Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
TANZANIA OPEN SCHOOL AND PUBLISHING HOUSE
10
EVOLUTION OF PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSES ON EDUCATION: A
CLARIFICATION
CAJETAN K. MAGANGA
2
EVOLUTION OF PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSES ON EDUCATION: A
CLARIFICATION
CAJETAN K. MAGANGAB.A. (Ed. Hons.) East Africa, M.A. (Ed.) Dar es Salaam, Doctor of Arts
in Education, Belford.
2
3
Preface
Education as a human undertaking has always been underpinned by some
philosophical considerations. There is always a raison d’être for every
human deliberate engagement. All practices are pursued to meet some
deliberate ends. Aristotle expresses this as follows: “Every art and every
enquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some
good, and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to that at which
all things aim”. (Aristotle in Nichomachean Ethics).
Philosophical discourses on education have always been conceived in
pursuit of the most appropriate ends of education for any given community
during each period of that community’s existence. Many thinkers and
philosophers of education have advanced and have advocated varying aims
and raisons d’être of education to meet the needs of their communities.
This book is a review and a clarification of different selected philosophical
discourses that have been advanced during the existence of education as a
professional field among various communities in the world. The book is not
an exhaustive account of the evolution of philosophical discourses on
education. It merely high-lights some of the most of influential discourses
that have tended to prevail over the period of existence of education as
profession.
3
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One: Introduction and Overview -------------------------------page 5
Chapter Two: Philosophical Discourses on Education in the Pre-Socrates to the Post-Socrates Era ------------------------------------------------------- page 13Chapter Three: Post Ancient Greek Era to Seventeenth Century
Discourses-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----page 55
Chapter Four: Philosophical Discourses on Education in the Period from the Seventeenth Century to the Twentieth Century ----------------------page 96Chapter Five: Philosophical Discourses on Education in the Twentieth Century to the Twenty-First Century -------------------------------------page123Appendix: I Principles of Education: Lectures -------------------------page 193 Appendix II: Proceedings of World Conference on Education for All at Jomtien: ----------------------------------------------------------------------page 286Appendix III: Dakar Framework of Action--------------------------- page 289
4
5
Chapter One
Introduction and Overview
1.0 Clarifying a Discourse
Clarifying a discourse means expressing it in a clearer form than its initial
expression. According to Gerald Klarung (2008, in Runes, Dagabert, D.
Dictionary of Philosophy (Runes 1942) (www.ditext.co/runes/), philosophical
clarifications are syntheses of expressions that are clearer than their
antecedents and they are devoid of vagueness or confusions. A philosophical
clarification also involves providing additional insights and understanding of
phenomena identified in the initial expression of the discourse. It is a
product of further discernment and reflection on issues identified in the
original communication. This book is such a clarification of the evolution of
philosophical discourses on education. It focuses on a selection of such
discourses highlighting on their changes in reference to philosophical
thinking on education.
1.1 Nature and Meaning of Philosophical Discourses
The Dictionary of Philosophy defines the term ‘discourse’ as ‘orderly
communication of thought, (Runes 1942) (www.ditext.co/runes/).
Philosophical discourses comprise coherent bodies of propositions,
arguments and well thought-out conclusions on topics under consideration.
Philosophical discourses discern insights on the subject matter they are
concerned with, including subtle, implicit and salient features of such topics.
5
6
Wilfred Carr (2004) illustrated the kind of insights that are involved in
philosophical discourses while critiquing James Kaminsky’s historical
discourse on philosophy of education, (Kaminsky 1993). Wilfred Carr
remarked that Kaminsky’s history was not philosophical enough and it
underestimated the significance of two philosophical insights concerning the
peculiar relationship between philosophy and history. Carr pointed out that
the first one of these two philosophical insights was George Hegel’s
description of philosophy as ‘its own time apprehended in thought’. That is
to say, in any given age, philosophy is always influenced by, and intimately
related to, the presuppositions embedded in the culture of that era. The
second one is John Dewey’s insight that ‘while philosophy is always a
creature of its past, it is also, simultaneously, a creature of its future’ (Dewey
1913, pp 3-5). This insight means that although philosophy is always
influenced by the presuppositions contained in the culture of which it is a
part, philosophy is also the discipline that exposes inadequacies in its
cultural heritage, and critically revises these presuppositions and thus makes
a contribution to that culture’s future development. Both John Dewey and
George Hegel regarded ‘history’ and ‘philosophy’ as dialectically related.
Each of them changes and is changed by the other.
Thus, philosophical discourses are laden with great deals of insights forming
coherent communications of thought. The insights are products of exercises
of reason or intellectual pursuit. While formulating conceptions on issues,
philosophers and thinkers are engaged in exercises of reason or intellectual
pursuits.
1.2 Development of Philosophical Discourses
6
7
According to Paul Hirst (2005) discourses are built up through uses of
reason, which according to a distinction made long ago by Aristotle, are in
two categories: the exercise of theoretical reason and the exercise of
practical reason.
The exercise of theoretical reason occurs when our capacities for reason are
used in the pursuit of truth, justified beliefs and knowledge such as in
developing scientific or historical understanding. While investigating natural
phenomena such as the occurrence of volcanic eruptions in the world, or
historical events such as general elections in Third World countries during
the twentieth century, we employ theoretical reason.
The exercise of practical reason occurs when our capacities for reason are used in the pursuit of justified actions in, for example in studies on politics, medical treatment and indeed in education. The exercise theoretical reason involves building up structures of justified propositions that constitute the elements of the formulated theoretical discourse.
The exercise of practical reason, on the other hand, involves building up justified structures of practical actions and activities that constitute the elements of the formulated practical discourse. All philosophical discourses on education are therefore practical discourses, involved in building up structures of practical actions.
Thus the pursued outcome of the exercise of theoretical reason is the formulation of propositions on which we can agree in our
judgement of truth. This is then the theoretical discourse.
The pursued outcome of the exercise of practical reason is the conduct of actions or practices on which we can agree in achieving what constitutes human good. This is then the practical discourse. The practical discourse is value laden unlike the theoretical discourse, which is value free.Both exercises of reason involve the creation of concepts and statements to
make up the resulting discourses. The concepts and statements in a
theoretical discourse are themselves the formulated propositional truths
7
8
where there is agreement in judgements of truth according to publicly shared
evidence, (Hirst 2005).
In a practical discourse however the concepts and statements are bodies of
proposed activities and practices in the doing of which we achieve individual
and social good or well-being, i.e. the eudemonia. The global policy on
education for all that was proclaimed at Jomtien, Thailand in 1990 is a
practical discourse. Each of the articles in this proclamation is a statement of
proposed activities in the doing of which, the conference participants
presupposed, would achieve human good.
According to Wilfred Carr (2004) and Paul Hirst (2005) the nature of
activities and practices embodied in a practical discourse is such that what is
rational to do can only be discerned and articulated in the practical doing
itself. A practical discourse is pragmatic in its nature. The concepts and
propositions embodied in such a practical discourse are merely inadequate
indicators and generalisations of what the actual practices entail. A practical
discourse along with its patterns of reasoning must therefore be developed in
the practice itself, if it is to attain the determination of the complex human
good it pursues. Practical discourses are verified in the doing of the actions
they entail, and thus assessed pragmatically.
A natural ability to discern or judge in actual situations what activity
constitutes a human good is what Aristotle called phronesis or prudence i.e.
wise judgement. It is a natural ability to discern what is morally rational to
do. Such prudence underpins or forms the foundation of the exercise of
practical reason and practical discourses. The exercise of practical reason, or
what Paul Hirst (2005) calls ‘rational practice’ is something possible only in
the light of the actual conduct of activities along with the accompanying
complexities of human thought, feeling, dispositions and skills. It is only
8
9
when we actually conduct the activities proposed in the practical discourse
that we are able to discern what morally is rational to do.
One may generalize that the purpose of all forms of education in the whole
history of mankind has always been the attainment of some human good.
Education is instituted in all societies to achieve what is good for mankind
(Hirst 2005).
Phronesis is a natural ability to discern what is morally rational to do. It is a
kind of prudence or wisdom that lies at the core in the conception of
education as a human undertaking. Education is a human undertaking
whereby individuals in society acquire the knowledge and understanding
they need in their pursuit of what is morally rational or proper to do in
achieving human good.
Since the time of ancient Greek philosophers, traditional philosophical
questions on education have always been concerned with the furthering the
rational understanding of educational practices.
Richard Peters (1966) outlined how philosophical discourses raised and
sought to answer questions about the concepts used in education and in the
conduct of educational practices. In addition, philosophical discourses
examined the forms of justification for what was advocated and what was
done, and questioned the presuppositions that were made in education. Thus
philosophical discourses entail insights including theoretical formulations,
thoughts, concepts and values in, as well as practices of education.
Philosophical discourses on education are concerned with the process of
education including its raison d’être, aims and goals, contents and methods
outcomes and their evaluation. In its contents, the process of education
9
10
entails the whole range of disciplines studied and taught in pursuit the
eudemonia the ultimate good for mankind.
According to Luciana Bellatalla, (The Paideia Project on-line; in the
twentieth Congress of Philosophy; 2009), ever since its inception,
philosophy has always been regarded as something that can build up reality,
educate men and disclose truth. Philosophizing is inquiring and learning.
On the role of philosophy in learning Bellatalla stated: “As far as its method
proclaims the spirit … of an intellectual adventure, philosophy defends men
from the danger of a life without questions … it awakes men from their
dogmatic sleep … leads them to put into discussion their historical
conditions.” Education cannot do without philosophy; it is part of
philosophy.
In its current historical development philosophy is not an instrument for
ethical and intellectual elitist education, but an intellectual disposition and a
methodological approach to the modern world open to all people. All men
should be allowed access to philosophical encounters through education.
Human life without questions is life without meaning.
Philosophical discourses on education encompass what Philips (2005) talks
about in respect of empirical educational research as a body of methods of
investigations in education. This method seeks to establish the truth by
reference to “real cases” from field observations. Philips defines empirical
educational research as “a broad domain of inquiry that covers not only the
work of teachers, but also covers inquiries into instructional materials, the
processes in learners, specific subject matter, the teachers’ decision making,
the study of gender and cultural differences and their impact on learning and
access to opportunities to learn, along with programme evaluation that is
intended to reveal both the positive and unintended harmful classroom
10
11
interventions, the design of experiments that are becoming more common as
researchers, teachers and curriculum developers cooperate, and the broader
interests of those who monitor or plan at a regional or national level the
operation, organization and funding of the educational system”.
Thus the goals to be achieved in education, the subject contents of all
disciplines studied and taught, along with the delivery systems and processes
involved in all forms or contexts of education including formal, informal,
adult and nonformal contexts of education: - are all constituent elements in
philosophical discourses on education.
Educational goals and aims are based on educational policies which are
society’s ideals in its pursuit of human good. The formulation of a
government’s educational policy is based on its ideals including its vision
and mission of what constitutes the well-being of the citizens under its
auspices. Philosophical discourses on human good underpin the formulation
of such a government’s educational policies.
The main concern of this book therefore is to investigate and discern an
understanding of the evolution of philosophical conceptions about education
in their historical settings. Ever since 600 B.C. until the present, great
philosophers and thinkers have contributed ideas on educational theory and
practices. Such ideas have always been conceived in the light pressing needs
and ideals of society in each era and situation. These philosophical
contributions on education always sought to resolve intractable problems in
society. Education has always been regarded among all societies as a means
of meeting challenging problems in human life.
Plato , in his Republic advanced the notion that the well-being of the ideal
state depended on the qualities of its people and their rulers, (Nyirenda and
11
12
Ishumi 2002). The higher such qualities were the more secure and the
greater was the well-being of the ideal state. To raise the qualities of people
and their rulers one had to institute education, among them, that enabled
them acquire the proper knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes or
values they needed for rendering services to the Republic effectively.
References
Bellatalla, Luciana (2009) in “The Paideia Project on-line”; in The Twentieth
Congress of Philosophy.
Carr, Wilfred, (2004) “Philosophy and Education”, in Journal of Philosophy
of Education, Vol.38 Issue1 pp.55-96.
Dewey, John, (1931): Philosophy and Civilisation New York, Mouton.
