Executive Summary - Fedebiocombustibles Summary.pdf · Biofuels Sustainability in Colombia – Executive Summary Figure 15: Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG) over the entire life cycle

Biofuels Sustainability in Colombia – Executive Summary

Executive Summary

PREPARED TO: Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)

Ministry of Mining and Energy

PREPARED BY: Consortium CUE

DATE: January 2012

CITY: Medellin

BID Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo

MME Ministerio de Minas y Energía

MADR Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural

MAVDT Ministerio del Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo Territorial

DNP Departamento Nacional de Planeación

Project:

“Strategies of sustainable energy and biofuels

for Colombia ATN/JC 10826 CO and ATN/JF 10827 CO”

“Assessment of biofuels chain production

life cycle in Colombia”.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION.…………………………………………………………………………………………. 4

2 METHODS ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6

2.1 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS (LCA)…………………………………………………………………………………………… 6

2.2 STUDY OF THE GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)………………………………………… 9

3 PALM BIODIESEL………………………………………………………………………………………… 14

3.1 THE PALM IN COLOMBIA AND ITS REFLECTION IN THE STUDY………………………………… 14

3.2 INVENTORY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

3.3 RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18

4 ETHANOL FROM SUGAR CANE……………………………………………………………………… 23

4.1 SUGAR CANE IN COLOMBIA AND ITS REFLECTION IN THE STUDY…………………………… 23

4.2 INVENTORY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24

4.3 RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28

5. CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………… 32

5.1 GHG EMISSIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 32

5.2 POTENTIAL EXPANSION……………………………………………………………………………………………… 34

6. REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36


TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Four main phases of an LCA according to the standard ISO 14040 ….………….……………… 6

Figure 2: Method to estimate the direct land use change (Source: CUE)……………………………………. 7

Figure 3: Schematic view of the indirect land use change (Source: CUE)……………………………………. 8

Figure 4: General view on the concept GIS. (Source: CUE)………………………………………………………… 10

Figure 5: Concept to model a GHG emissions map (Source: CUE)............................................................ 12

Figure 6: Oil palm plantations in Colombia (Source: CUE)……………………………………………………...... 15

Figure 7: Productivity of oil palm in the research sites in the East (blue), North (orange) and

Center (green) of Colombia in tons of RFF per hectare and per year. Light colors reflect the

productivity of the sampled farms and dark colors show the average value of the region. The

black bar indicates the average national productivity and the gray bar represents the

productivity provided by Fedepalma. (Source: CUE and Fedepalma 2009)……………………………… 16

Figure 8: Mass flow in the production of Biodiesel per each 100 RFF’s tons. (Source: CUE based

on field visits)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18

Figure 9: Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG) over the entire life cycle for the conduction of a

vehicle with Colombian palm biodiesel. Average = current Colombian average; Optimized =

Better available technology; Scrub, Humid and Tropical Rainforest are the ones assumed as

affected by the expansion of the indirect land use; Diesel fossil = using average Diesel in Bogotá

(reference)........................................................................................................................................................................ 19

Figure 10: Oil Palm aptitude, excluding protected and biophysically unsuitable areas, which have

less than 40% of savings in GHG, biodiversity critical points, agricultural areas and limited access

areas (orange areas) Source: CUE……………………………………………………………………………………………… 21

Figure 11: Sugar cane crop cycle (Netafim 2011)……………………………………………………………...……….. 24

Figure 12: Productivity of sugarcane for the studied sites in cane tons per HA (Source: CUE based

on field study)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24

Figure 13: Green manual harvest (left) and load of cane cut after the pre-harvest burning (right).

(Source: EMPA)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25

Figure 14: Mass flow of ethanol production by 100 tons of sugar cane. (Source: CUE based on

field

visits)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28



vehicle with Colombian ethanol of sugar cane. Average= current Colombian average, Optimized

= Best available technology; Scrub, Humid and Tropical Rainforest are the ones assumed as

affected by the expansion of the indirect land use (iLUC); Diesel fossil = using average diesel in

Bogotá (reference)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29

Figure 16: Sugar cane aptitude. Sugar cane aptitude excludes the protected areas and the

unsuitable areas according to edapho-climatic (soil and climatic conditions) criteria, areas with

less than 40% of savings in GHG, critical biodiversity zones, agricultural areas and limited access

areas (orange areas). Source: CUE…………………………………………………………………….……………………….. 30

Figure 17: Areas of potential expansion in Colombia for oil palm cultivation (left) and sugarcane

(right)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34


GLOSSARY

CED Cumulated Energy Demand

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand

CSA Consortium of Study Authors (CNPL-UPB-EMPA)

DOM Decomposed Organic Matter

EtOH Ethanol

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations

FFB Fresh Fruit Brunches

GBEP Global Bioenergy Partnership

GHG Greenhouse Gases

GIS Geographic Information System

IDB Inter-American Development Bank

iLUC Indirect Land Use Change

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

LCA Life Cycle Analysis

LUC Land Use Change

PDD Project Design Document

PM Particulate Matter

RED Renewable Energy Directive

RSB Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels

SLCA Social Life Cycle Analysis

SOC Soil Organic Carbon

SOCB Sustainability Quick Check for Biofuels

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change


1 Introduction

Colombia is the second largest producer of biofuels in Latin America, after Brazil. A significant

expansion is planned, with more than 5 million hectares of land, potentially available for the

cultivation of energetic agriculture. Consequently, the Government of Colombia has approved

guidelines of blends for biodiesel (B5) and ethanol (E10) with the option to increase the mixing

ratio up to E20. In addition, biofuels exports to the United States and the European Union under

the Free Trade Agreements, represents a huge opportunity and challenge.

