationshaveonly resulted in the identificationofeightpersons,but the social

impactandtheimpactinthemediaoftheseexhumationshasbeenhugewithmediapresence

and high impact images which have led to the start of a debate on violence during the

dictatorship(asinVenezuela,EcuadorandMexico).

Hospitalscontain

the

remains

of

hundreds

of

unidentified

persons,

mainly

of

destitute

people,butalsosomepoliticalprisoners(asinVenezuela).

Aftertheexhumationsweremade,twoforensicdoctorswerebarredfrompractising

theirprofessionbecauseofhavingissuedforgeddeathcertificates.Thiswasthefirstcaseofits

kindinLatinAmerica.

Thestatehasnottakenjudicialactionasamatterofcourse,norhasitsupportedthe

relatives, who have had to shoulder the responsibility of seeking evidence and initiating

proceedings.

Despite successivechangesofgovernmentand theexistenceof leftistgovernments,

theterrorarchives,knowntoexist,havestillnotbeenopened.

2.5.ParaguayThefactsThepracticeofforceddisappearancewassystematicinParaguay,particularlybetween

1959and1962afterthecoupd'tatbyGeneralStroessner.Itcontinuedafterthesedatesbut

inamore

selective

manner

(Portillo,

2007).

DevelopmentoftheprocessThe processes have been implemented in the context of the Truth and Justice

Commission.Accompanimenthasbeenprovidedthathasnotbeen limitedtotheexcavation

buthasbeencontinued,startingwiththeinitialworkofsearchingforinformationuptolegal

proceedingsorthepresentationofdemandsbyrelativestotheparliament.

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsIt is thought that years will be spent on the search as the work of the Truth

Commissionprogresses.OrganisersoftheprocessesaredemandingthecreationofaNational


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20

Genetic Data Bank to facilitate identification. They are also demanding the adaptation of

Paraguayan legislationto internationalrequirementsandthecreationofapermanentmixed

humanrightssecretariatwiththeparticipationofthestateandcivilsocietyinordertoextend

theframeofactionoftheTruthandJusticeCommission.

3. Exhumationsinthecontextofsocialviolence3.1.Venezuela

ThefactsThe presidential decree of 28 February 1989, which suspended constitutional

guaranteestofacilitatetherepressionofprotestsasaresultofeconomicmeasurestakenby

thegovernment,

led

to

aperiod

of

almost

one

month

of

actions

by

the

army

and

the

police,

resultinginnumbersofdeadandwoundedthathavestillnotbeenquantified,especiallyinthe

cityspoorneighbourhoods.Officialestimateswere276dead,butwhenthegraveofLaPeste

was found with 68 unidentified bodies that were not on the official list, this estimate was

discredited.In1999,437lawsuitswerefiledinthecourtsfordeathorinjury(Carrillo,2007).

DevelopmentoftheprocessA long legalbattlewas required for theexhumationsand it took18monthsto issue

theordertoopenthecommongrave.After17yearsofcriminalproceedingsandafavourable

sentence by the InterAmerican Court of Human Rights, investigations are still in the

preliminaryphaseandnocasehasbeenheardinthenationalcourtssofar.Alargenumberof

bodiesarestillunidentified(asinElSalvador).

Thefamiliespromotedandimplementedmostoftheprocess(locatingotherfamilies,

makingantemortemrecords,clearingthearea,participatingintheexcavation,andprotecting

andwatchingovertheremains).

InVenezuela the search forjusticehasbeen themaindriving force for the families,

rather than grieforemotional issues (unlikeGuatemalaorPerubut similar toArgentinaor

Brazil).

Sincetheexhumation,theCommitteeoftheRelativesoftheVictimsoftheEventsthatOccurred inFebruaryandMarch1989 (COFAVIC)was setupasahuman rightsorganisationwhichworksonallkindsof issues in thecountryaswellasproviding training forthearmed

forcesandthepolice,humanrightseducationandotheractivities(likeHondurasandPanama).

Manyrelativeshavesaidthatthegroupwasliketheirnewfamily.Asignificantgroup

ofpeople

(5

15

at

certain

times)

worked

full

time

to

achieve

exhumations.


