Examining the Father-Child Examining the Father-Child Relationship: Intact vs. Not Relationship: Intact vs. Not Intact Families and Child Intact Families and Child Outcomes of Academic Outcomes of Academic

Performance, Conduct, and Performance, Conduct, and Self-Esteem Self-Esteem

Ashley ReckerAshley Recker

Hanover CollegeHanover College

Hanover, INHanover, IN

Intact vs. Not IntactIntact vs. Not Intact

Intact families: Biological father Intact families: Biological father and biological mother either and biological mother either living together or married. living together or married.

Not intact families: Biological Not intact families: Biological father and biological mother are father and biological mother are either divorced, separated, or the either divorced, separated, or the biological father/other male biological father/other male influence is nonexistent. influence is nonexistent.

Parenting StylesParenting Styles Parenting styles are normal variations in the ways in Parenting styles are normal variations in the ways in

which parents socialize and control their children.which parents socialize and control their children.

AuthoritatAuthoritativeive

AuthoritarAuthoritarianian

PermissivPermissivee

UninvolveUninvolvedd

ResponsivenessHigh Low

Dem

an

din

gn

es

s

Low

H

igh

(Baumrind, 1991; Shaffer, 1999)(Baumrind, 1991; Shaffer, 1999)

Responsiveness and Responsiveness and AffectAffect

The amount of support and affection a The amount of support and affection a parent displays towards their child. parent displays towards their child.

(Shaffer, 1999)(Shaffer, 1999) Associated with predicting social Associated with predicting social

competence and psychosocial competence and psychosocial development. development.

(Darling, 1999)(Darling, 1999) When not responsive: children tend to When not responsive: children tend to

associate with deviant peers and show associate with deviant peers and show greater levels of externalizing greater levels of externalizing behaviors.behaviors.

(Kim, Hethering, & Reiss, 1999)(Kim, Hethering, & Reiss, 1999)

Hostile and neglectful Hostile and neglectful parenting styles are parenting styles are associated with aggression, associated with aggression, deviant behaviors, and deviant behaviors, and adjustment problems.adjustment problems.

Warm and responsive Warm and responsive parenting styles predict parenting styles predict social competence and social competence and cooperative behavior.cooperative behavior.

(Chen, Liu, & Li, 2000)(Chen, Liu, & Li, 2000)

The Difference The Difference between Mother and between Mother and

Father RolesFather Roles Mothers usually take Mothers usually take

on custodial/routine on custodial/routine caregiving roles (e.g., caregiving roles (e.g., feeding and cleaning).feeding and cleaning).

Fathers tend to engage Fathers tend to engage in more social in more social stimulation and stimulation and interactive activities interactive activities (e.g., play and helping (e.g., play and helping with homework).with homework).

(Jain, Belsky & Crnic, 1996; Yeung, et (Jain, Belsky & Crnic, 1996; Yeung, et al., 2001)al., 2001)

Benefits of the Benefits of the FatherFather

Father availability Father availability and involvement and involvement is associated with is associated with academic success academic success as well as socio-as well as socio-emotional and emotional and cognitive well-cognitive well-being/gains in being/gains in school-age school-age children.children.

(Howard, & Lefever, et al., 2006)(Howard, & Lefever, et al., 2006)

More frequent and regular More frequent and regular contact with the father is contact with the father is associated with more intense associated with more intense relationships and fewer relationships and fewer adjustment problems in adjustment problems in children.children.

(Dunn, Cheng, O’Connor, & Bridges, 2004)(Dunn, Cheng, O’Connor, & Bridges, 2004)

So, why is the So, why is the father-child father-child relationship relationship important?important? Since 1960, the number of Since 1960, the number of

births to unmarried mothers births to unmarried mothers has increased 6 times.has increased 6 times.

Fathers may act as a buffer to Fathers may act as a buffer to children whose mothers are children whose mothers are high risk.high risk.(Howard, Lefever, Borkowski, & Whitman, 2006)(Howard, Lefever, Borkowski, & Whitman, 2006)

Even in intact families, the Even in intact families, the level of father-child level of father-child engagement decreases with engagement decreases with age.age.