Hirst, Paul and Carr, Wilfred (2005) “Philosophy and Education: A
Symposium” in Philosophy of Education Journal Vol.39 Issue 4 pp.415-
632.
Kaminsky, James S. (1993); A New History of Educational Philosophy.
Westport, Connecticut; Greenwood Press.
Klarung, Gerald (2008), in Runes, Dagabert,. Dictionary of Philosophy
(Runes 1942) (www.ditext.co/runes/)
Nyirenda, Suzgo D. and Ishumi, Abel, G. (2002) Philosophy of Education:
An Introduction to Concepts, Principles and Practice. Dar es Salaam; Dar es
Salaam University Press.
Peters, Richard, S. (1966); “Philosophy of Education”, in J.W. Tibble, (ed.),
The Study of Education. London; Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Philips, D.C. (2005) “The Contested Nature of Empirical Educational
Research, (and Why Philosophy of Education Offers Little Help)” in
Journal of Philosophy of Education. Vol. 39 Issue 4, pp 577ff.
Runes, Dagabert, D. (1942) (www.ditext.co/runes/).
12
13
Chapter Two
Philosophical Discourses on Education in the Pre-Socrates to Post-Socrates Era
2.1 Pythagoras’ Conception of Philosophy
In the 500s B.C. there emerged a number of thinkers who contributed ideas
on education. Among them was the Greek philosopher and mathematician
Pythagoras (570-495 B.C.). According to Lawhead (2003)
(www.mbb.com/Lawhead), Pythagoras defined philosophy as the love of
wisdom, and he was the first Greek thinker to call himself ‘a lover of
wisdom’. Pythagoras is best known for his famous mathematical theorem
“the Pythagoras Theorem” which is taught in schools even today.
When he was asked whether he was wise he replied that no one could be
wise except a god. He was merely a lover of wisdom. To love something
does not mean to possess it. It merely means to focus our life on it. Thus
Pythagoras introduced the term ‘philosopher’. A philosopher was one who
had a passion for wisdom was ardently engaged in its pursuit. He was
intoxicated by such a love. A philosopher was engaged in cognitive and
emotional processes of the mind, rationally deliberating earnestly about
fundamental or most important issues in life. Philosophy was not just a
discipline or systematic study, it was a devotion or commitment to the
pursuit of fundamentals of existence.
Philosophy therefore was conceived as a process of learning or keenly
searching for ultimate truths, convictions and commitments, which
13
14
demanded our reflections. Philosophy was the search for the kind of wisdom
that would inform our beliefs and values that we were to use in making
crucial decisions and guide our actions. Our attainment of such fundamentals
would ensure that what we believed was unmistakably true, real and correct
or perfect; and what we did was the right thing to do.
According to Pythagoras therefore, philosophy was the love and pursuit of
the truth the real and the right. (Lawhead 2003 p.3). This Pythagoras’
conception of philosophy suggests that philosophy is a process of pursuing
the truth or learning i.e. acquiring knowledge including understanding,
which is essentially an educational process. While engaged in such a process
the individual seeks information that is justified as true.
Pythagoras’ philosophical discourse on the essence of the discipline of
philosophy took the viewpoint that philosophy was a process by which
learning took place. The philosopher attempted to acquire knowledge,
understanding and possibly competences that would inform his conduct and
value judgements. This viewpoint that philosophy was in an ardent pursuit
of wisdom was identical with the conception of education as a process of
acquiring new knowledge, understanding, competences and values. A
philosopher was an ardent pursuer of wisdom; he was engaged in cognitive
and affective processes, which would result in his gaining wisdom to inform
him while making crucial decisions in life and guide his conduct and
practices.
2.2 Sophists’ Conceptions on Education
The first philosopher among the ancient Greeks to engage his mind on
philosophical issues was Thales (624-545 B.C.) (htt/www.friesian.com/his-
2htm#text-1). He looked at the world around him and asked: “What is the
14
15
fundamental substance that underlies everything we find in the world?” His
answer was “water”. This was a philosophical inquiry on what was
fundamental in the material world around us. What was the base of the
material world we live in? Thales’ question sought insights to inform us
about the nature of the world and to enable us to understand the core of the
entire world. It sought insights to enable us understand what the world is
made of and its essential qualities. Thales discerned “water” as the
foundation of our material world. He proposed that water was the origin and
mother-womb of all things. He thought that water was the original substance
upon which all other things were formed. “The earth rests on water,” he
maintained.
Even though Thales’ contemporaries did not think much about his insights,
Thales’ question became a starting point to set people thinking seriously
about the world around them. He was of course mistaken, but his question
led to further inquiries of that kind. He was one of the early Greek thinkers
to engage in serious and articulate discussions of philosophical issues. He
caused the emergency of a number of theories about the nature of the world.
Many of these theories were in conflicts with one another. Thinkers in
Greece especially in Athens began to debate about theoretical abstractions
that brought up philosophical insights to help people succeed in whatever
engagements they undertook.
In Athens during the fifth century B.C. a novel political system of
democracy was set up. Athens became the first democratic state in the
world. Ordinary citizens elected and were elected through allotment by an
assembly to run the government. The assembly consisted of all citizens in
15
16
the city-state. They regularly assembled to decide on the affairs of the state
including courts.
Since any ordinary citizens occupied public offices installed there by the
assembly, such new rulers required education on how to render and
administer public services efficiently and justly. A group of thinkers, known
as sophists began teaching people how to conduct and properly render public
services to the citizenry. These thinkers were referred to as wise men.
In Ancient Greece sophists were a group of teachers of philosophy and
rhetoric. During the 5th century the term” sophist” denoted a class of
travelling intellectuals who taught courses on “excellence” or “virtue”. They
also speculated about the nature of language and culture. They employed
rhetoric to convince or persuade others. Most sophists are today known
mainly through the writings of their opponents (especially Plato and
Aristotle). This fact makes it difficult for anyone to assess without bias the
sophists’ views and practices.
Among the sophists Protagoras is regarded as the champion. Others included
Gorgia, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Lycophron, Callicles, Antiphon and
Cratylus. (Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia, article on Sophism, 2008).
The sophists taught people how to succeed in life. They concentrated on
teaching practical knowledge including rhetoric and debating. They also
taught how to win arguments. They charged fees for their lessons.
The sophist held the view that only practical knowledge, rather than abstract
theoretical knowledge, was worthwhile acquiring. It is only through practical
knowledge that one could succeed in one’s engagements in life. Speculations
on the nature of the universe were idle talk since they provided no objective,
unchanging or eternal truths. The truth differed from one individual to
another. The truth was paradoxical (Popkin and Stroll 1969). A statement,
16
17
which contains two opposing or absurd ideas that are both valid, is a
paradox.
There is story told about Protagoras who was one of the outstanding
sophists. Protagoras declared that he could teach anyone how to win law
cases in court. One student came up to Protagoras to learn such a skill of
winning law cases in court. Protagoras told the student that he would want
no payments for the lessons until the student had actually won his first case
in court.
After teaching his student, Protagoras sued him for payment of the fees on
the lessons. Protagoras argued that if the student won the case, then he
would have to pay in accordance with the agreement that fees for the lessons
were to be paid after the student had won his first case. If the student lost the
case he would still have to pay in accordance with the petition the plaintiff
had presented in court requesting it to order the defendant to pay the fees for
lessons he had received from the plaintiff. Thus either way the student would
not escape from paying Protagoras for the lessons.
In his defense the student responded that if he lost the case, he should not
have to pay his instructor for the lessons, since that would go against the
agreement between him and Protagoras his teacher, in which it was arranged
that the student would have to pay only after winning his first case in court.
If, on the other hand, he won the case, he as the defendant in the petitions
requesting the court to order him to pay for his lessons, the student would
not be required to pay, because the court would dismiss the petition and thus
decide in favour of the defendant.
The Athenian court decided to adopt the defendant’s argument that he as
Protagoras’ student did not have to pay for the lessons.
17
18
Thus the case was paradoxical, whereby the two opposing arguments on it
were both valid viewpoints on the same issue. Both the plaintiff and the
defendant were right although their two perspectives were opposites.
According to the sophists absolute truths did not exist. Protagoras claimed:
“Man is the measure of all things”. The truth depended on each individual
human being’s perspective, and it varied from one person to another, each of
them being right from his viewpoint.
Gorgia was another sophist who claimed: “Nothing exists, and if it did,
nobody could know it, and if they knew it, they could not communicate this
knowledge”. The sophists held the view that men are not capable of knowing
what is really going on in the world; they only know what seems to each of
them in his personal view as true. Such a truth differed from one person to
another. Seeking absolute, constant knowledge that does not change from
one individual to another was, according to the sophists, a futile exercise
since such knowledge did not exist. Men could only live according to what
seemed to each of them appropriate in meeting their needs and desires.
The sophists declared that theory-based subjects, which are not directly
related to making people succeed in life, such as mathematics and physics,
should not be pursued because they were irrelevant to human needs in life.
One can never be sure of the veracity of conclusions reached in such theory-
based subjects. The sophists’ presupposition in this regard is that the truth is
equivalent to each individual’s personal opinion or measure of the world.
The sophists taught a person to concern himself only with the way things
appear to him, and his opinions about them. Each opinion is true to the
person who holds it. Each person can know only about his personal
subjective way of looking at the universe. There is no absolute knowledge to
be sought after and obtained. It is futile to search for such absolute
18
19
knowledge. Beliefs are relative to the person who holds them. Nothing is
true for everyone at all times. All truths are subjective. There are no
objectives truth-values.
The central theme in the sophist discourse on education is that constant
unchanging universals that are valid to everyone all the time and in all
situations do not exist. What exist are subjective viewpoints of the universe
as they appear to each individual from his own perspective.
Any theoretical exercise of reason to pursue objective truths is a waste of
time. It is only the practical exercise of reason, in pursuit of activities the
doing of which attains what the individual desires to achieve in life, which is
a worthwhile engagement. Educational activities of learning or acquiring
knowledge, understanding, competences or values are viewed in the light of
each individual‘s subjective interpretation of what he feels to be true in the
given situation.
Every individual should strive to acquire what he personally deems to be the
proper means for his attaining his personally cherished ideals in life. The
paradox in sophist discourses on education comes about when we begin to
compare the needs of several individuals in an attempt to discern some
uniformity or common denominator that applies uniformly among all
individuals. In such an attempt, we soon discover that what is good for one
individual is actually harmful to a second individual. There are no common
goods that apply equally well among all individuals, (Popkin and Stroll
1969).
The sophists’ theory on knowledge is therefore sceptical, subjective and
relativistic and opposed to an optimistic, objective and unchanging
theoretical view on knowledge.
19
20
There are other ancient Greek philosophers who advocated the sophist ideas
on education. One of them is Cratylus, a fifth century Athenian and a
contemporary of Socrates. Cratylus believed that little could be known
because everything was changing- including oneself. He argued that since
the world, the speaker and the listeners including the terms used in
expressing oneself were in a constant flux, there was no possibility of stable
meanings. Nothing could be known or communicated under changing state
of affairs.
The other one of these ancient Greek philosophers that sided with the
sophists was Pyrroh of Elis (360-270). He caused the rise of the sceptical
movement called ‘Pyrrhonian Scepticism’. He doubted sensory experience.
He argued that for experience to be the source of knowledge the data
obtained through our senses must agree with reality in the external world.
But it is impossible to jump outside our experience to see how it compares
with the external world. Besides, rational argument cannot give us
knowledge either, because for every argument supporting an issue, there is
another argument to prove the opposing case. The two arguments cancel
each other out, and they are both equally ineffective in leading us to the
truth. We can make claims only about how things appear to us. Each of us
may declare: “Honey seems sweet to me”, but this is not the same as
declaring: “Honey is sweet”.
Pyrrhonian scepticism was expressed in two statements as follows:
(1) Nothing is self-evident because any axiom we start with can be doubted.
(2) Nothing can be proved because we will either have an infinite regress
(going backwards) of reasons that support our previous reasons or we will
end up assuming as correct what we are supposed to prove.
20
21
Thus the sophists doubted both the sensory and rational sources of
knowledge and certainty because both of them cannot assure us on whether
the information they convey to us is true or not.