Although biofuels may be partial substitutes for fossil fuels and a new source of income for

agriculture, environmental and socio economic impacts in production are complex issues, which

are critically discussed in the current sustainability schemes. In consequence, the opportunities

and threats, as well as the logistic and development requirements for the production of biofuels

in Colombia, strongly depend on the regional context. The project is financed by the BID

through the nonrefundable Technical Cooperation agreement # ATN/JC-10836-CO and ATN/JF-

10827-CO signed with the Ministry of Mining and Energy, which acts as beneficiary.

The objective of the project is to assess the sustainability of the production chain, distribution

and the use of biofuels from sugar cane and oil palm compared with equivalent fossil fuels in

Colombia, to demonstrate its favorability and accurately understand its limits.

This analysis includes environmental factors such as impacts from emissions of greenhouse

gases, spatial factors that establish a set of biophysical, legal, environmental and socio economic

boundaries in order to identify the suitable areas of expansion for the energetic cultivations in

Colombia, as well as social and economic factors to analyze the sustainability of Colombian

biofuels. Besides, environmental impacts are in a socio economic context.

Considering the latest report about Biofuels Assessment from the United Nations Program for

the Environment (UNEP 2009) that states: “It is necessary to make major efforts to consider not

just the effects on greenhouse gases, but also other impacts as the eutrophication and the

acidification in a more complete way”, the Consortium conducted the exercise of assessing other

environment impacts as a plus to this project (see Appendixes from Chapter II LCA). The

assessment includes several midpoint indicators (acidification, eutrophication, and eco-toxicity)

and also fully aggregated impacts (endpoint indicator). The additional impact indicators selected

provide complementary perspectives on the benefits and challenges of biofuels.

The study is complemented with online tools that provide elements to allow Colombian biofuels

to enter at international market, with emphasis on the European Union and North America.


2 Methods

2.1 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

The main method applied in this study was Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), as defined in the standard

ISO 14040 (Figure 1). The definition of the objective and the scope is the first step of an LCA

(Phase 1). The scheme of the study was clearly defined in this step. The following phase is the

data collection of life cycle inventory, where were used field data and reference data from the

literature to establish the inventory (Phase 2). Once the inventory was complete, the emissions

of greenhouse gases (GHG) were calculated along the life cycle of Colombian biofuels (Phase 3).

Finally, the results are widely interpreted throughout the document. (Phase 4).

Figure 1. Four main phases of an LCA according to the standard ISO 14040

The main objective of the Life Cycle Analysis LCA is to analyze the environmental impacts of

Colombian biofuels, sugar cane ethanol (EtOH) and palm oil biodiesel on the entire life cycle and

its comparison with the reference fossil fuels to Colombia (gasoline and diesel). In addition, to

identify the potential of optimization to produce friendlier bio-fuels to the environment and to

collect specific data required for the web tool developed for the LCA of SQCB (Sustainability

Quick Check Biofuels).


The functional unit on which all the consumptions of resources and environmental emissions

are referenced is a kilometer traveled by a vehicle (reference: Renault Logan in Colombia). All

resources consumptions and environmental emissions induced by this functional unit are

recorded on the entire life cycle, starting with the production of fertilizers for the cultivation of

energetic agriculture to the tailpipe emissions of a driven vehicle. Emissions and the impact of

resource consumption were assessed by calculating different indicators of environmental

impact, such as global warming potential GHG (GWP 100 years, IPCC) and the cumulative

demand for non-renewable energies (CED).

Carbon emissions from direct land use change are calculated according to the method of Level

1, proposed by the IPCC (IPCC 2006). The carbon exchange is calculated as the difference of

carbon in the soil surface biomass, below soil biomass, decomposed organic matter (DOM) and

soil organic carbon (SOC), before and after planting the sugar cane and the oil palm; the

changes in carbon reserves are analyzed over a period of 20 years (standard IPCC/EU). The year

of reference is 2000 and therefore, the use of land change in the plantations established before

the Millennium was not considered. (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Method to estimate the direct land use change. (Source: CUE)

Indirect land use change is produced when an additional crop is conducted in a previously

cultivated soil rather than in an uncultivated soil (Figure 3 point (2)). In this case, the direct effect

on the carbon balance can often be positive, going from extensive land use (such as grass) to a

crop of trees (such as oil palm). However, prior activity moves to other zones, generating a

sequence of displacements (3). The landslide can take place locally, when neighboring farmers


start cultivating the displaced product in order to satisfy local market demand. The displacement

can also be carried out on a large scale, if the displaced product is additionally requested in a

global market. Finally, the additional demand for the agricultural area is met by intensification of

the production (4) or may eventually lead to an expansion in non-cultivated areas (5).

Figure 3: Schematic view of indirect land use change (Source: CUE)

For this project it is assumed that displaced products are additionally produced in the respective

regions of Colombia. For instance, if oil palm crop is being expanded to grazing lands, the

respective amount of cattle grazing in the same region is assumed to displace the same

marginal surface area, assuming 100% of expansion (Figure 3). Assuming 100% of intensification,

the displaced cattle will keep in the rest of the land assuming a higher density of cattle without

moving in natural areas. The reality will be somewhere between these extremes. However, this

study estimated the case of 100% expansion in natural zones, as the worst case. Nevertheless, it

should be discussed in detail, to what extent the expansion effect may be discouraged by

intensification. In the present study both extremes are presented, indirect effect of land use and

the indirect expansion in natural areas, in order to reflect the impact magnitude.

This environmental assessment of the value chain of biofuels has been complemented by a

socio-economic assessment of production current conditions according to the biofuels Score –

Card from Inter-American Development Bank – IDB.


LCA Study boundaries

The assessment of environmental impacts in the life cycle usually requires a large set of data and

model assumptions. By collecting actual field values of the life cycle stages – such as the crop

and processing – and through the state of the art of the emission models, it was tried to

maximize the accuracy of the data.

The LCA study is static and reflects crop impacts and processing of sugar cane and oil palm in

2009. With the optimized scenario, improvement options were included in the study. The results

are not valid for other biofuel production technologies or for the future raw materials crop for

biofuels.