21/27


22/27

22

Thismistreatmentofthefamiliesbystateentitiesandtheabsenceofaccompaniment

have led to the creation of a victims identity among some relatives, which could be

consideredasadoublevictimisation.

The responseof solidarityand support, forexample throughartisticexpression,has

beenofcentralimportance(LimasHernndez,2007).

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsAnalysis of the processes in Ciudad Jurez has revealed the need for psychosocial

accompanimentcapableofpreventingthepossibleharmfuleffectsofexhumationprocesses.

This iswhy it isessentialto incorporate it intoall forensicanthropologyandjudicialactions,

establishingcooperationagreementswithorganisationsthatprovideaccompanimentandthat

enjoythetrustofthefamilies.

Giventhat

legal

proceedings

are

necessary

for

the

possibility

of

reparations,

it

is

essential that psychosocial accompaniment specifically tackle this aspect as a priority, for

examplethrougheducationinhumanrightsoronthelegalprocess.

The need has also been identified to incorporate the gender perspective into

exhumationsrelatedtocrimesagainstwomenandaddingapsychosocialperspectivebeyond

thevisionofposttraumaticstressdisorder.

Of course it willalso benecessary to coordinate all scientific resourcesavailable to

guaranteethecorrectidentificationofvictims(LimasHernndez,2007).

3.3.PanamaThefactsCasesofforceddisappearancesinPanamadatebacktotheperiodofthedictatorship

after the coup d'tat by Omar Torrijos in 1968 which lasted until 1981, and the American

invasionwhichoccurredinDecemberofthatsameyear(Sanjur,2007).

DevelopmentoftheprocessAs

in

other

countries,

the

relatives

have

played

an

important

role

in

the

whole

process,

presentingmanyof thepetitions to the state.After theexhumationprocesses, the families

organised themselves with support from social institutions. The establishment of the Truth

Commissionhasbeenoneofthemanyachievementsofthisstrugglebythefamilies.

There has been no psychosocial accompaniment, although the relatives have been

receiving a great deal of support from human rights organisations since the beginning of

exhumationsresultingfromeventsduringthedictatorship.

The methods used to search for disappeared persons by the state of Panama have

beensystematicallyinadequate,whichhasdelayedthedifferentprocesses(Sanjur,2007).


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Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsThe first lesson that has emerged from the process in Panama is that exhumations

shouldnotbetheresponsibilityofthestates;theyrequiredirectionbyindependentbodies.A

secondlessonwouldbetheneedtoattendandguaranteewitnessprotection(Sanjur,2007).

4. Exhumationsinthecontextofselectivedeathsunderdemocraticregimes4.1.Ecuador

ThefactsIn Ecuador disappearances have occurred under democratic governments. For

instance, in an open communication to Judge Baltasar Garzn, the government of Febes

Cordero has been held responsible by the civil society and the main human rights

organisationsin

the

country

for

at

least

124

murders,

215

cases

of

torture

and

inhuman

and

degradingprocedures,94violationsofhomes,over435arbitraryarrests,over113 casesof

solitaryconfinementanddozensofcasesofdisappearances.Noneofthesecrimeshasbeen

punished(Donoso,2007).

DevelopmentoftheprocessAlso in Ecuador, it has been the tenacity of the families in their search for their

disappeared relatives that has promoted the process. State entities have intentionally

misinformedandmanipulatedthefamiliesinordertoobstructsearchprocesses.

Therehavebeennopsychosocialaccompanimentteams,eitherforexhumationsorfor

humanrights ingeneral.Theaccompanimentthathasbeenprovidedhasonlybeenthrough

mutualsupportprovidedbyhumanrightsorganisationsorvolunteers.

Impunitypersistsandeventsrelatedtodisappearanceshavenotbeenclarifiedeither

atthenational levelorat the international level.DespiteconvictionsagainsttheEcuadorian

state,ithasnotcompliedwithjudicialinvestigationinanyofthecases.

When indemnificationhasbeenawarded, ithas,onoccasions, led to familyconflict,

partly because of the absence of interventions to contribute to an understanding of the

meaningofreparations(Donoso,2007).