Generally inquiries into the truth should be based on some form of
scepticism, which enables us to avoid taking for granted any hypothetical
propositions that are not backed by sound evidence. Scepticism is a useful
tool for enabling us arrive at certainty in any inquiry.
2.31 Socrates
A great Ancient Greek philosopher called Socrates opposed the negative,
subjective and relativistic theory of knowledge advocated by the sophists.
Socrates was born in 469 B.C. We know him mainly through Plato’s
writings about him and through the historical writings of Xenophon who
was a Greek historian and a general. Under the assumption that Plato’s
writings about Socrates are accurate, Socrates’ figure has had the greatest
influence on the history of thought.
Socrates was a brilliant thinker. He sought to establish how people ought to
live ideally. He taught his disciples that the philosopher was one who was
imbued with truth, beauty and goodness, (Lawhead 2003 p. 14). These are
eternal and unchanging through all times. Socrates argued that our ability to
know such eternal truths indicates that we have in us some eternal quality,
i.e. the soul. The soul within us is eternal too; it is therefore immortal,
(Lawhead 2003). This seemed to be the reason why he did not run away
from his executioners even when there was a good chance for him to escape.
His friends and followers were eager to help him escape. Socrates felt he had
a mission to fulfill in life.
21
22
In his conversations with the citizens of Athens Socrates would listen to the
people he talked with and would point out at what was erroneous in their
statements until he achieved a closer approximation to the truth. He always
attempted to draw out the truth from every human soul. He referred to
himself as the ‘midwife of ideas’, (Lawhead 2003 p. 15). He claimed that he
did not teach anybody anything. He merely asked them questions that made
them produce the truth that lay hidden within them. His basic contention was
that the mind of an individual possessed all knowledge at birth.
Socrates went around Athens posing questions on ideals in life to political
and military leaders, sophists, poets and other prominent members of
society. Each of them had an opinion upon which he based his every-day
conduct, but none of them actually thought critically about the veracity of
their opinions. They were all reluctant to justify or prove the validity of their
convictions.
2.32 Plato (428 - 348 B.C.)
Essentially, Socrates was concerned with the epistemological and
educational question on “what can be known?” Plato (428 –348 B.C.), one
of Socrates’ outstanding students, attempted to supply an answer on what
could be known.
Born in an aristocratic family in Athens, Plato was supposed to become a
leader in society had the nobles succeeded in destroying the democratic
government of Athens. Plato was only in his teens when he joined Socrates’
philosophical sessions. After attending a number of these sessions Plato
gave up plans for a career in politics. He became a full-time follower of
Socrates and went around with him in Athens, listening, participating and
recording the debates Socrates held with different people.
22
23
Plato was especially impressed by the need, which Socrates had revealed, for
one to search for knowledge as the basis for all human beliefs and actions.
Wisdom should be the foundation of one’s values and conduct in life.
During one of his philosophical sessions, Socrates had raised the question:
“What is the nature and principle of man?” That is, what is the essence of a
human being? His answer was “man’s soul”. The soul makes what man is.
Socrates defined the ‘soul’ as “the intellect or capacity to understand things
and to think intelligently”. Our souls are the principles of our intellectual
and moral activities. Pure knowledge or wisdom sets the soul free from
illusions that tend to hinder it from functioning properly. Human beings are
not born ready-made but have to make themselves knowledgeable, insightful
and morally good or virtuous.
Plato wrote a number of “Dialogues” one of which, as a masterpiece was the
“Republic”. In his writings Plato came up with an answer to Socrates’
question on “What can be known?” Plato’s answer was: “That which does
not or cannot change at all”. Plato called the entities that can be known:
“unalterable features of the world”; they are ‘ideas or forms’.
2.33 Meanings of Terms
But how do we come to know the meanings of the terms used in
communication or in discourses? According to Plato we do not come to
know the meanings of terms used in communication by means of sensory
experiences. The senses do not supply us with any knowledge of general
concepts or ideas. What we see, hear, taste, smell or touch are specific
concrete bits of information. We see a mango tree in our yard. We notice its
green foliage including its raw fruits hanging on stalks at tips of twigs. This
sensation does not however reveal to us what a mango tree is, i.e. its
23
24
essence. The general concept or idea behind the mango tree we see can be
revealed to us by other means rather than the sensory encounter we are
having in looking at the mango tree before us.
Plato contended that genuine knowledge consisted only in apprehension
of ideas. To gain knowledge is to acquire and possess ideas. The term
“man” is an idea entailing an unchanging essence commonly found in all
men throughout history and foreseeable future. Similarly the term “tree” is
an idea entailing an unchanging essence commonly found in all trees
throughout history and foreseeable future. All the terms we use are just
labels of ideas we have in mind. Thus ideas are expressed as objects, such as
stars, rocks, houses, motor vehicles etc. or living things i.e. organisms, such
as trees, insects, reptiles, human beings etc. Ideas are also expressed in form
of events such volcanic eruptions, raining, sunrise and sunset. These events
include animal and human activities, such as travelling, eating or sleeping
etc. They are also expressed as situations or states such as famine, draughts,
illnesses or epidemics, wet or dry seasons, nightfall, the state of one
becoming a husband, an engineer or a president, or of being awake or asleep,
young or old, for a human. They are also expressed as qualities or attributes
of entities, justice, tolerance, stinginess, happiness, gentleness and tyranny
etc. Ideas are in addition expressed as institutions such as religious
organizations, professional and social bodies such as society for prevention
of cruelty to animals, business corporations learning institutions etc. In a
nutshell what can be known are ideas, which comprise the essences of
objects including living and nonliving entities, events, situations, institutions
and their qualities or attributes?
24
25
Plato’s conception of the essence of entities does not distinguish between
abstract entities such as kindness and concrete entities such “Mary acted
kindly”. The concrete entities are regarded as mere illustrations or external
manifestations of the essentials lying behind the specific or concrete
activities we observe. Essentially everything is an idea, not a specific
concrete being. The concrete entities we observe are mere representatives of
their essences.
An illustration of Plato’s contention in regards ideas as being unchanging
essences of entities, which are objectively and commonly understood by all
people, throughout history and foreseeable future, is found in his
dialogue Euthyphro. This is a disputation on piety or holiness, (Hyman
1974). It presents a conversation between a priest called Euthyphro and
Socrates. The priest told Socrates that he was going to accuse his father of
murder in court. It was out of piety that Euthyphro was prosecuting his
father. The case was about negligence that Euthyphro’s father had
committed in respect of an accused murderer who had been placed under his
care. The accused murderer had died from cold and hunger.
It can be noticed in the dialogue that Socrates contended that in order to
teach a virtue one needed to know what virtue really was, not to merely
indicate examples of virtuous conduct. Socrates sought a generic definition
of virtue or excellence in conduct.
Socrates: I know, dear friend that you have the exact knowledge of all these
matters and that is the reason why I desire to be your disciple for I observe
that no one, not even Meletus, appears to notice you; but his sharp eyes have
found me at once, and he has indicated me for impiety. And therefore I
adjure you to tell me the nature of piety and impiety, which you said that
25
26
you knew so well, and of murder and the rest of them. What are they? Is not
piety in every action always the same? And impiety, again, is not always the
opposite of piety and also the same with itself having as impiety one notion,
which includes whatever is impious?
Euthyphro: To be sure, Socrates.
Socrates: And what is piety, and what is impiety?
Euthyphro: Piety is doing what I am doing: that is to say prosecuting anyone
who is guilty of murder, sacrilege or of any other crime- whether he be your
father or mother or some other person - that makes no difference; not
prosecuting them is impiety.
A close examination of the details of the case seemed to indicate doubts on
Euthyphro’s father being guilty of the offence.
Socrates commented saying that the priest’s definition of piety was no very
helpful. It merely pointed out an example of such a quality, avoiding stating
the nature or essence of piety. The essence of piety as an idea that applies to
all specific incidents or acts of holiness is shown in the conduct of people.
Anyone can use such knowledge or idea to justly decide if a particular
incident of human behaviour is or is not holy. Ideas are bits of knowledge
whose meanings are commonly shared among the individuals who use such
ideas in communicating with one another. We use ideas all the time when
we talk about our experiences and in reporting occasions we encountered.
For example one may state: “I saw a bad road accident this afternoon.” All
the terms in this statement represent ideas whose meanings are well known
to audience being addressed. The ideas expressed by the terms in the
statement carry the same meanings as understood by both the speaker as
well as to his listeners. Effective communication is only possible where the
26
27
meanings of terms employed in the communication are the same to both the
speaker and the listener.
In the Dialogue Meno , Plato presented how we come to know the general
concept or idea behind a specific sensory experience. The dialogue is
between Socrates and a friend of his called Meno.
Meno: What do you mean by saying that we do not learn, and that what we
call learning is only a process of recollecting? Can you teach me how this is?
Socrates: I told you Meno, just now that you were a rogue, and now you ask
whether I can teach you, when a I am saying that there is no teaching, but
only recollection: and thus you imagine you will expose me in a
contradiction.
Meno: Indeed Socrates I had no such intention. I only asked the question
from habit: but if you can prove to me that what you say is true I wish you
would.
Socrates: It will be no easy matter, but I am willing to do my best for you.
Suppose that you call one of your numerous attendants, whichever you like,
that I may demonstrate on him.
Meno: Certainly. Come here, boy.
Socrates: He is Greek and speaks Greek does he not?
Meno: Yes indeed, he was born in the house.
Socrates: Attend now, and observe whether he learns of me or only
remembers.
Meno: I will.
Socrates: Tell me boy, do you know that a figure like this is a square?
A B
27
28
C D
Boy: I do.
28
29
Socrates: And you know that a square figure has these four lines equal?
Boy: Certainly
Socrates: And these lines, which I have drawn through the middle of the
square, are also equal?
A B
C D
Boy: Yes.
Socrates: A square may be of any size?
Boy: Certainly.
Socrates: And if one side of the figure be of two feet and the other be two
feet, how much will the whole be? Let me explain if in one direction the
space was two feet, and in the other direction of one foot. The whole would
be of two feet taken once?
(The question can be interpreted and rephrased as: ‘Suppose we took the
length of two feet in one direction and one foot in the second direction what
would be the area then? Would it be two square feet?’)
Boy: Yes.
Socrates: But since this second direction is also two feet, there are twice
two feet? (The question can be interpreted and rephrased as: ‘But since
second direction is also two feet, the area of such a figure is therefore twice
that of two feet by one foot?)
Boy: There are.
29
30
Socrates: Then the square is of twice two feet? (The question can be
interpreted and rephrased as: How many square feet would that figure have?
Would is be four square feet?).
Boy: Yes.
Socrates: And how many twice two feet? (The question can be interpreted
and rephrased as: “And how many squares of one by one foot are there?”
Count them and tell me.
Boy: Four, Socrates
Socrates: And might there not be another square twice as large as this, and
having like this one, the lines equal? (The question can be interpreted and
rephrased as: Could there be a square with all its sides equal like this one,
but twice the lengths of this one?)
Boy: Yes
Socrates: And of how many feet will that be? (The question can be
interpreted and rephrased as: “And of how many square feet will it be?”).
Boy: Of eight feet. (The answer can be interpreted and rephrased as: “Of
eight squares of one by one feet.)
Socrates: And now try and tell me the length of the line which forms the
side of that double square: this is two feet- what will that be?
Boy: Clearly, Socrates, it will be double.
Socrates: Do observe Meno that I am not teaching the boy anything, but only
asking him questions; and now he fancies that he knows how long a line is
necessary in order to produce a figure of eight square feet; does he not?
30
31
Meno: Yes.
Socrates: And does he really know?
Meno: Certainly not.
Socrates: He only guesses that because the square is double, the line is also
double.
Meno: True.
Socrates; Observe him while he recalls the steps in regular order. (To the
boy) Tell me, boy, do you assert that a double space comes from a double
line? That is, does a double square come from a double line? Remember that
I am not speaking of an oblong, but a figure equal every way, and twice the
size of this – that is to say of eight feet; and I want to know whether you still
say that a double square comes from double line?
Boy: Yes
Socrates: But does not this line double if we add another such line here (add
BE to AB)
A B E
C D
Boy: Certainly.
Socrates: And four such lines of the same length as AE, you say, make eight
square feet?
Boy: Yes
Socrates: Let us describe such a figure. Would you not say that this is the
figure of eight feet?