In addition, the study objective is to represent the national average impact of biofuels

production, and therefore results are not valid for individual plantations.

Although the study is broad, certain environmental factors were neglected. For instance, the

impact on fresh water caused by biofuels production is not considered within the LCA, but it is

included in the GIS component of the project (see chapter III).

Even when the LCA methodology is inadequate to assess environmental sustainability, it is not

to assess the social context in which these projects are implemented, or socio economic impacts

these generate. In order to obtain a complete view about sustainability, the LCA study results

should be interpreted in conjunction with the other assessments of the study (see chapters III

and IV).

2.2 Study Of The Geographic Information System (GIS)

In order to assess the future expansion potential of biofuels production in Colombia, it has

been conducted an extensive study on the suitability of lands in Colombia for the development

of sugar cane and oil palm crops, through an analysis based on Geographic Information Systems

– GIS - .

The suitability maps allow identifying general patterns of suitable areas, which provide a

scientific knowledge basis for an improved planning of land use and investment in sustainable

biofuels projects. The study also points out areas of interest, which require detailed research for

planning specific projects.

The assessment of the potential expansion suitability of sugar cane and oil palm is based on

a multicriteria approach, taking into account biophysical, legal, environmental and socio

economic aspects (see Figure 4).

First, climatic and biophysical characteristics are assessed to identify all the areas in

which sugar cane and oil palm could be cultivated.


Second, areas with legal priority restriction such as national parks or Indian reserves are

excluded.

Third, areas with some impact on biodiversity such as water shortages and Greenhouse

Gases (GHG) emissions are identified. This study is focused on the assessment of GHG

emissions related to the land use change, thanks to their importance to meet

sustainability certification schemes and the fact that this aspect has often been neglected

in yield studies based on current Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Fourth, socio-economic criteria (mainly based on existing research) were considered.

Finally, key suitability maps from all categories to discuss spatial potential expansion

suitability are obtained.

Figure 4: General view on the concept SIG. (Source: CUE)

Main aspects of the study scope

The study is conducted for all Colombia (geographic scope) for the year of reference 20091. In

most of the cases, the scale of the work is 1:500.000 and cell grids of 5 km x 5 km for raster

calculations. All maps are based on the system of projected coordinates “MAGNA-SIRGAS /

Zone Bogotá, Colombia”.

1 Some maps are before 2009 (respectively referenced)


Limitations of the GIS study

The GIS- based model, used to obtain the areas of potential expansion for biofuels raw materials

is based on a multicriteria approach. Below some general methodological boundaries on the

applied approach are discussed.

There are several definitions about a sustainable biofuel production and although some key

aspects were considered in this study, more criteria could have been added. (e.g. human rights).

Furthermore, each criterion used in this study can be considered in several ways. For instance,

biodiversity can be measured as the number of vascular plants species, animals, protected

species or other points.

Changes and seasonal fluctuations (e.g. annual average precipitation versus the number of dry

months) are relevant to determine crop suitability, but these have not always been taking into

account. Additionally, the study has a temporal scope and therefore requires a continuous

updating of base maps to properly reflect future developments.

The resolution used in this study (mainly 1:500.000) is adequate to identify general suitability

patterns nationwide. However, low resolution base maps do not reflect local circumstances;

therefore the base maps used in this study cannot be used plan specific biofuels projects.

Land use change

Current GHG studies show the importance of considering land use changes, concerning the

environmental yield of agricultural biofuels. According to Fargione et al. (2008), land use change

caused by biofuels production can lead to a “carbon debt” by releasing large amounts of CO2,

which was stored in the soil and above this. If oil palm plantations are established in a natural

forest, it would take 400 years for the carbon debt to be compensated by the amount of

produced biofuel2. Even if sugar cane plantations would be established in an old savanna, it

would take 17 years to pay this carbon debt (Fargione, Hill et al. 2008).

In this study was calculated the carbon debt for potential plantations of sugar cane and oil palm.

The general framework is illustrated in Figure 5.

2 Paying the carbon debt requires a GHG benefit to replace fossil fuels by biofuels.


Figure 5: Concept to model a GHG emissions map (Source: CUE)

The first step was to calculate GHG emissions related to Land Use Change (LUC). Then, the map

of biomass and soil carbon was established for land reference use in Colombia. Additionally,

reserves of biomass and soil carbon for raw material crops for biofuels were calculated and

potential changes in land reference use for sugar cane and oil palm crops were assessed.

The potential productivity map is used to express the change in carbon reserves as kg CO2 per

kg of raw material for biofuel (instead of CO2 kg per hectare). In crop stages, processing and

biofuels use, default values for GHG emissions were used. The final step was to calculate the

carbon debt and net profit if fossil fuels are replaced by biofuels.

Finally, LCA and GIS were combined to spatially assess greenhouse gases emissions for the value

chains of sugar cane ethanol and oil palm biodiesel, to identify suitable regions for energetic

crops expansion in Colombia.


3. PALM BIODIESEL

3.1 The palm in Colombia and its reflection in the study

Oil palm provides the highest yields per hectare of all oil crops currently (Corley and Tinker

2007). In general, about 20 tons of fresh fruit brunches (FFB) are produced per hectare/year.

Nowadays, palm exists in wild, semi-wild and it is cultivated in three main areas of the equatorial

tropics: Africa, South-East Asia, South and Central America, with oil palm of African origin. In

Colombia, oil palm was introduced in 1932, but only until the mid-20th century, oil palm growth

in Colombia began to be marketed throughout the country, supported by government policies

aimed at developing agricultural lands and to supply Colombia with locally produced oil palm.

(Fedepalma, 2006).

The planted area in 2008 is estimated at 336,956 hectares, representing an increase of 9.8%

(306.878 ha) over the previous year. From the total area, only 66% is in production, while the rest

of the crops is under development. The largest crops area is in the east, where it is located 36%

of the total planted area. 32% of the total planted area is in the northern zone, 26% in central

and 6% in the west (Fedepalma, 2009).