A father’s earnings have a A father’s earnings have a negative effect on their level negative effect on their level of involvement with their of involvement with their children during the week.children during the week.

On weekends this effect is On weekends this effect is positive.positive.

(Yeung & Sandberg, et al., 2001)(Yeung & Sandberg, et al., 2001)

Research Research QuestionQuestion

Does family status (intact Does family status (intact or not intact) effect child or not intact) effect child outcomes in the areas of outcomes in the areas of academic performance, academic performance, conduct, and self-esteem?conduct, and self-esteem?

It is Hypothesized It is Hypothesized that….that….

Individuals of intact families will have Individuals of intact families will have more positive outcomes than those of not more positive outcomes than those of not intact families in regards to academic intact families in regards to academic performance, conduct, and self-esteem.performance, conduct, and self-esteem.

Individuals whose father-child Individuals whose father-child relationship is more negative, regardless relationship is more negative, regardless of whether or not they come from intact of whether or not they come from intact or not intact families, will report more or not intact families, will report more negative outcomes in academic negative outcomes in academic performance, conduct, and self-esteem.performance, conduct, and self-esteem.

MethodMethod Participants:Participants:

232 males and females 232 males and females Online self report Online self report

questionnaire:questionnaire: DemographicsDemographics Father-Child RelationshipFather-Child Relationship Academic PerformanceAcademic Performance Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem ConductConduct

Measuring the Father-Measuring the Father-Child RelationshipChild Relationship

Father Autonomy Support – 9 Father Autonomy Support – 9 itemsitems

Father Involvement – 6 itemsFather Involvement – 6 items Father Warmth – 6 itemsFather Warmth – 6 items

(The POPS Scale for College Students: Grolnick, Ryan & Deci, 1991)(The POPS Scale for College Students: Grolnick, Ryan & Deci, 1991)

(Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.919)(Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.919)

Academic Academic Performance, Self-Performance, Self-Esteem, & ConductEsteem, & Conduct

Academic performance:Academic performance: Author created scaleAuthor created scale

Self-Esteem:Self-Esteem: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Rosenberg Self-Esteem

ScaleScale(Rosenberg, 1965)(Rosenberg, 1965)

Conduct:Conduct: Self-Report Delinquency Self-Report Delinquency

ScaleScale(Elliot & Ageton, 1980)(Elliot & Ageton, 1980)

ResultsResultsOriginal number of data Original number of data

entries:entries:273273

Deleted:Deleted: 19 - Did not complete19 - Did not complete 6 - Replicated6 - Replicated 16 - Age (under 18)16 - Age (under 18)

Final number of participants:Final number of participants:232232

DemographicsDemographicsFamily Status:Family Status:

62% Intact62% Intact38% Not Intact38% Not Intact

8% father deceased8% father deceased2.6% step father or other 2.6% step father or other male figure presentmale figure present

IntactIntact Not IntactNot Intact

Age: 18-24Age: 18-24 68.1%68.1% 70.5%70.5%

25-3425-34 24.3%24.3% 21.6%21.6%

35-5835-58 7.6%7.6% 8.0%8.0%

Gender: MaleGender: Male 31.0%31.0% 28.0%28.0%

FemaleFemale 69.0%69.0% 72.0%72.0%

Ethnicity: WhiteEthnicity: White 74.3%74.3% 70.5%70.5%

Afr. Am.Afr. Am. 9.0%9.0% 10.2%10.2%

OtherOther 15.4%15.4% 11.3%11.3%

Table 1.Demographics

IntactIntact Not IntactNot Intact

Biological FatherBiological Father 93.0%93.0% 85.2%85.2%

Step FatherStep Father 0.0%0.0% 6.8%6.8%

Sig. Other Male FigureSig. Other Male Figure 6.0%6.0% 2.3%2.3%

No Male FigureNo Male Figure 0.0%0.0% 5.7%5.7%

Table 2.Who Survey is About

Comparing Family Status Comparing Family Status and Father-Child and Father-Child

RelationshipsRelationships Father Warmth:Father Warmth:

tt(230)=2.72, (230)=2.72, p =p =.007.007 Intact Intact MM= 4.69, Not Intact = 4.69, Not Intact MM=4.30=4.30