31
32
A 2 B 2 E
2 2 2
C 2 D 2 F
2 2 2
G 2 H 2 I
Boy: Yes
Socrates: And are there not four divisions in this figure, each of which
having an area of 2 by 2?
Boy: True.
Socrates: And is not that four times four feet? (The question can be
interpreted and rephrased as: “And is that not four feet by four feet?”).
Boy: Certainly.
Socrates: And four times is not double?
Boy: No, indeed.
Socrates: But how much?
Boy: Four times as much.
Socrates: Therefore the double line, boy, has produced an area not twice, but
four times as much.
Boy: True.
Socrates: Four times four sixteen – are they not it?
Boy: Yes.
32
33
Socrates: What do you say of him, Meno? Were not all these answers given
out of his own head?
Meno: Yes they were all his own.
Socrates: And yet, as we were just now saying, he did not know?
Meno: True.
Socrates: But still he had in him those notions of his- had he not?
Meno: Yes.
Socrates: Then he who does not know may still have true notions of that
which he does not know?
Meno: Apparently.
Socrates: And at the present these notions have just been stirred up in him as
in a dream; but if he were frequently asked the same questions in different
forms, he would know as accurately as anyone at last?
Meno: I dare say.
Socrates: Without anyone teaching him he will recover his knowledge for
himself, if he is merely asked questions?
Meno: Yes
Socrates: And this spontaneous recovery of knowledge in him is
recollection?
Meno: True.
Socrates: And the knowledge which he now has, must he not either have
acquired at some time, or else possessed always?
Meno: Yes
Socrates: But if he always possessed this knowledge he would always have
known; or if he has acquired the knowledge he could not acquired it in his
life, unless he has been taught geometry. And he may be made to do the
same with all geometry and every other branch of knowledge; has anyone
33
34
ever taught him all this? You must know about him, as you say, he was born
and bred in this house.
Meno: And I am certain that no one ever did teach him.
Socrates: And yet he has these notions?
Meno: the fact, Socrates, is undeniable.
Socrates: But if he did not acquire them in this life, then he must have had
and learned them at some other time?
Meno: Clearly he must.
Socrates: Which must have been the time when he was not a man?
Meno: Yes.
Socrates: And if these are always to be true notions in him, both while he is
and while he is not a man, which only need to be awaken into knowledge by
putting questions to him, his soul must remain always possessed of this
knowledge: for he must always be or not be a man.
Meno: Obviously.
(Nyirenda and Ishumi, 2002); Plato: Republic, Books V-VII, Plato 360BC
Translated by Benjamin Jowett; Online Classics Archives
Plato 380 BC Translated by Benjamin Jowett; Online Classics Archives
2.34 Plato and Socrates’ Perspective of Learning.
The citations above suggest firmly that the knowledge of geometry, which
the boy exhibited having, must have been in his possession even at his birth.
His soul had always had these notions or ideas even before his birth. They
only needed awakening into knowledge by putting questions to him.
Thus according to Plato we come to know the ideas or general concept
behind the concrete entities we experience through our senses, by means of
34
35
questions set to us, which awaken our knowledge or understanding of such
ideas behind concrete phenomena.
According to Popkin and Stroll (1969) Plato contended that it is impossible
to produce knowledge outside the individual’s mind; and that anyone who
possesses knowledge must have always possessed it.
This is the “Recollection Theory”. It explains what occurs when we seem to
learn something. We are not actually learning, but we are merely
remembering or recollecting something we already know. Knowing entails
awareness of, and understanding concepts, which exist as genuine,
independent entities called “Platonic Ideas” or forms. Sometimes when we
converse with someone, as was the case of the Boy conversing with
Socrates, we are reminded about general notions we already know.
According to Plato’s Recollection Theory , there is no time when
we acquire knowledge of ideas, we merely recognise them. We do not learn
them through sense experiences or through some teaching we receive from
some one. Ideas have always been in our mind even before our birth. On the
basis of this reasoning Plato asserted that ideas must have existed in our
mind before our birth. Such knowledge is termed a prior knowledge
that is knowledge which is there prior to and independent of any experience.
In the Republic, Books V-VII, Plato deals with the issue of political
philosophy including the nature of justice and what the ideal society is. The
ideal state cannot be brought about unless (not until) philosophers become
kings and king’s philosophers. How one becomes a philosopher is an
educational issue; which Plato addressed. It involves the would-be
philosopher-king to become aware of the knowledge needed for governing
the ideal state properly. The intellectual and moral development of the future
35
36
philosopher king entailed his acquiring or becoming aware of knowledge
that would inform him of what is proper conduct in governing the ideal state.
The king would be mentally and morally properly developed. Thus through
education one attains or is reminded of knowledge, competences and values
to use in his day- to-day conduct.
2.35 Plato’s Theory on Truth or Knowledge, Value or what is Right and
Reality or what exists.
While dealing with the question of educating the future philosopher-king in
preparing him to properly govern the ideal state, Plato elaborated his theory
on knowledge. Plato distinguished two kinds of
information: visible information and intelligible information. Visible
information is conveyed to us by mean of our senses. Intelligible
information is conveyed to us by means of our reasoning ability
Visible Information
Visible information was further subdivided into low visible information,
which comprises vague or nebulous shadows of what we experience; and
high visible information, which comprises opinions and beliefs about what is
experienced. Low information is the most elementary kind of information. It
consists of confused colours, sounds and such other sensory messages
reaching us from our surroundings. Both low visible information and high
visible information do not constitute genuine knowledge. One does not come
to the general concept, or idea, of an entity while using visible information.
Visible information is not constant; it is subject to change. Inferences made
on visible information cannot be reliable. Through visible information, we
can only be aware of what seems to us as reality. According to Popkin and
Stroll (1969 p. 29): “Since the appearances of things change constantly, we
36
37
can never be certain of the truth of judgements that we make on the basis of
our fluctuating and limited experiences. Therefore, Plato contended, we
cannot obtain knowledge through visible information alone.”
Intelligible information
This is information that deals with ideas, what Popkin and Stroll call
‘Platonic ideas’. Intelligible information involves direct acquaintance with
ideas. It is in two categories low and high intelligible information. Low
intelligible information employs ideas without really understanding their
nature. The properties of circles in mathematics are not really grasped but
only assumed and taken for granted as true. The property that in a circle, all
distances from the centre, in every direction, to the edge of the circle, are
identical is merely assumed as correct. Although one attains this information
only hypothetically, notwithstanding, one accepts it as true. The theorems of
Euclidean geometry are merely assumed to be true, without bothering to
prove them so. Assumed knowledge is conditional knowledge and not pure
knowledge. Thus in low intelligible information the individual attains mere
axioms (or assumed truths). These form conditional knowledge.
The high intelligible information is the purest form of intelligible
information; it is based on acquaintance with ideas (Platonic ideas) rather
than assumptions about them. When one is directly aware of the concept of a
circle then one has reached the clearest understanding and ultimate
knowledge of such a concept. Plato showed the nature of such ultimate
knowledge, and what is entailed in acquiring it, in his “Allegory of the
Cave”. An allegory is a story, in which the characters and events depict
either ideas or teachings of moral lessons.
In Plato’s allegory, the normal condition of human life is considered
analogous to that of someone living in a cave all the time. In that cave, one’s
37
38
head is turned fixedly on a wall he faces. His whole body is chained rigidly
in just one position so that he is not able to turn around or from side to side.
He is able to see only shadows of objects that pass by behind him. The
shadows are cast on the wall in front of him. His sensory experience consists
only of the images he sees on the wall, which are mere moving silhouettes of
the real objects passing by behind him that he can’t see. In this way he ends
up assuming that the real world comprises the shadows he sees on the wall
in front of him. It would be impossible for him to think of any other objects
in the world. He would therefore know or be acquainted only with visible
information, the category we alluded to earlier above, rather than with
intelligible information, which constitutes genuine knowledge.
Assuming that there are several human beings in Plato’s cave who since
birth have lived there all the time, such cave people would all be acquainted
with mere visible information about objects and events found in the world
and would be devoid of any intelligible information concerning the world.
Suppose that one of them were released from this cave imprisonment, let out
of the cave, and came to the surface, what would he experience? According
to Plato the released individual would at first be faced with glares of
unpleasantly shining objects from all directions around him, which would
hurt his eyes. He would fail to focus the shapes of such shining objects in the
manner he was used to, in respect of the shadows on the wall of the cave.
These real objects would dazzle him. He would attempt to retreat and get
back to his earlier living condition. It would be necessary to force him to
stay and keep looking until he got accustomed to the glare of real objects
rather than the sight of their shadows. After getting accustomed to looking at
these real objects found above the cave, he would be acquainted with such
real objects, and thus attain or become aware of knowledge. In Plato’s
38
39
allegory, the objects and events in the tale represent ideas. Becoming aware
of them directly entails comprehending them. Knowing entails awareness of,
and understanding concepts, which exist as genuine independent entities
called forms or ideas that are referred to as “Platonic ideas” by Popkin and
Stroll. The process involves escaping from one’s personal cave. In doing
that, one sees the general concepts, or ideas, which are already within one.
One then contemplates these ideas and reaches the state of complete
comprehension.
To accomplish this, a training system must be started. Plato explains the
training system in the Republic as part of an educational process for the
future philosopher kings. It involves making the trainees conscious of what
in fact is in them already. The training system is actually a method for
achieving complete recollection of the dormant knowledge existing within
the trainee. Teaching is merely a form of memory training.
Starting with visible information, the student is made to realise the imperfect
nature of the blurred and nebulous images about the world conveyed to him
through such visual information. The objects observed through sensory
experiences are in a flux all the time, showing different properties at
different times.
Plato illustrated this by an observation of the property of the third finger of
one’s hand. Apart from the thumb a hand has four fingers arrayed after the
thumb. The third finger is longer than the fourth and last finger, but is also
shorter than the second finger. Thus the third finger is at the same time
‘long’ and ‘short’. The student is then bewildered by this visible information
about the property of one’s fourth finger as being both long and short. The
paradox makes the student realise the apparent inconsistencies in sensory
experiences. The meanings of the terms ‘long’ and ‘short’ as conveyed
39
40
through visible information do not remain constant. They change from one
incident to another.
This realisation will make the student begin the journey of seeking deeper
explanations through intelligible information, which will lead him to the
Platonic ideas or general concepts that do not change their meanings from
one incident to another. In this process of seeking deeper explanations
through intelligible information the student uses reason rather sensory
experiences in his search for knowledge and understanding.
At this stage, when reason is deployed to reach the truth, the student learns
to deal with ideas and concepts. To accustom him in dealing with ideas and
concepts the student should undergo training in mathematics for several
years. The prospective philosopher-king is to be trained first of all in
arithmetic to accustom him in working with ideas alone rather than with the
shadows of sensory experiences he has hither to been familiar with in his
visible cave. He will then gradually become proficient in understanding
concepts and meanings through his employing general terms and stop
relying on what he sees, feels, hears, tastes, and smells. He then becomes
competent in doing calculations ‘in his head’, and less dependent on sensory
experiences.
From the training in arithmetic, the student proceeds to a training in
geometry. In this subsequent training the student is engaged in dealing with
concepts as well as discovering i.e. remembering, the necessary truths about
the ideas of lines, triangles, rectangles and circles. The remembered
necessary truths in this regard will be very much different from the opinions
and beliefs he is acquired with through visible information as conveyed by
sensory experiences. The necessary truths are unchanging pure knowledge,
and can be demonstrated so. For example, all the diagrams of circles,
40
41
triangles and rectangles that one might draw, might be of different sizes. But
the necessary truths about them, i.e. essential properties, will be eternal and
unchanging.
The prospective philosopher king, having received a lengthy training in
geometry will eventually become capable of recollecting the entire system of
necessary unchanging truths. He will then have reached the first level of
genuine knowledge, (Popkin and Stroll 1969 p.32).
The final stage in training completely frees the student from the cave of
visible information as conveyed to him through his sensory experiences. In
this stage the student studies ‘the dialectic’, which according to Lawhead
(2000 p.537) is a repetitive cycle of events in history. Dialectic differs from
mathematics mainly because it goes beyond merely accepting for granted the
assumptions behind mathematical theoretical concepts, seeking to show why
such concepts are true. It is a learning process, which attempts to establish
rational proofs of theoretical assumptions.