For this project and to establish the LCA study, it was chosen the main oil palm cultivation

area. From the study was excluded the west because in the last two years 16.700 oil palm crops

ha were lost (Fedepalma 2006) – due to the bud rot disease – and therefore, the focus is on the

Eastern, Central and North Zones. Three crops were used in the East, with a total area of 12.445

ha, four crops in the North (9.276 ha) and three crops in Colombia Center (5.850 ha). In total,

with the values used in this study, are represented about 26% of all palm crops linked to

biodiesel production in Colombia.

The data of oil palm processing plants for this study come from 4 companies that were

operating in 2009: Oleoflores, Biocosmbustibles Sostenibles del Caribe, Aceites Manuelita and

BioD, which represent a 65% of the total biodiesel production in Colombia (as measured by

installed capacity). The average is calculated as a weighted average value.

3.2 Inventory

Oil palm crop

Cultivating oil palm not only requires the right climate and soil. Obtaining maximum yields at

each production stage also depends on the quality of seeds used that are used; a rigorous

selection process of seedlings in the nursery, good soil preparation before planting, the correct

setting up of coverage plants and the correct use of fertilizers (Fedepalma 2009).

Generally, the life cycle of an oil palm begins in the nursery, where seedlings grow in

polyethylene bags for 10 to 20 months. Before planting the site must be leveled and all

vegetation to a radius of 1 m around the pit (deeper than 1 m) should be cleared. Commercial


oil palm plantations are normally established as monoculture fields using a symmetric spacing

of 9m x 9m.

Figure 6: Oil palm plantations in Colombia (Source: CUE)

Generally the oil palm begins production in the second or third year after planting. The yield

increases continuously and is stabilized after seven to ten years. In general, oil palm productivity

and growth is determined by the availability of water and nutrients, by the temperature and the

presence of pests and diseases. Oil palm production can last more than 50 years (Fedepalma

2006), however after 20 to 25 years; it is difficult to reap the oil palm due to its height (in this

study is used a lifespan of 25 years). After the plant has reached the maximum height, it is

injected with glyphosate to make it die or cut and the tree is cleared. The seeding is done in the

open field or among the dead palms.


Productivity:

Figure 7 shows the palm oil production per crop area with a national average of 19 tons of FFB

(Fresh Fruit Brunches) per hectare and year.

Figure 7: Productivity of oil palm in the research sites in the East (blue), North (orange) and Center

(green) of Colombia in tons of RFF per hectare and per year. Light colors reflect the productivity of

the sampled farms and dark colors show the average value of the region. The black bar indicates

the average national productivity and the gray bar represents the productivity provided by

Fedepalma. (Source: CUE and Fedepalma 2009).

Biodiesel production

In Colombia, the FFB installed milling capacity in 2009 was of 1.109 tons per hour. About 232

tons of crude oil per hour can be extracted from FFB. In recent years, the proportion of palm oil

that is processed for biodiesel is raising. Currently, the installed capacity of biodiesel plants is of

486.000 tons per year.

Biodiesel process can be basically divided into the following processes:

Palm oil extraction (including boiler and turbine)

Heavy FFB are discharged from the trucks on railway wagons and taken to the sterilization area.

The sterilization is carried out with low pressure steam for about 90 minutes. The fruits are

separated from the brunches by a mechanical process. The cob is transported in conveyors to

the trucks and then these are brought back to the camp for composting. Digestion is the

process in which the oil is released from the fruit through rupture of the oil container cells. The

commonly employed digester consists in a steam heated cylindrical container to which is

adjusted an agitator. By the action of the agitator, fruit are hit. The oil is cleared through a

gravity separation followed by a moisture reduction process through heating in tanks or by

atmospheric or vacuum drying.

The blend composed by fibers and nuts is separated. Nuts shells are broken and palm kernel

that passes through a drying silo to a press filter is cleared. Kernel oil is sold and palm kernel

cake is used as forage. The fiber and shell are collected and used as fuel in the boiler.


Oil refinery

The crude oil is filtered, it whitens and deodorizes (refined oil palm, bleached and deodorized or

RBD) using citric acid and bleaching lands.

Biodiesel plant

Refined oil can be used to produce biodiesel. In the trans esterification process, the esters are

transformed using methanol and a catalyst with the aim to produce biodiesel and glycerin as a

by-product.

Wastewater lagoon

The greatest amounts of wastewater are generated during the oil extraction process in the

extraction plant. The wastewater contains high amounts of organic matter and is generally

treated in open lagoons. Although the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of wastewaters is

drastically reduced, the treatment system has the disadvantage of emitting high methane

concentrations, a potent greenhouse gas (GHG). Therefore, the federation of the industry of oil

palm presented a Project Design Document (PDD) of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to

the UNFCCC in order to capture methane and burn it through the use of an anaerobic closed

reactor (Fedepalma 2006). In this study, future methane capture is taken into account in the

“optimized scenario”.

Glycerin Purification

The resulting glycerin in biodiesel production is crude glycerin that contains different

substances. Glycerin purification (up to 99%) is complicated since it has a high boiling point and

therefore distillation is energetically intensive.

The glycerin can be used crude or refined to technical grade or USP; depending on the market it

should be sent. For its use in cosmetic or pharmaceutical industry, it must be refined up to USP

grade.

Process and mass flow

Based on the data collected during field visits, in Colombia are produced about 20,3 biodiesel

tons per 100 FFB tons. In addition, about 2 palm kernel tons are produced as well as 2,9 palm

kernel cake tons and 2,9 crude glycerin tons. In addition, small amounts of soap result from the

process of biodiesel.