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsThere isanurgentneed foracentre toprovidepsychosocialattention forvictimsof

humanrightsviolationsandtoattendneedsdetectedduringtheprocess(Donoso,2007).

4.2.HondurasThefacts


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In Honduras, forced disappearances were committed under the constitutionalist

governmentsinthe1980sandatthebeginningofthe1990s.Paradoxically,thishasprevented

access to classified information. Those responsible have at all times maintained a share of

politicalpowerwhichhasbeensufficienttoguaranteetheirimpunity(Oliva,2007).

DevelopmentoftheprocessSincethenewswasfirstpublishedoftheexistenceofunidentifiedbodies indifferent

geographicalareasofHonduras in1980,thefamilieshavestruggledtoachieve identification.

In1982, theCommitteeofRelativesof theDetained Disappeared inHonduras (COFADEH)

was createdandwas able to locate different clandestine graves. During the same year, six

bodies were discovered still unidentified in La Montaita outside Tegucigalpa. The

NationalReconciliationCommissionwassetupin1987.Thefirstexhumations,however,were

notmadeuntil1994.Twostate institutionswere involved,theAttorneyGeneral'sOfficeand

the National Human Rights Commission, in addition to nongovernmental human rights

organisations fromHonduraswith support from theArgentineForensicAnthropologyTeam.

Ofthe16bodiesfound,fivehavebeenidentified(Oliva,2007).

Difficulties,lessonslearntandrecommendationsScientificexhumationprocessesareanecessity,notonlybecauseoftheexpectations

ofthefamiliesofrecoveringtheremainsoftheirlovedones,butalsobecausetheycontribute

tostrengtheningtherighttothetruthastheinalienablerightofrelativesofvictimsaswellas

ofthesocietyingeneralthatexperiencedtheseeventsandthegraveandsystematicviolations

ofhumanrights.

Thedevelopmentofan informationcampaign isurgentlyneededatthenationaland

regionallevelsonprocedurestofollowwhenhumanremainsarefoundandtheimportanceof

thesefindingsasevidenceforcriminalinvestigation.

COFADEHconsidersthatexhumationprocessespracticedsofarhavefailedtoachieve

apositive

impact

in

relation

to

obtaining

justice

and

the

restitution

of

remains

to

their

relatives,butacollectiveawarenessofthepasthasbeendevelopedandtoacertainextent

thishascontributedtorevealingthetruthaboutevents.

Withregardtotheadoptionofnationalmechanismstoclarifyevents,itisnecessaryto

createadatabasetostoreinformationrelatedtotheremainsfoundinclandestinegravesso

that this information can be used at any time, and also, considering that the maternal

ancestorsofvictimsarenowelderly,tocreateageneticinformationbank.


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Theapplicationofjusticeinrelationtoexhumationsisacentralvariableforreconciling

the past, but postponing identification for unreasonable periods of time will only serve to

maketheprocessmorepainful(Oliva,2007).

ConclusionsThisreviewofexhumationprocessesin14countriesinLatinAmericaallowsustodraw

thefollowingconclusions.

1. Unlikeothercontinents,exhumationprocesses inLatinAmericahavebeenpromotedby

relativesof thedisappearedwhohavebecome involved in theprocessof thesearch for

truth,justiceandreparations.

2. Theparticipationofthegovernmentsandofthejusticesystemshasbeenextremelyvaried

andthere

is

some

debate

about

what

the

best

role

should

be

for

these

when

the

state

is

implicated or when there are suspicions of state implication in the events being

investigated.

3. Onoccasions therehasalsobeenconflict which sometimesaffectsschedules,butalso

moresubstantialaspects motivatedbyobjectiveswhichdonotalwayscoincidebetween

processes implemented by the families and those implemented by human rights

organisations.

4.

Psychosocialaccompanimenthasnotalwaysexisted,butwhen ithas, ithasnotalways

beenadaptedtotheneedsofthepeople.

5. Forpsychosocialaccompanimenttobeuseful,itneedstobeseenasalongprocesswhich

starts before and continues after the exhumation, taking measures to guarantee the

inclusionofculturalandgenderperspectivesandtacklingthecollectivedimensionofthe

process.


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Documents

Exhumation Processes in 14 Countries - Journal for Social Action-On Assess