For example, in Euclidean geometry the sum of the three angles in a triangle
is 180 degrees. Proof of this comes from theorems on parallel lines and from
the theorem that a straight angle has 180 degrees.
C
c D
A a b c2 a2
B
41
42
In the above triangle ABC, a line BD is drawn parallel to line AC. Line AB
traverses the two parallel lines AC and BD resulting in angle ‘a’ and angle
‘a2’ as equal due to the theorem that corresponding angles on two parallel
lines are equal. Similarly, line BC traverses the two parallel lines AC and
BD creating alternative angles c and c2. These too are equal according to the
theorem that alternative angles on parallel lines are equal.
Since the straight angle on point B along the line AB is composed of angles
b+c2+a2 = 1800; and a2 = a, c2 = c; then, a+b+c = 1800: that is the same as
saying that sum of the angles in the triangle ABC is equal to 1800.
Thus the student attains the level of not only mastering and understanding
the subject matter he is engaged in studying, but he also masters the pinnacle
of that understanding in which he gains ability to justify rationally the
presuppositions embedded in subject matter under consideration. Such a
student is considered to have attained the highest level of learning
achievement on the subject matter under consideration.
2.36 Plato’s Allegory of the Cave as a Perspective of Education
Plato’s story is an allegory in which the events and characters narrated
symbolize meanings in the process of education. The relationship between
the shadow world in the cave and the upper sunlit world represent two levels
of knowledge or truth, values or what is right as well as reality or what
exists and how we acquire, or are made to recollect them. Plato believed the
world revealed to us in sensory experience is like the cave world of
shadows. It presents imperfect information, posing it as the truth, the right
thing or the real entity whereas in fact, it is merely a silhouette of such truth,
value or reality. These three genuine fundamental entities only emerge after
42
43
our coming into the sunlit world above the cave where, through reason, we
are presented with intelligible information. Plato believed that it is through
intelligible information that the truth is revealed. He also believed that we
come to be aware of what is the right thing to do through intelligible
information. Moreover, he maintained that the world revealed to us through
sensory experiences is like the cave world of shadows. It presents mere
silhouettes of real objects. The shadows seen by the prisoners in the cave are
lesser realities representing and derived from the figures passing by behind
the prisoners. They are imperfect replicas of real objects found in the upper
sunlit world. This symbolizes Plato’s view that there are levels of reality
that transcend the world of our sensory experience. The physical world is
like the cave; it presents us only imperfect degree of reality, which is
transcended by and should be understood in terms of the most perfect level
of reality that is in the nonphysical world.
In reference to education, it is because we can rise above the concrete realm
of physical reality that we are able to understand the higher nonphysical
realities. Justice for example does not have any shape, weight, colour, sound,
taste or smell. It is nonmaterial and something we cannot encounter with our
senses. It is something we can only reason about and use to judge the moral
quality of human conduct. Even though justice is not a physical entity, it
nevertheless exists or is real. According to Plato the word ‘justice’ is a
nonphysical reality, it is neither a mere mark on a page of a book, nor a mere
sound we make with our mouth while pronouncing it. Justice is something
we use in condemning and approving human actions and conduct as bad or
as good objectively.
43
44
2.37 An Interpretation of Plato’s Discourses in Education
Both Socrates and Plato were opposed to the sophist perspective of
knowledge as being skeptical, subjective and relativistic based on personal
interpretation and viewpoint of the universe.
Socrates believed in the existence of objective truth, beauty and goodness
which are eternal qualities, unchanging in all times and from one person to
another. From his interviews and cross examinations of distinguished
members of society in Athens, Socrates concluded that most people who
were held in high reputation as wise had never really bothered to verify the
truthfulness of what they believed. They were not sure that what they said
was true, nor were they sure that what they were doing was right. Socrates’
doctrine was that human beings could be justified in what they were doing
only if they had genuine knowledge - not ignorance, which was dangerous to
act on.
Plato supported his mentor in opposing the sophist perspective on
knowledge and education or learning. What could be known were ideas or
forms, which by nature were abstract, constant, or eternal and objective not
differing according to different individuals’ perspectives or not differing
from one incident to another. Ideas could never be acquired through sensory
experience or ‘visible information’. They could only be perceived and
articulated through ‘intelligible information’ that involves acts of reasoning
and attainment of meanings and understanding.
The model of human life as presented the allegory of the cave serves in
demonstrating the levels entailed in human learning and acquaintance with
information. Education as a process entails the individual’s acquisition of
knowledge, competences and attitudes or values. Plato’s discourse supports
44
45
this view as he points out the fact that the process of education entails
acquaintance and understanding of ideas, which are the principles
underlying the concrete entities that are conveyed to the individual through
sensory experience, or visible information. Through his ability to reason, the
individual transcends the mere sensations he is involved in, and gets
acquainted with the ideas behind concrete entities in a process of getting
acquainted with intelligible information. The ideas are of three kinds truths,
values and realities all of which are abstract or nonmaterial entities forming
the basic or most fundamental foundations of what is conveyed to the
individual through visible information or as conveyed to him through his
sense organs, i.e. sensory experiences.
In Plato’s allegory of the cave, the events and characters in the cave prison
symbolise visible information as conveyed to us through sense organs. Such
visible information is like the scene of moving silhouettes that the cave
prisoners see. It is an imperfect representation of pure knowledge. The
events and characters in the sunlit world above the cave symbolise
intelligible information as acquainted to us through the use of our reasoning
capacities. Through intelligible information we are acquainted with ideas,
which are abstract constant or unchanging entities underpinning the concrete
objects and events presented us through our sense organs. Our acquaintance
with these ideas results in our acquiring pure knowledge i.e. the truths, a
well as fundamental realities and values behind the material objects and
events we encounter through visible information.
In respect of realities, the silhouettes the prisoners see on the wall are
imperfect representatives of the actual realities found in the world above the
cave. Thus according to Plato the physical world, like the shadows has some
degree of reality, but it is transcended by and should be understood in terms
45
46
of the nonmaterial world which has the fundamental and ultimate degree of
reality. Through intelligible information we are able to rise above the world
of concrete physical objects and events and understand the higher
nonmaterial realities behind such concrete objects and event conveyed to us
via our sense organs.
Learning or the process of education involves being acquainted with pure
ideas, which are nonphysical or nonmaterial. For example ‘justice’ has no
weight, shape, colour, sound, smell or taste. Sense organs cannot detect its
presence. It can only be detected, through observations of human
interactions, by our reasoning capacity. It is only through intelligible
information that we area acquainted with justice as a quality of human
conduct. As we detect that quality amidst human interactions we able to
reach decisions or judgements about which human conduct is just and which
is not just.
The process of educating the prospective philosopher king, for example,
involves enlightening him through training and guiding him to advance from
acquaintance with visible information to encounters with intelligible
information where he is enlightened about pure truths or knowledge, pure
realities or nonmaterial entities and pure values or what is actually right or
proper to do, (Lawhead 2000 p.32-33).
Education as a process is defined as the individual’s acquisition knowledge
competences and attitudes or values. It involves a change or innovation in
the level of his accumulated content materials or subject matter including his
retaining or memorizing such new contents along with his understanding or
comprehending them. Moreover he simultaneously gains the capacity to
apply such content materials to novel situations he encounters in life.
Besides, he gains a synthesis of the essential nature of such subject matter,
46
47
as well as the ability to judge the value or worthiness of such subject matter
in respect of his day-to-day needs, (Bloom 1956). The acquisition of content
materials is spontaneously accompanied by a change of attitude or value the
learner has on the new content matter. He gains appreciation or an informed
positive attitude towards the new knowledge he has acquired. Besides, the
student gains new practices that apply the precepts prescribed by the new
knowledge. The process of education involves adoption of innovative
knowledge, as well as simultaneous and spontaneous adoption of new values
or appreciations and practices in respect of the newly gained knowledge.
Course contents and their mastery become conveyors of innovative attitudes
and practices and facilitate the acceptance and adoption of such novel
attitudes and practices among learners, (Maganga 2007).
Thus Plato’s philosophical discourse on education discerns insights on the
process of education as a means of improving the qualities of people and
their rulers for the better deployment of such qualities in the service of the
ideal state. The qualities are discerned as gains in knowledge or truth, reality
or what exists and value, or what is right or proper. Education as a process is
a means to enable the individual attain the discernment and understanding
of, as well as appreciating and putting such gains into practices, (Plato 360
BC Republic, Books V-VII, Translated by Benjamin Jowett; Online Classics
Archives <[email protected].).
2.4 Aristotle’s Views on Educational Philosophical Concepts
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a student of Plato at the academy that Plato
founded in Athens. Aristotle wrote many treatises. His work on formal logic
has with stood the test of time and was incorporated into modern formal
logic in nineteenth century. His work on ethics, especially the Nicomachean
47
48
Ethics has received the most scholarly attention. It comprises ten books
based on his lectures at the Lyceum, an academy he founded.
Ethics is a sub-branch of axiology, the other and complementary sub-branch
of axiology is aesthetics. Writing directly on education, Aristotle considered
nature, habit and reason to be three equally important forces that an
individual needs to cultivate through education. He considered repetition to
be a key tool for developing habits. The teacher was to lead the student
systematically in developing such good habits. Aristotle placed emphasis on
balancing theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. The subjects
he specifically mentioned included reading and writing, mathematics, music,
physical education, literature, history and a wide range of sciences. To
Aristotle, education was to aim at producing good and virtuous citizens for
the city-state (polis). “All who have meditated on the art of governing
mankind” Aristotle wrote, “have been convinced that the fate of empires
depends on the education of youth”. The expected outcomes in education
were the city-state’s thoroughly educated youth. (Wikipedia Encyclopedia,
2005). This is in agreement with Plato’s view that the process of education is
a means of improving the qualities of people and their rulers in the service of
the ideal state, (Plato cited above). Aristotle therefore supported his mentor
and teacher in respect of the fundamental aims of education as far as the
good of society, or the ideal state (Plato’s Republic) is concerned. Education
in any society is instituted to pursue the wellbeing and survival of the state
by improving the quality of its people and its rulers. “The fate of empires
depends on the education of youth.” According to Aristotle and to Plato
education is concerned with the quality of the young people in society. It
prepares such young people for deploying in future, their well developed
talents.
48
49
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics was probably dedicated to his son
Nicomachus. To Aristotle ethical knowledge was not precise like logic or
mathematics. It was practical like knowledge of nutrition. Ethics was a
practical discipline rather than a theoretical one. In order to become good,
one could not merely study what virtue is, one had to actually become
virtuous. One had to put into practice the virtue one aspires to possess. This
is one of Aristotle’s insights on the relationship educational theory and
practice.
Aristotle made distinctions among three main forms of reasoning. They are
concerned with intellectual pursuits or dianoia and their respective bases and
activities. Aristotle was actually talking of the different states or conditions
(hexeis) of the soul in which it grasps the truth. The soul, as defined by
Socrates, is ‘the intellect or capacity to understand things and to think
intelligently’.
2.5 Adoption Aristotelian Ideas in Modern Discourses on Education
Modern philosophers of education such as Wilfred Carr (1986, 1995 and
2004) use these insights of Aristotle in trying to resolve the intractable
uneasy relationship between educational theory and educational practice
The main forms of reasoning are theoria, techne and phronesis.
(i) Theoria, or knowing, is based on episteme, or true knowledge as
opposed to mere opinion, and on nous or understanding along with sophia,
which is pure contemplative wisdom. The good or bad state of theoria
comprises being true or being false. (ii) Techne is technical reasoning or
thinking. It is based on eidos, which is the idea of a plan or design. Techne
49
50
involves poiesis, which is making or producing. The good or bad states of
techne are worthy or worthless products. (iii) Phronesis is prudence that is
wise decision or judgement. It is based on eudaimonia which is the ultimate
human good. Phronesis involves praxis which is action or actual activity of
practicing. The good or bad states of phronesis are wise or unwise actions.
(Aristotle, 1985, Nicomachean Ethics, translated by T. Irwin Indianapolis,
Hackett Publishing Company), (Krystjanson 2005) and Maganga (2007).