The following diagram only includes the main mass flows entering and leaving in the palm

biodiesel process. Products internally used (e.g. fibers and fart) do not appear in that way in the

diagram. Furthermore, the diagram reflects the general situation in Colombia and specific


diagrams of visited plants are slightly different. For instance, only two biodiesel plants have a

glycerin purification plant.

Figure 8: Mass flow in the production of Biodiesel per each 100 RFF’s tons. (Source: CUE based on

field visits)

3.3 Results

GHG Emissions

Figure 9 shows GHG emissions in the Colombian biodiesel life cycle. Using cultivation practices

and current technologies it can be directly reduced around 83% of GHG emissions per vehicle-

kilometer, compared with fossil diesel. The main optimization potential for the palm oil

production, in GHG terms, lies in the treatment of wastewater effluent, where currently

significant quantities of methane are emitted. With the capture of methane as it is proposed in

the umbrella project of MCD led by Fedepalma, GHG emissions from the processing stage could

be reduced (see Figure 9)(optimized vs. average).


Figure 9: Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG) over the entire life cycle for the conduction of a vehicle

with Colombian palm biodiesel. Average = current Colombian average; Optimized = Better

available technology; Scrub, Humid and Tropical Rainforest are the ones assumed as affected by

the expansion of the indirect land use; Diesel fossil = using average Diesel in Bogotá (reference)

Due to the fact of oil palm plantations store relatively high carbon amount compared to

grasslands, the direct land use improves GHG balance by approximately 25% since most of palm

plantations were established on lands that were before grasslands or that were used for

agriculture (Figure 9 – 2009 palm average, without iLUC).

Nevertheless, if palm plantations are established on lands that have been previously used as

grasslands or for agriculture it must be included indirect land use changes since displaced

agricultural products can be produced in other part, leading to an expansion of the cultivated

area to natural ecosystems. Figure 9 shows the potential effects of an indirect expansion towards

different ecosystems. If the displaced crops are expanded into bushes, the net GHG savings

would be even greater to 40% indicating compliance with international standards for biofuels as

well as with RED (Renewable Energy Directive). However, if rainforests of humid forests are

affected, the GHG savings are fully compensated or even over-compensated.

The results shown in Figure 9 suggest that land use changes, direct and indirect, are the most

important factors for carbon balance of Colombian biodiesel. Consequently, the assessment of

carbon reserves changes is highly important for the assessment of the biofuels potential

expansion.


Potential expansion

Figure 10 shows the results of the spatial potential mapping for oil palm expansion. The map

excludes protected areas and the ones that are not suitable for edapho-climatic (soil and

climatic conditions) criteria, areas with less than 40% of GHG savings, critical zones of

biodiversity, agricultural areas and areas with no access to roads. In this sense, the map presents

areas where it is generally expected that the indirect effects of additional palm crops would be

low.

Figure 10: Oil Palm aptitude, excluding protected and biophysically unsuitable areas, which have

less than 40% of savings in GHG, biodiversity critical points, agricultural areas and limited access

areas (orange areas) Source: CUE


A total of 1.053.000 ha have been identified as highly suitable for palm crops, and 2.948.000 ha

are identified as moderately suitable (Figure 10, numbers in figure 17).

Most of the highly and moderately suitable areas are in the Eastern foothills of the Andes

mountain range, en Caquetá and Meta (Figure 10). Both regions have already been proven to be

suitable for oil palm plantations and especially in Meta, where it has already been planted palm

crops on large land plots. However, the risk in Caquetá and parts of Meta is that the increment

of palm crops increases pressure on rainforest areas.

In order to prevent indirect effects of land use for the expansion of raw materials production, it

is necessary to question the adaptability. Another very suitable area is located along the

Magdalena River (Antioquia, Santander y Bolivar) and especially near to the River in Magdalena

Department delta (on the western side of Sierra Nevada Santa Marta). In addition, some parts of

Cesar located along Cesar River are also suitable to palm crops. Cordoba and northern

Antioquia are marginal and moderately suitable for palm crop. Nevertheless, in all areas,

management and land use should be assessed with more detailed studies, to avoid unfavorable

land use changes induced by a project implementation.

The Pacific Coast has been identified as unsuitable for oil palm cultivation mainly due to heavy

rainfall, the phreatic level and other edapho-climatic (soil and climatic conditions) parameters

that constitute a severe limitation for the establishment of new palm plantations. Additionally,

the land is assigned to black and indigenous communities so that availability is limited.

Furthermore, these areas are mainly covered by forests and woodlands, and the conversion

would lead to biodiversity loss, water reserves decrease and GHG emissions. Also rainfall

patterns and limited roads access make the area unsuitable for palm cultivation. While on the

other hand, the distance to ports (to export) would be very close.

As shown in Figure 10 (orange area) low biomass lands from Vichada present areas with

potential expansion. However, these areas are currently difficult to access and therefore they are

considered as unsuitable areas. Nevertheless, by investing in new transport infrastructure, the

areas could be potentially used for oil palm cultivation.


4. ETHANOL FROM SUGAR CANE

4.1. Sugar cane in Colombia and its reflection in the study

In 1540 sugar cane was brought to Cali by Sebastian de Belalcazar and it spreads throughout

the Cauca River basin (Cenicaña 2011). The Geographic Valley of Cauca River is well suited for

sugar cane production due to high solar radiation and favorable rain conditions. This expansion

of sugar cane was mainly in the period known as “La Violencia” between 1946 and 1958, leading

to the consolidation of its control over sugar cane market in Colombia (Mondragón 2007).

Nowadays they are cultivated 216.768 hectares, from which 24% belong to sugar mills and 76%

to 2700 individual sugar cane farmers (Asocaña 2011).

The main objective of the study is to establish the LCA representative results, which show the

average production of sugar cane production in Colombia and also show the variations in the

results, depending on the different cropping systems. In order to establish representative

inventories, the selection of the study sites in the Cauca River Geographical Valley was based on

the following criteria:

The sampled crop, deliver cane to one of five companies that produce ethanol in 2009.