Father Autonomy Support:Father Autonomy Support: tt(230)=2.13, (230)=2.13, p =p =.03.03 Intact Intact MM= 4.37, Not Intact = 4.37, Not Intact MM=4.10=4.10

Father Involvement:Father Involvement: tt(230)=4.70, (230)=4.70, p < p < .001.001 Intact Intact MM= 4.69, Not Intact = 4.69, Not Intact MM=4.30=4.30

Family Status and Family Status and Child OutcomesChild Outcomes

Academic Performance: Not Academic Performance: Not significantsignificantNumber of times held backNumber of times held backGPAGPAHighest level of educationHighest level of educationTutoring/Academic HelpTutoring/Academic Help Involvement in extracurricular activityInvolvement in extracurricular activity

Conduct: Not Conduct: Not significantsignificantAssaultAssaultRobberyRobberyDrug UseDrug UseAlcohol UseAlcohol UseDisorderly ConductDisorderly Conduct

Self Esteem: Not Self Esteem: Not significantsignificant

Father-Child Father-Child Relationships and Relationships and Child OutcomesChild Outcomes

Self-esteem:Self-esteem:rr= 0.196, = 0.196, pp= 0.003= 0.003

Involvement in extracurricular Involvement in extracurricular activity:activity:rr= -0.169, = -0.169, pp= 0.01= 0.01

What this means:What this means: Family status has no significant Family status has no significant

impact on child outcomes.impact on child outcomes. Academic performanceAcademic performance ConductConduct Self-esteemSelf-esteem

Family status does influence father-Family status does influence father-child relationships.child relationships. Intact families= increased father Intact families= increased father

warmth, father autonomy support, warmth, father autonomy support, and father involvement.and father involvement.

The father-child The father-child relationship is important relationship is important

regardless of family regardless of family statusstatus

Father-child relationships do Father-child relationships do influence some child outcomes.influence some child outcomes. Father Autonomy Support, Father Autonomy Support,

Involvement, and Warmth all impact:Involvement, and Warmth all impact:Involvement in extracurricular Involvement in extracurricular activityactivity

Self-esteemSelf-esteem

LimitationsLimitations It is difficult to classify family status.It is difficult to classify family status.

E.g. Married but not living together, E.g. Married but not living together, Married/living under the same roof but Married/living under the same roof but father deceased.father deceased.

Measures of the Father-Child Measures of the Father-Child relationship are perceived by the relationship are perceived by the child.child.

Study does not include young Study does not include young children.children. Family status may play a greater role in Family status may play a greater role in

younger years when parents are the younger years when parents are the main support system.main support system.

Future ResearchFuture Research AgeAge

Children vs. AdultsChildren vs. Adults Young Adults vs. Older AdultsYoung Adults vs. Older Adults

Include ratings by parents for Include ratings by parents for involvement, warmth, autonomy involvement, warmth, autonomy support.support.

If possible, include teacher ratings for If possible, include teacher ratings for conduct and academic performance.conduct and academic performance.

Continue to explore the impact of the Continue to explore the impact of the father-child relationship in regards to father-child relationship in regards to family status.family status.

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Howard, K., Lefever, J., Borkowski, J., & Whitman, T. (2006). Father’s influence in the lives of children with adolescent mothers. Howard, K., Lefever, J., Borkowski, J., & Whitman, T. (2006). Father’s influence in the lives of children with adolescent mothers. Journal of Journal of Family Psychology, 20Family Psychology, 20(3), 468-476.(3), 468-476.

Kim, J., Hetherington, M., & Reiss, D. (1999). Associations among family relationships, antisocial peers, and adolescents’ externalizing Kim, J., Hetherington, M., & Reiss, D. (1999). Associations among family relationships, antisocial peers, and adolescents’ externalizing behaviors: Gender and family type differences. behaviors: Gender and family type differences. Child Development, 70Child Development, 70(5), 1209-1230. (5), 1209-1230.

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Shaffer, D. (1999). Shaffer, D. (1999). Developmental Psychology, Childhood and Adolescence Developmental Psychology, Childhood and Adolescence (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

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Questions?Questions?