Thus education was value laden like all ethical knowledge. Its
accomplishment depended on praxis the actions that implement its ideals
and their worth in achieving eudaimonia in actual doing what is good. In line
with Aristotle’s insights, we may define education as a means to the end
called “eudaimonia” or ultimate human good. Educational policies are
formulated in pursuit of such human good or eudaimonia.
Theoria, or knowing, is based on episteme, or true knowledge as opposed to
mere opinion, and on nous or understanding along with Sophia, which is
pure contemplative wisdom. The good or bad state of theoria comprises
being true or being false.
Techne is technical reasoning or thinking. It is based on eidos, which is the
idea of a plan or design. Techne involves poiesis, which is making or
producing. The good or bad states of techne are worthy or worthless
products.
Phronesis is prudence that is wise decision or judgement. It is based on
eudaimonia which is the ultimate human good. Phronesis involves praxis
which is action or actual activity of practicing. The good or bad states of
phronesis are wise or unwise actions. (Aristotle, 1985, Nichomachean
Ethics, translated by T. Irwin Indianapolis, Hackett Publishing Company),
(Krystjanson 2005) and Maganga (2007).
50
51
The modern or Neo-Aristotelianists connect educational reasoning and
reflection to phronesis and education itself to praxis. Thus educational
knowledge is ethical knowledge like knowledge on nutrition. Education is a
practical discipline rather than a theoretical one. Studying education alone
does not make one ‘educated’; one has to put into practice what one acquires
through education to become educated. Afraid North Whitehead (1926)
stated that education should not aim at merely imparting ‘scraps of
information’, but rather, “What we should aim at is producing men who
possess both culture and expert knowledge in some special direction”. To be
educated is to possess knowledge that guides our cultural practices.
“Culture is an activity of thought and receptiveness to beauty and humane
feelings.” Education is thus axiological seeking to attain eudaimonia in our
actual daily actions. To be educated is not merely to be learned or
knowledgeable, it is to be cultured, that is to acquire the habit acting
appropriately morally. The philosopher king in Plato’s ideal state is trained
not merely to become knowledgeable that is being highly intellectually
developed, but also and especially being proficient in moral integrity. His
educational training is reflected in his impartial dispensation of justice
among his subjects because he is trained and to become proficiently just.
As pointed out earlier, to Aristotle education was to aim at producing good
and virtuous youth for the city-state. Such ‘good and virtuous youth’ would
become educated in their actual daily practices. Nature, habit and reason
were three equally important forces that an individual needed to cultivate
through education. Habit was developed only through repeated practices in
virtuous activities.
These insights of Aristotle on education are reflected in Paul Hirst’s (2005)
conception of the nature of education as ‘a social practice’. To Paul Hirst,
51
52
the concept of practice is not confined to concrete actions or activities. He
regarded education as involving ‘social’ rather than ‘academic’ practices
because social practices are value laden, while academic practices are value
free.
In distinguishing between social and academic practices Paul Hirst used
Aristotle’s distinction between theoretical reason and practical reason. In
theoretical reason our capacity to reason is employed in the pursuit of truth,
justified beliefs and knowledge, for example in developing a scientific or
historical understanding. All this is an exercise in academic practices which
are value free. In practical reason our capacity to reason is employed in the
pursuit of justified actions, for example in political government, medical
treatment and education. This again is an exercise in social practices, which
are value laden.
Thus rational theoretical understanding is achieved by building up structures
of propositional beliefs. Rational practices are achieved through building up
structures of practical actions and activities or what Aristotle called habits.
The outcomes of theoretical reason are formulated propositions on which we
can agree in judging what constitutes the truth. The outcomes of practical
reason are actions or practices on which we can agree as appropriate in
achieving human good.
In the exercise of practical reason, for example in education, the outcomes
are agreed bodies of activities and practices in the doing of which we
achieve complex forms of individual and social good. Thus discourses on
education are practical discourses, which are value laden, rather than
theoretical discourses, which are value free.
The discerned practices constitute what is rational or prudent to do and it is
articulated in the actual doing the practical activities envisaged. Thus a
52
53
practical discourse and its patterns of reasoning must be developed in the
practice itself if it is to be adequate in meeting the complexities of
determining human goods such as eradication of hunger and poverty and
their achievement. Judgements of what Aristotle called phronesis or wisdom
lie at the core of practical discourses. Paul Hirst interpreted phronesis as a
natural ability to discern in actual practice what constitutes some particular
human good.
Rational practice, that is practical reason, was something possible only in the
light of practice itself. It involved the complexities of human thought,
feeling, dispositions and skills.
Although practical discourses could conceptually capture something of these
complexities, but what was rational to do could only be discerned in the
particular details of patterned imagination and activity within that particular
context and other developments in experience. By its abstract nature, the act
of conceiving a practical discourse is inadequate in discerning the
complexities of social practices, which are concerned with not only the
discernment, but also the actual achieving of human goods.
The complexities of social practices are composed of patterns of physical
and mental activities including physical and mental skills as well as
dispositions, desires, personal and social relations and their accompanying
principles and rules such as the precepts of natural justice that underlie
social relationships. Thus appropriate discourses of education as rational
practices can only be determined in the self-critical conduct of education
itself. The appropriateness of educational policy reforms in a given society,
for example, can only be determined during their implementation and in
their actual attaining the desired human good they were set up to pursue.
53
54
Discourses of education express phronesis which is prudent or wise
judgement on the basis of eudaimonia, the ultimate human good that forms
the end of education. Educational policies are expressions of phronesis or
educational discourses that form the ideals which education should pursue
and attempt to attain.
References
Aristotle, (1985): Nicomachean Ethics, translated by T. Irwin Indianapolis,
Hackett Publishing Company.
Hirst, Paul, H. and Carr, Wilfred; Philosophy and Education: A
Symposium”; Journal of Philosophy of Education; V vol. 39 Issue 4 pp.414-
632.
Krystjanson, Kristjan (2005); “Smoothing It: Some Aristotelian Misgivings
about Phronesis-Praxis Perspective on Education”; in Educational
Philosophy and Theory; Vol. 37 Issue 4 pp.455ff.
Lawhead William, F. (2003). The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive
Approach; New York McGraw Hill Book Company.
Maganga, Cajetan , Kumbai; (2007) Curriculum Innovations in Nonformal
Education; Open University of Tanzania. Dar es Salaam.
Maganga, Cajetan, Kumbai (2007); Philosophy and Education: Analysis and
Clarification in Reference to Education for All. Doctoral Thesis; Belford
University- California, USA.
Nyirenda, Suzgo D. and Ishumi Abel G. (eds.); Philosophy of Education an
Introduction to Concepts, Principles and Practices; Dar es Salaam; Dar es
Salaam University Press.
Plato 380 BC: Republic: Books V-VII. Translated by Benjamin Jowett;
Online Classics Archives ([email protected]).
54
55
Thales (624-545 B.C.) (Proceedings of the Friesian School. A Philosophical
Journal).
Whitehead, Alfred, North (1926); The Aims of Education and Other Essays.
New York; Macmillan
Chapter Three
Post-Ancient Greek Era to Seventeenth Century
Discourses on Education
3.1 Developments of Discourses in Education during the Medieval to
Post Renaissance Period.
After Socrates, Plato and Aristotle the next serious thinkers that have come
up with important insights on knowledge and therefore education, were
Plotinus (205-270 AD), Thomas Aquinas 1224-1274, Nicholaus Copernicus
(1473-15430) Galilei Galileo (1564-1642), Johannes Kepler, Francis Bacon
(1561-1626), Rene Descartes (1596 -1650) and John Locke (1632-1704).
Plotinus (205-270)
Plotinus (205-270 AD) was the founder of Neo-Platonism. He revived the
influence of both Plato and Aristotle. His main contribution in philosophical
discourses on education was in the subject-content matter of Theology as a
sub-branch of metaphysics, also as an aspect of epistemology in terms of
sources of knowledge.
In his discernment of metaphysics, Plotinus transcended the pagan gods as a
variety of beings above human beings by introducing the One, an impersonal
and Absolute Being similar to Plato’s good.
To Plotinus the One was the source of all being. Matter and the body were
essentially ‘not being’; and they were also evil, not good, (in Plato’s sense of
55
56
good). In between, were Plato’s forms, the gods, and soul. All existence was
analogous to light radiating from the sun as in the simile of Plato’s Republic.
Plotinus called this a “Declension of Being”, that is a variation of being as
depicted in the diagram her below.
(Source: Kelley L. Ross: History of
Philosophy, Online 2008)
When one was deprived of good,
one became evil which means lacking any good. The good that radiates from
the One, like light radiating from the sun to all planets and their moons
within the solar system, reaches all beings making them possess such good.
Plotinus asserted that the purpose of life was for the soul to return to union
with the One. The notion that evil corresponds to nothingness or lack of
being is perhaps the simplest explanation for the problem of the existence of
evil in the world. It appears from Plotinus’ viewpoint that people become
evil and fall into crime when they are deprived of the good that radiates from
the One. Degradation as a process by which one becomes deficient of moral
integrity is explained in terms of Plotinus’ model as an experience by which
one loses some of the good which radiates from God. One falls into
56
57
deprivation of some essential moral quality in one and thus one becomes
evil.
Plotinus thus provided a more elaborate paradigm of existence and
knowledge, which expanded Plato’s allegory of the cave. Education was the
cultivation of habits of pursuing the good, thus avoiding nothingness which
is evil, devoid of even the smallest amount good.
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas’ philosophical contributions on educational insights,
similar to those of Plotinus, are mainly in the branch of metaphysics,
especially theology. He addressed the question of how do we know that
there is a supernatural being as the fundamental and ultimate cause of all
existence? His concern was on reality and its primary cause. As we saw
earlier in chapter two, according to Plato through intelligible knowledge the
individual learner, the philosopher king of the ideal state i.e. Plato’s
Republic, is acquainted with three types of ideas: i.e. pure knowledge, pure
reality and pure values. The process of educating the prospective
philosopher king, for example, involves enlightening him through training
and guiding him to advance from acquaintance with visible information to
encounters with intelligible information where he is enlightened about pure
truths or knowledge, pure realities or material and nonmaterial entities and
pure values or what is actually right or proper to do. (Lawhead 2000 p.32-
33).
It is the ideas on fundamental reality or metaphysics that Thomas Aquinas
pursued. Thomas Aquinas’ insights are discerned in search of the ultimate
and most profound reality; this is the first cause of all that has been caused
to exist; that is God. Aquinas provided five arguments supporting the
57
58
existence of God as the source and cause of all reality. Three of these are
versions of the cosmological argument. The universe as a material reality,
and in its infinite enormity and extremely complex structure of the heavenly
bodies it comprises, and their continuous movements at very high speed,
reflects the extremely huge capacity, or omnipotence and might behind the
cause of such a universe’s existence or creation.
Thomas Aquinas’ first argument points out the fact that there is motion in
the world. To Aquinas ‘motion’ is any kind of change in the state of affairs
including change in temperatures of objects. Everything in motion is caused
to change or to move by a force. “Whatever is moved is moved by another.”
There must be a first mover ultimately that is the original cause of all
motions.
The second argument points out the fact that the world consists of causes
and effects, “there is an order of efficient causes” as Aquinas expressed it.
The argument suggests: Every entity including events and objects exist after
having been caused to exist. This cannot however have been going on
indefinitely. Somewhere at the beginning, there must have been the first
cause, from where other and subsequent causers emerged.
The third argument points out the fact that the world consists of contingent
and dependent beings. These naturally depend on some independent being
that supports and maintains their existence.
In the fourth argument Aquinas points out the fact that things are in grades
of quality and perfection; some are more and some are less good, true, and
noble or so forth in other qualities. All things of the same kind bear
resemblance in their qualities, the hot and the hotter between two of the
same nature resemble the hottest of the three things in that category.
Ultimately, a supremely perfect being must exist as the source and origin of
58
59
all values and qualities. We quote Aquinas’ expression: “There is something
which is truest, something best, something noblest, and, consequently,
something which is most being...” “The maximum in any genus is the cause
of all in that genus… there must also be something which is to all beings the
cause of their being, goodness, and every other perfection.” This argument
reflects Plotinus’ good that radiates from the One and source of all good.