The crop is representative in terms of agro-ecological conditions (soil type and moisture).

The crop is representative in terms of size.

Within the total area of sugar crops (216.768 ha) they were only taken into account the crops

that supply the harvested cane to sugar mills with an ethanol plant attached (134.006 ha), while

the remaining crops do not influence the environmental yield of ethanol from sugar cane.

The most representative agro-ecological zones were selected by taking into account: soil type

and moisture. In general, there are 238 different soil categories and 6 moisture types. However,

7 agro-ecological zones represent 29% of 134.006 hectares.

Finally, 9 farms were selected, from which 7 could be visited to obtain successful interviews.

These seven questionnaires represent a total area of 32.215 ha, which represent the 24% from

the total area.

In order to establish a set of representative data of ethanol production in Colombia, it was

collected data from four of the five ethanol plants (90% sample). The average was calculated as

a weighted average for most of the inputs and outputs of matter and energy.


4.2 Inventory

Cultivation

The most common sugar cane cultivation system is row cropping, either on the flat or on ridges.

Before planting the crop, the land is prepared by removing roots and stones, disrupting the

existing plough pans, draining the soil if necessary, providing adequate tilt and improving soil

conditions. Once the land is prepared, cuttings (vegetative propagation) are brought on the field

and the crop cycle starts (Ellis and Merry 2007). The crop cycle can be classified into four phases

(Figure 11).

Figure 11: Sugar cane crop cycle (Netafim 2011)

Due to favorable climatic conditions and good farming practices, Colombia has a high yield

average of 14,6 tons of sugar per hectare per year, the average annual productivity is around

120 tons cane/ha at north of Cauca River Geographical Valley, 127 tons cane/ha at north and

105 tons cane/ha in the south (Asocaña 2011).

As shown in Figure 12 the selected plantations productivity ranged between 91 and 142 t/ha,

with an average of 114 t/ha (weighted average according to the zone.)


Figure 12: Productivity of sugarcane for the studied sites in cane tons per HA (Source: CUE based

on field study)

In order to compensate the losses caused by evapotranspiration during dry periods, most of the

sugar cane crops in the Cauca River Geographic Valley, should be irrigated (Aguas 1995). In

addition to climatic conditions, the quantity of water for irrigating depends on the technique

used to irrigate. The prevailing irrigation system in the study sites is the open channel by gravity

and some others use more efficient piping systems.

Depending on the location and the irrigation technique, the amount of irrigated water range

between 1800 and 6250 m3 per hectare per year. Therefore the quantity of irrigated water is

between 20 and 75 kg per sugar cane ton.

The harvest includes burning (if applicable), cutting, loading the wagons and transporting the

cane to the mill. In general, transporting and processing the sugar cane must be realized within

36 hours after burning or green-cut to avoid sucrose losses.

Figure 13: Green manual harvest (left) and load of cane cut after the pre-harvest burning (right).

(Source: EMPA)

Manual harvest of green and burned sugar cane involves cutting with machete, the load in

wagons and transporting the sugar cane to the factory. To load the transport wagons in Valle

del Cauca mechanical lifters are generally used, which have hydraulic arms.


Ethanol Production

The installed capacity of sugar cane ethanol production is 1.050.000 liters per day.

In this study, the ethanol production process is divided into four processes:

Sugar mill (includes boilers and turbines)

The cane that comes from the camp is weighed in scales and it is carried to the yards where it is

stored in wagons or baskets. Then, it is carried to the chopping machines and/or shredders,

equipped with blades which spin at high speed, under which the cane mattress passes, which is

fractionated, opening the cells to facilitate the extraction of the juice that it contains.

The prepared cane goes to windmills of three or four maces. These maces are metal rollers

between which the mattress of prepared cane passes and the juice that contains sucrose is

extracted by pressing it, so that it is sent to the sugar elaboration process. In the course of the

cane for the mill, it is added water for the juices desaturation and to extract the sucrose

contained by the fibrous material.

The bagasse that comes from the last milling unit is carried to the boilers in order to use it as

fuel so that it produces thermal energy (sugary juices evaporation and baking operations) and

electrical energy (requested from the sugar-mill and sale to the public).

The juice that is extracted from the mills is sulphited, lime is added to precipitate the impurities

and it is heated to a temperature of 102-105°C.

The alkalized hot juice goes through a flash tank, where incondensable gases are released.

Immediately, the juice is fed the clarifiers, where the flocculated insoluble solids are separated

from the juice, sedimenting them in mud form.

The muds go through a sucrose recovery process by filtration. The resultant juice called filtered

juice is returned to the process and it is mixed with the juice coming from the mills.

Cleared juice is received in multi effect evaporators and it is concentrated from 15° to 60° -

70°brix. This concentrated juice is called Syrup. The syrup obtained from the evaporators is later

cleared.

The sucrose contained in the syrup gets crystallizes, carrying it to the super saturation level by

vacuum evaporation in simple effect evaporators (tachos). The resulting material containing

liquid (honey) and crystals (sugar) is called cooked mass. The crystals are separated from honey

in centrifuges. After successive crystallizations, depleted honey or C honey is obtained, which

is sold for animal feeding; for those mills with ethanol plant, only two crystallizations are made,

and the obtained honey (Honey B) is sent to the distilleries as feedstock for fuel alcohol

production.


Ethanol Plant

The main processes for ethanol production are:

Fermentation: Raw materials for alcohol production are: cleared juice, syrup and honey B from

the sugar factory. Fermentation to produce ethanol is a microbiological process in which the

sugars contained in the raw materials are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide by the

yeast. The fermented must or the wine coming from the final fermenter contains alcohol diluted

in water and yeast; this is taken to a settling tank where the yeast is decanted, leaving by the

bottom, then, it is sent to the yeast activation tank, while the liquid known as wine is sent to the

distillation process.