In the fifth argument Aquinas points out the fact that occurrences have
purposes to fulfill. There is design in the world and it is deliberately made
so. “We see things which lack knowledge such as natural bodies act for an
end, and this is evident from their acting always… in the same way so as to
obtain the best result…they achieve their end, not fortuitously (not by
chance or coincidence) but designedly. Whatever lacks knowledge cannot
move towards an end unless it is directed by some being endowed with
knowledge and intelligence as the arrow is directed by the archer. Therefore
some intelligent being exists by whom all natural things are directed to their
ends and this being we call God.” This last argument of Thomas Aquinas
was a predecessor of teleology which is the theory that events and
developments are meant to fulfill a purpose and happen because of that,
(Paley, William (1809) Natural Theology, or Evidence of the Existence and
Attributes of the Deity. Printed for J. Falter. Online Wikipedia, 2009).
There is purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.
This is an intelligent purposeful activity. The works of nature must have
been designed and put into action to achieve predetermined ends by a being
with superior intelligence and wisdom. They are an indication of that
Being’s existence. In his Metaphysics exposition Aristotle argued that all
nature reflects inherent purposefulness and direction.
59
60
The five arguments are based on empirical observations of the world and
occurrences in it. Thus Thomas Aquinas was drawing from sensory
experiences in the form of observations to reach reasoned knowledge about
the material reality around or the universe and the ultimate ontological
explanations accounting for phenomena in it. Aquinas applied reason to
explain and provide the meaning of fundamental reality behind natural
phenomena in the universe.
To Thomas Aquinas therefore, human existence is rational; it entails seeking
and learning the meanings and the ultimate or the most fundamental cause
behind the universe as a complex material reality and the phenomena in it. It
is part of the answer to “what can we know?” which is an educational
insight.
Thomas Aquinas’ specific contribution to education lies in the curriculum
contents of Theology as a discipline, and in its methods of arriving at the
truth through reasoning. Although a great deal the curriculum contents in
theology as a discipline consist of revealed knowledge as its main area of
study, the discipline also contains rational knowledge as part of its
curriculum contents.
Nicholaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
According to Ross L. Kelly, modern science was born during the
Renaissance (1400-1527). Renaissance in Europe was a rebirth or return to
general knowledge of Greek language and traditions of classic learning. The
Renaissance was caused by a surge of Greek scholars in countries
neighbouring Greece. For example Manuel Chrysoloras arrived in Italy to
teach Greek at the University of Florence in 1397. This era rejuvenated
philosophical discourses on education. During the Renaissance philosophers
60
61
began to regard philosophy as the servant or ‘handmaiden’ of science.
Science began to produce startling discoveries that influenced modern
human life and history.
It all started with Nicholaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who was a Polish
astronomer. His real name was “Mikolaj Kopernik” which was latinised to
‘Nicholaus Copernicus’. Ancient and medieval philosophers held the notion
that the universe was geocentric and the earth was motionless and stationed
at the centre of the universe, while the other celestial bodies including the
sun, the moon and planets moved around the earth. Claudius Ptolemy who
lived during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180) of the Roman
Empire had written a book on astronomy entitled “The Greatest” that
described the universe as containing planets moving along small circular
orbits called epicycles, which were fixed to larger main orbits. The epicycles
moved in one direction and the main orbits moved in the opposite direction.
Source Kelley L. Ross: History of
Philosophy: Online 2009
This came to be known as the Ptolemaic system, (Kelly L. Ross, 2009 in
History of Philosophy, Online Document).
According to Ross Kelly, Copernicus noticed and postulated that the system
would be less complex if the sun and not the earth, were the centre of the all
these motions in the universe. Copernicus was however up against a
61
62
medieval prevailing theory of motion within the universe, which stated that
motion was caused by an impetus. Things were naturally at rest most of the
time. It was an impetus that moved and propelled them into motion, and they
kept moving until the impetus run out of steam, leaving the objects to slow
down and eventually come to a stand still.
Copernicus observed that the earth was not motionless, it moved along an
orbit of its own, and it span or revolved on its axis. The entire of Mercury’s
orbit and that of Venus around the sun were inside the earth’s orbit around
the sun. Copernicus also noticed that it was the earth’s spinning on its axis
which made the sun look as if it were moving around the earth. In 1546
Copernicus published the then controversial idea that the earth revolved
around the sun, not sun around the earth. This came to be known as the
Copernican astronomy, a revolution which contended that the sun, not the
earth was the centre of the universe. He suggested that it was the sun rather
the earth which was the centre of the universe. According to this
Copernicus’ view point, the earth and the rest of planets moved around the
sun. The apparent motion we observe as the sun travelling from the horizon
in the east to our overheads at noon and onwards to the horizon in the west,
was caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis.
It was Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) who eventually replaced the concept of
epicycles with one of elliptical orbits
long after Copernicus had died.
Source: Kelley L. Ross
History of Philosophy:
62
63
Johannes Kelpler (1571 –1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer
and astrologer and a major contributor to the scientific revolution. He
formulated the eponymous laws of planetary motion, which were codified by
later astronomers. Note that an eponym is the name of a person, whether real
or fictitious, after which a particular place, tribe, era, discovery, or other
item is named or thought to be named. One who is referred to as eponymous
is someone who gives his or her name to something, e.g. Julian, the
eponymous owner of the famous restaurant Julian's Castle. Something
eponymous is named after a particular person, e.g. Julian’s eponymous
restaurant.
Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between
astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy
(a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of
natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and
reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction that God had
created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through
the natural light of reason. Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial
physics", as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics", and as "a
supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens". He thus transformed the ancient
tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal
mathematical physics.
63
64
Kepler's Platonic (regular) solid model of the Solar System: From Mysterium
Cosmographicum (1596):
Close up Inner Section of the Platonic Solid Model of the Solar System.
From Cosmographicum Mysterium (The Cosmographic Mystery): Source:
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, 2009).
In his book, on The Cosmographic Mystery, Kepler proposed that the
relationships in distance among the six planets, known at that time, could be
understood in terms of the five Platonic solids, enclosed within a sphere that
64
65
represented the orbit of Saturn. The book explains Kepler's cosmological
theory, based on the Copernican system, in which the five Pythagorean regular
polyhedrons dictate the structure of the universe and reflect what Kepler
believed to be God's plan through geometry. According to Kepler, the ratio
was brought to his attention accidentally while demonstrating the calculation
of the ratio between a circle and another circle created by a rotated
inscription. From this he realised that he had stumbled on the ratio between
the orbits of Saturn and Jupiter. He wrote, “By a certain mere accident I
chanced to come closer to the actual state of affairs. I thought it was by
divine intervention that I gained fortuitously what I was never able to obtain
by any amount of toil.” But after doing further calculations he realised he
could not use the two-dimensional polygons to represent all the planets, but
instead he had to use the five Platonic solids.
(Recently, Johannes a Kepler Silver Commemorative coin of
the Euro was minted. The coin portrays Johannes Kepler. In front of him is a
model of his master piece, the “Mysterium Cosmographicum”. Source:
Wikipedia 2009).
Johannes Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are formulated and stated in his works.
They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of gravitation. The
laws of planetary motion were formulated between 1609 to b16l9, and they are stated
as follows: -
65
66
1. Planets move around the Sun in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus.
2. The line connecting the Sun to a planet sweeps equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube (3rd
power) of the mean distance from the Sun or in other words--of the “semi-major
axis" of the ellipse, half the sum of smallest and greatest distance from the Sun)
The first law upholds the Copernican astronomy. It endorses the notion that
the earth along with other planets revolve around the sun. The planets
revolve around the sun not along circular orbits, but rather along elliptic
orbits called ellipses.
The second law is more technical. It proposes that the line which links a
planet to the sun, in other words the radius of the planet’s orbit, goes through
equal areas in equal units of time. This means that one can calculate, in
number of days, the duration the planet takes to complete its revolution, or
sweep around the sun.
The third law states a mathematical formula, where by, the orbital period,
i.e. the period during which a planet completes a revolution around the sun,
is squared and proportionally related to the cube of the mean distance from
the sun to the planet, i.e. the mean radius of the planet’s orbit.
Galilei Galileo (1564-1642).
66
67
According to Kelly L. Ross (2008), the modern tradition of science began
with Copernicus and Galileo. The contention that the sun, not the earth, was
the centre of the universe was given empirical support by Galilei Galileo in
his studies on motion. Galileo made three important discoveries in the study
of motion as follows:
(i) He began applying mathematics to obtain precise information while
studying physics especially motion through experiments. Aristotle had
written an exposition on physics which was based on reason alone. He,
Aristotle, had stated that ‘if one object is heavier than another, it will fall
faster’. Galileo experimented that out and discovered that Aristotle was
wrong. Ignoring aerodynamics, everything, whether heavy or light, falls at
the same rate. Galileo found that rate of falling by rolling balls of unequal
weights down an inclined plane, (not by dropping the balls off the Leaning
Tower of Pisa, which is a legend – although that could have happened too).
(ii) Galileo distinguished between the velocity of the falling balls, in metres
per second, and the acceleration i.e. change of velocity, in metres per second
per second. This implies that Galileo obtained precise measures of the speed
of falling, and the rate at which that speed of falling increased per second
during the fall. He then discovered that it was gravity that produced
acceleration. That acceleration of the speed of falling was in fact 9.8 metres
per second per second. As the falling object approached the surface of the
earth gravitational pull on it tended to increase with decreases in the height
of the falling object above the earth’s surface.
Thus Galileo discovered that the simple speed or velocity of motions of
bodies in the universe is not felt. It is the acceleration or changes of the
speed of their motion that is felt. The earth can be moving without our
feeling its motion. It often occurs that when one is on a plane flying at a
67
68
constant speed high up in the sky, one does not feel that the plane is moving
at all; it seems to one as though it is still parked on the ground, especially
when plane is well above the clouds. Velocity does not change until a force
changes it. When the speed of the plane one is travelling on is changed
during its approach to landing, one feels that change in velocity.
(iii) Moreover through experiments Galileo discovered the principle of
inertia that an object at rest tends to remain so, or resist movement; and an
object in motion tends to go on moving or resist a discontinuation of its
motion. Both objects will remain in their rest or motion, until they are
moved, or stopped by another force. Galileo substituted this concept of
inertia with the concept of impetus, in the Ptolemaic system.
It is these physics laws that Galileo was discovering from experiments and
observation that made him a pioneer in the scientific revolution. This was a
new source of knowledge, different from the traditional source of reaching
the truth by speculating and reasoning. All these theories on motion were
eventually perfected by Isaac Newton (1642-1727).
In 1633, Galileo was tried by the inquisition in Rome and found guilty of
heresy. The court ordered him to renounce his beliefs and to stop, forth with,
writing or speaking about such matters again. He was also placed under
house arrest for life.
Galileo had however set up the beginning of the scientific revolution on
knowledge. Earlier systems of thought right up to Aristotle and Thomas
Aquinas had attempted to explain the world and natural phenomena in terms
‘final causes”. A final cause was the end towards which things moved.
Aristotle had stated earlier: “Every art and every inquiry, and every action
and pursuit is thought to aim at some good and for this reason the good has
been declared to be that at which all things aim.”(Nichomachean Ethics;
68
69
translated by W.D. Ross in: The Oxford Translation of Aristotle. Volume 9
1925, Oxford: Oxford University Press.)
In physics, Aristotle explained gravitational force on objects in suspension
as the cause of such objects’ falling movement. All motions including those
of stars and planets are caused by some force. Heavenly bodies went on
moving under the influence of some propelling force. “What is such a
propelling force of heavenly bodies?” Or “what force is there that keeps
heavenly bodies in continuous motion?’ To theists, these were questions that
could only be answered in terms of theology. It is God that continues to keep
the heavenly bodies in motion, as we saw in Thomas Aquinas’ first
argument. To atheists these are questions that could be answered in terms of
naturalism. It is nature that keeps heavenly bodies in continuous motion.
Galileo advocated Copernicus’ ideas in explaining the world and the natural
phenomena we observe there on. To answer the question “How do we
know?” which is an educational inquiry, Galileo supported Copernicus’
method of investigation in search for the truth. Galileo had used his newly
invented telescope to observe and obtain the most accurate information on
celestial bodies and their motions. That is observation through the use of
instruments that enhanced the accuracy of the data we derive from such
observations of phenomena. This was the beginning of modern empirical
methods of inquiry.