Distillation: The wine contains alcohol diluted in water and other impurities that must be

separated from the alcohol through distillation process.

The obtained vapors in the first distillation column contain approximately 45% of alcohol and

these are sent to the rectifying column, from which, by the top, rectified alcohol is obtained

containing 95% of ethanol. On the bottom, water flows with some alcohol traces, a residue

known as “flemaza”.

Dehydration: The alcohol that has been rectified during the distillation contains 95% v/v of

ethanol and 5% v/v of water. To use this alcohol as a fuel, it is necessary to remove more water

and it is done by using a molecular sieve, which by means of a synthetic resin retains the water

contained in the rectified alcohol, to obtain dehydrated alcohol as a product with a

concentration of 99.5% ethanol and a minimum amount of water.

Concentration of vinasse: A part of the vinasse coming from the must column is recycled in the

fermentation process and the rest is carried to flubex evaporators, which give water as steam to

concentrate the vinasse, aiming to reduce the amount and facilitate its subsequent treatment.

Wastewater treatment plant: Wastewaters treatment plant of the distillery receives spent lees

and condensates from the vinasse concentration.

Composting: The industrial composting plant processes organic residues generated in the

sugar and ethanol production, such as: filter cake, ash, agricultural waste and concentrated

vinasse, transforming them into a stable and sanitized product applicable in agriculture as

organic fertilizer or as soil improver.

Process and mass flow: Based on field data from this study, 9,3 tons of sugar and 2 ton of

EtOH are produced in average in Colombia per 100 ton of sugar cane. Bagasse, as a by-product,

is mainly used to generate steam and electricity, while the surplus energy is sold to the grid.

Further, the organic byproducts are used to produce compost or they are treated in a waste

water plant.


Figure 14: Mass flow of ethanol production by 100 tons of sugar cane. (Source: CUE based on field

visits)

4.3 Results

Figure 15 shows that Colombian ethanol from sugar cane has a potential reduction of about

74% of GHG emissions compared to fossil fuels, if indirect land use changes (iLUC) are not

considered (Figure 15 without iLUC). This favorable GHG balance is mainly caused by relatively

low GHG agricultural emissions. Sophisticated agricultural practices and favorable climatic

conditions in the principal region for sugar cane cultivation in Colombia along Cauca River result

in a high productivity and resource efficiency.

The result does not depend on the allocation method, since economic and energetic factors are

similar. Also, considering technological improvement options (efficient co-generation and CO2

liquid recovery) do not influence significantly GHG emission per vehicle – kilometer (Figure 15,

average vs. optimized)-



vehicle with Colombian ethanol of sugar cane. Average= current Colombian average, Optimized =

Best available technology; Scrub, Humid and Tropical Rainforest are the ones assumed as affected

by the expansion of the indirect land use (iLUC); Diesel fossil = using average diesel in Bogotá

(reference)

In environmental terms , the most critical part in bioethanol production is the crop phase,

therefore these GHG savings can only be achieved by implementing the best agricultural

practices, which does not cause pressures on natural areas.

Since sugar cane plantations in the Cauca River Geographical Valley has already been

established before 2000 – the reference year for assessment by land use change – effects by the

direct land use change are not considered.

However, before starting ethanol production in Colombia, sugar cane was used for sugar

production to export. The reduction in sugar exportation could be compensated by an increase

in cane plantations elsewhere. Consequently, they could be expected some indirect effects

(iLUC) if crop areas are expanded to other suitable areas in Colombia (grasslands or agricultural

zones). Depending on the affected natural ecosystems (bushes, rainforest, tropical rainforest),

the GHG balance of sugar cane ethanol on fossil fuel is around 55% if bushes are affected, up to

160% if rainforest are affected compared to the reference fossil fuel, which is the 100%. It should

be noted that lower values mean a reduction in GHG emissions and higher values represent an

increase.


Potential Expansion

Nowadays, around 40.000 ha of sugar cane plantations are active in bioethanol production, but

there is a great potential expansion up to 1.518.000 ha, which are highly suitable, and to

3.400.000 ha of moderately suitable areas (Figure 17).

Figure 16: Sugar cane aptitude. Sugar cane aptitude excludes the protected areas and the

unsuitable areas according to edapho-climatic (soil and climatic conditions) criteria, areas with

less than 40% of savings in GHG, critical biodiversity zones, agricultural areas and limited access

areas (orange areas). Source: CUE

Cane plantations

Cane - Aptitude

Unsuitable - conditional

Suitable with severe restrictions

Suitable with moderate restrictions

Suitable


Most of the moderately suitable areas are in the Eastern foothills of the Andes Mountain, Meta

and Caquetá (Figure 16). However, sugar cane crops in Caquetá and some parts of Meta, as is

the case for oil palm crops, have the risk to increase the pressure on rainforest areas. For this

reason, before establishing sugar cane crops in this zone, there should be conducted evaluations

and additional research on the potential effect of indirect land use, considering land

management to evaluate the real potential effect that the cane crop could have on suitability

indicators.

The departments of Cesar, Córdoba and Magdalena are identified as highly suitable areas for

sugar cane cultivation. In general, cane plantations at North must be designed to ensure water

availability. Also valleys in Tolima, Huila and Cauca River are suitable, although they show limited

potential for expansion.

The Pacific Coast has been identified as unsuitable for sugar cane cultivation for many reasons:

First, high rainfall level is not suitable for sugar cane cultivation, and the areas that are mainly

covered by forests, so that conversion would lead to biodiversity loss, reduction in water

supplies and GHG emissions. Furthermore, the land is allocated to black and indigenous

communities, therefore the availability is restricted. It has also limited road access. On the other

hand, the distance to possible ports (to export) would be very close, but the construction of

road and port infrastructure in this area could generate a significant environmental impact, so

that careful studies on the theme are needed.

As Figure 16 shows (orange), especially low biomass lands from Vichada and Meta present areas

with potential expansion. However, these areas are currently difficult to access; therefore these

are considered as unsuitable. Nevertheless, by investing in new transport infrastructure, the

areas could be potentially use for sugar cane cultivation.


5. CONCLUSIONS

5.1 GHG emissions

The study conducted in this project shows that GHG emissions of the biofuels produced in

Colombia can be reduced in a 74% and 83%, using sugar cane ethanol and oil palm biodiesel

respectively; compared with those produced by the use of fossil fuels they replace (gasoline and

diesel). These percentages include direct land use change (LUC), but they do not include indirect

land use (iLUC). If all biofuels existing plants in Colombia would operate at full capacity, these

could be reduced about 1.8 million of CO2 tons eq./year. This is equivalent to around 3% of

total Colombian CO2 emissions in 2008, or to 8% of emissions caused by the transport sector in

Colombia (UNEP 2010).

Compared to other international biofuels, Colombian biofuels have a good yield and they meet

the minimum 40% GHG reduction, as many biofuels standards set (RSB, CARB 2009, TC383,

EU-RED). Thus, Colombian biofuels exportation can be benefit from the different subsidy

mechanisms for the “sustainable” biofuels international market. However, it could be conducted

an individual sustainability assessment on plantations and processing, while this study provides

an overview on the national average and the impacts range. It is therefore necessary that the

recommendations presented in this study would be locally verified for each individual case in

order to assess whether each plantation and processing facility meets the standards or not.

In general, GHG balance is very sensitive to the agricultural stage development, especially to

crops efficiency and productivity, practices in harvesting stage and land use changes. GHG palm

biodiesel emissions are reduced from 46% to 17% if direct land use change is also considered.

GHG improved balance is caused due to relatively high carbon stocks of oil plantation biomass,

compared to grasslands and cropland. However, the replacement of productive lands for sugar

cane or oil palm expansion could cause indirect effects of land use change (iLUC), since

displaced crops could be developed on other areas. This mechanism could lead to either

intensification or to the expansion of productive lands to natural ecosystems. If it is considered

the “worst case” of expansion into natural forest systems, GHG emissions could become the

double that fossil fuels emissions. Thus, the amount of GHG emitted is highly sensitive to the

land use effect. Since these effects follow complex mechanisms and largely depend on local

conditions, so that it is recommended to conduct a deep study for the planned biofuels

plantations on local mechanisms and develop individual land use plans including mitigation

actions. These actions may include the intensification of existing cultivation areas, promoting

land expansion into low carbon reserves such as bushes or the agricultural practices

implementation that protect existing carbon reserves and the biodiversity (i.e. silvo-pastoralism

techniques).


Sugar cane ethanol and oil palm biodiesel consume around 5 times less non-renewable energy,

compared to fossil fuels. The relatively low fossil fuel demand for sugar cane ethanol and palm

biodiesel is mainly related to the fact that the lignocellulose material is used for cogeneration.

The demand for fossil fuels can even be reduced, improving the efficiency of boilers and

turbines and also using crop residues as energy. However, future comparisons should also

assess the advantages and disadvantages in terms of costs and nutrient cycle interruption.

Considering also other environmental indicators in addition to GHG emissions and demand

for renewable energy, biofuels generally show higher impacts than fossil fuels, but lower than

the average of international biofuels. The impacts on acidification, eutrophication, and eco-

toxicity are mainly caused by the application of fertilizers and pesticides. These negative effects

can be minimized with the implementation of the best agricultural practices and considering

alternative treatments, such as biological insects and pests’ control. In this sense, international

and national research (especially by Cenicaña and Cenipalma) and the dissemination –

implementation of the latest findings are crucial for the environmental efficient-friendly

cultivation.

Finally, the choice of the vehicle directly affects fuel consumption, therefore the environmental

impact generated during the use stage (this is, less fuel amount to travel the same amount of

miles when using more efficient vehicles). Policy instruments aiming to promote biofuels use

should be complemented by the promotion of efficient vehicles and transport alternatives (e.g.

public transport use).


5.2 Potential expansion

This study demonstrates that there is a considerable potential expansion for both oil palm

cultivation (4.001.000 ha) and sugar cane cultivation (4.918.000 ha) (Figure 17).

Figure 17: Areas of potential expansion in Colombia for oil palm cultivation (left) and sugarcane

(right)

Usually, suitable areas for oil palm and sugar cane are overlapped, since many exclusion criteria

are valid for both raw materials (e.g. protected areas or forests). However, highly suitable areas

are very different, with a preference for oil palm in Caquetá and Meta and a preference for sugar

cane in Magdalena, Cesar and Córdoba. Also, areas in Vichada proved to be moderately suitable

for biofuel feedstock cultivation, if transport infrastructure improve significantly.

The study showed that a GHG emission caused by the land use change is a key factor that

determines land suitability for feedstock cultivation for biofuels. Depending on the previously

existing land use, the carbon debt compensation period due to land use change covers up to

several hundred years (if humid rainforest areas are cleared). This indicates that only areas with

low carbon stock, such as mountain bushes or grasslands are suitable for biofuel feedstock

cultivation. Agricultural land is generally unsuitable for biofuel feedstock cultivation because

of possible indirect land use changes (or to affect food security). However, by using former

grasslands there is also a risk of causing a strain on natural ecosystems thanks to the indirect

land use (e.g. in Caquetá, grasslands are located close to forests).


It must be implemented a sophisticated land use planning and specific actions (i.e. land

intensification) or to avoid already used land in order to mitigate these indirect effects.

Overall, this study identifies suitable focus areas for biofuel feedstock potential national

expansion. The results provide a scientific knowledge base for strategic planning (i.e. sustainable

land use planning) and these could draw attention to sustainable investment in biofuels.

However, it requires more detailed analysis based on higher resolution maps, which are

frequently updated and refine the set of criteria, in order to plan specific biofuels projects.


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Documents

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