Through their combined work in astronomy and physics Copernicus and
Galileo initiated the ‘scientific revolution’. According to Kelley Ross
(Editor, The Friesian School; An Electronic Journal of Philosophy) (2008)
during the Renaissance modern science was born, and philosophy became
the ‘hand maiden of science’. Science brought about spectacular discoveries
which influenced modern life and history.
69
70
The scientific revolution began roughly in 1543 when Nicolaus Copernicus
published his “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” i.e. The Heavenly
Spheres. In the same year Andreas Vesalius published “De Humani
Corpunis Fabrica” i.e. On the Fabric of the Human Body. (Cf. The Friesian
School: An Electronic Journal of Philosophy “Modern Western Civilisation:
and “The Scientific Revolution in the 17th Century”; Wikipedia Free
Encyclopedia, 2009). The foundation for modern science through a
revolution in the methods of inquiry was laid mainly through the use of
observation and experimentation combined with rational interpretation to
arrive at inferences based on empirical data was thus initiated.
Galileo came up with evidence to support Copernicus’ theory. Galileo
started his systematic study of motion in space by making the first
astronomical telescope. He got the initial idea of the telescope from an
earlier discovery which had been found in the Netherlands that “putting
together two lenses makes distant objects look close”. While observing
celestial bodies, using his telescope, Galileo found that: - (a) the moon had
mountains and valleys. This upset the ancient notion that heavenly bodies
including the moon were completely unlike the earth. (b) The planets did not
emit any lights of their own like the stars; the former merely reflected lights
emitted by the latter. (c) Jupiter had four moons. This upset the ancient
notion that there could only be one centre of the universe, which was the
earth, and all other bodies in the universe moved around the earth, not
around any other celestial body. (d) There were more stars in the sky other
than those that could be seen by the human eye, and that the Milk Way,
which looked just a glow, was itself composed of innumerable stars. (e)
Venus went through phases like the moon. Venus was seen through phases
of crescent, half and full Venus.
70
71
With the approval of Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644), who was a friend of his,
Galileo wrote a book entitled ‘Dialogue on Two Principal Systems of the
World (1632) that compared the Ptolemaic system with that of Copernicus,
which provided an empirical justification of Copernicus’ contentions.
Unfortunately the character that represented the Ptolemaic system in the
book seemed foolish and unhappily the Pope interpreted that as a caricature
of himself. The Pope ordered an arrest and a trial of Galileo. In spite of this
turn of events, the scientific revolution had began and was here to stay, One
of the chief architects in its wake was Francis Bacon through his writings on
modern philosophy and prescriptions of the Baconian method.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626),
Francis Bacon was one of the Renaissance philosophers who influenced
educational thought through his advocating the scientific revolution. He was
essentially one of the earliest modern empiricists, like Galileo who adopted
the new method of inquiring into phenomena through observation and
experimentation. Francis Bacon popularised the inductive methodology for
scientific investigation. He advanced a method of scientific investigation
that has come to be called the ‘Baconian method’. This is an investigative
method that Bacon developed and wrote in his book ‘Novum Organum’ i.e.
New Instrument. It is a forerunner of the modern scientific methods. He
wrote it to replace Aristotle’s ‘Organon’ which was based on merely
reasoning ways of investigation.
“Those who have taken upon themselves to lay down the law of nature as
some thing that has already been discovered and understood have done a
great harm to philosophy and science,” Bacon stated. “… they have
produced beliefs in people, … and squashed as well as stopped inquiry…,
putting an end to other men’s efforts”. “Some others have asserted that
71
72
absolutely nothing can be known. …” “The earlier of the ancient Greeks had
taken the position between; … one extreme presuming to pronounce
everything; … the opposite extreme despairing of coming to understand.”
According to Bacon, settling the question of whether anything can be known
was not by arguing, but by trying, testing and experimenting. “My method is
hard to practice but easy to explain,” he stated. : “I open up a new and
certain path for the mind to follow starting from sense perception”. He noted
that he was not setting up a rivalry between himself and the ancient
philosophers. His aim was to set up a new road for the intellect to follow, a
road the ancients did not know and did not try to know. He did not aim at
overthrowing the philosophy that was flouring then or any others like it. His
philosophy was for discovering new knowledge through experiments. His
approach was “the mind’s interpretation of nature”. This is an observational
and experimental method of inquiry that has come to be called the ‘Baconian
method’. (Bennett, Jonathan (2007): The New Organon. By Francis Bacon).
The Baconian method consists of procedures for isolating the cause of a
phenomenon, including factors of agreement or concurrence with the
phenomenon, factors of difference with the phenomenon and methods of
commitment variation with the phenomenon.
The actual procedures in the Baconian method are: (a) drawing up a list of
things in which the phenomenon occurs and (b) another list of things in
which its does not occur. By comparing these two lists one deduces the
factors that accompany the occurrence of the phenomenon and the situations
where the phenomenon does not occur. Through deductive reasoning, the
investigator deduces the causes underlying the phenomenon. “Thus if any
army is successful when commanded by Essex, and not successful when not
commanded by Essex: and when it is more or less successful according to
72
73
the degree of involvement of Essex as its commander, then it is scientifically
reasonable to say that being commanded by Essex is causally related to the
army’s success,” (Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia 2009).
The end of induction is discovery of “forms” or ideas. In Plato’s view point
these are immaterial. Forms are the only objects of study that can provide us
with genuine knowledge. In other words the end results of the process of
inductive reasoning are laws which apply to all phenomena of that particular
kind we are investigating.
Francis Bacon also listed what he called ‘idols of the mind’ that is, things
which obstructed the path of correct scientific reasoning.
These were: - (i) Idols of the tribe (idola tribus); this is a human tendency to
impose some preconceived order or regularity on sensations, which may not
actually exist in the real world. ”It is not true that the human senses are
measures of things; for all perceptions of senses as well as of the mind
reflect the perceiver rather than the world. The human intellect is like a
distorting mirror which receives light rays irregularly and so mixes its own
nature with the nature of things which it distorts.” (Bennett 2007 p.7) (ii)
Idols of the Den or Cave (idola specus); these are tendencies of an individual
person’s dispositions and feelings towards given phenomena, such as likes
and or dislikes of certain objects, events or people. “Everyone has his
personal cave or den that breaks up and corrupts the light of nature”.
(Bennett 2007 p.8). (iii) Idols of the market place (idola fori); these are
tendencies to confuse usages of expressions and attribute to them the wrong
meanings. “These are those formed by men’s agreements and associations
that fix meanings of words. The market place is where men come to do
business by talking with one another on transactions using familiar
expressions that reflect common folk’s ways of thinking. The intellect is
73
74
hindered by wrong or poor choices of words. Learned men use definitions to
protect themselves against such poor choices of expressions, but these don’t
always help for words force and overrule the intellect, throwing everything
into confusion and leading men astray into empty disputes and idle fancies.
(iv) Idols of the theatre (idola theatric); these are tendencies to misinterpret
and use certain philosophical schools of thought that may be inappropriate to
the given phenomena. They tend to abuse authoritative knowledge. People in
organisations or systems tend to act as if they were on a stage in a play,
making fictitious staged worlds of their own. Such staged acts mislead us
into false beliefs.
In his search for the truth through the Baconian method the investigator
should be aware of all these idols and strive to prevent their influence in his
interpreting the results of his investigation. He should prevent them from
‘obstructing the path of correct scientific reasoning.’ This is an exercise and
disposition of the investigator during an investigation. It is characterised by
three features:- (i) Avoiding the influence of preconceived notions and
prejudices on the issue under investigation; (ii) Being thorough in collecting
adequate corroborating evidence on the issue under investigation; (iii) Being
open minded in respect of, and ready to accept the results that come up
through our investigations - however disagreeable they are, or may happen
to be, with our expectations. Francis Bacon’s discourses formally
established the scientific revolution that was earlier initiated by Galileo and
Copernicus in terms of epistemological inquiry. Scientific discoveries of
new knowledge were to be carried out through the use of the Baconian
method involving objective observation and drawing inferences based on
adequate corroborations supplied by field observations.
74
75
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Along with adopting observation and experimentation as means of searching
for the truth, the scientific revolution adopted scepticism, the attitude and act
of doubting any suggested truth in search of certainty. Rene Descartes
championed such scepticism.
Because of the characteristics of the questions he raised and the problems he
created on knowledge and knowing i.e. his pursuit of the indubitable and
certainty, Descartes has been called ‘the father of modern philosophy and
philosophical inquiry’, (Shipka and Minton 1996, Ross, Kelley 2009). He is
also recognised as a pioneer of modern epistemology (Lawhead 2000).
Having been born in a wealth family, Descartes received the best education
available in France. He inherited a fortune from his family which enabled
him to study, travel and write. In spite of the high reputation of the college in
which Descartes studied, he felt that the education he had received was
virtually a mere collection of traditional ideas, many of which had been
proven false by his own research. His lifelong passion and career was to find
certainty. He discarded all that he had previously learnt in order to lay the
foundations of his own knowledge. He did not become a scepticist as such,
but used scepticism as means in his search for certainty. Each one of his
beliefs was to be critiqued under scepticism as the tool of for ensuring
certainty. He did not tolerate any doubts at all on a belief. The slightest
suggestion that a given belief was probably an illusion was enough for
Descartes to discard it. Only those beliefs that survived this rigorous
sceptical test of his would be accepted by Descartes as valid knowledge.
“I will apply myself earnestly and unreservedly to this general demolition of
my opinions”, Descartes wrote in “Meditation One: Concerning Things that
Can be called into Doubt”. “I will not need to show that all my opinions are
75
76
false… I should withhold my assent from opinions that are not completely
certain and indubitable.”
The opinions on which Descartes withheld his assent were those that he
derived from concrete information whose sources were sensory experiences.
Thus he wrote: “Surely whatever I had admitted until now as most true I
received from either the senses or through the senses. However I have
noticed that the senses are sometimes deceitful…It is prudent “never to place
our complete trust on those who have deceived us even once.”
“It is from the components of true colours that false images of things are
fashioned in our thoughts. This class of things appears to include corporeal
nature in general, together with their extensions, shapes, quantities and sizes
as well as places where they exist including the time through which they
endure.
“Thus it is not improper to conclude from this that physics, astronomy,
medicine and all other disciplines that are dependent upon consideration of
composite things are doubtful, and that, on the one hand, arithmetic,
geometry and other such disciplines, which treat of nothing but the simplest
and the most general things and which are indifferent as to whether these
things do or do not, in fact exist, contain something certain and indubitable.”
To Descartes, the disciplines that provided information which was
indifferent to, or not dependent on, sensory information were more certain
and indubitable than those others that are dependant on sensory
information. Opinions based on the former category of disciplines were
indubitable. This shows Descartes’ commitment to rationalism and the
idealist theory of innate ideas in line with Plato’s and Socrates contentions.
Idealism contends that reality is derived from ideas of the intellect, not
senses. Learning is acquisition of ideas through intelligible information, as
76
77
we saw in Chapter two while dealing with Plato’s process of educating the
philosopher king of the ideal state. Learning in fact is merely remembering
what we already have in our minds.
In Meditation V (7:64) Descartes remarked: “I am not so much learning
something new as remembering what I knew before… “We come to know
them by the power of our own native intelligence” In Meditation II
Descartes describes a thought experiment, whereby he” dug out” what is
innate. Thought experiments help the learners to achieve pure mental
scrutiny and to easily apprehend innate ideas, (Meditation II 7:30). Our
minds come stocked with a variety of intellectual concepts i.e. ideas whose
contents are derived from the mature mind.
(i) Descartes’ method is foundationalist. “My method is that of an
architect. I began taking everything that was doubtful and throwing it out
like sand.” In Mediation I, Descartes asserts the need “to demolish
everything completely and started again from foundations”. Sceptical
doubts are the ground-clearing tools of epistemic demolition. Doubts
undermine epistemic grounds like bull dozers undermine sites for new
buildings.
Descartes does not doubt for the sake of doubting. He uses scepticism as a
tool for reconstructing knowledge that is indubitable, (Metaphysics
Research Lab. 2008; Stanford University Encyclopedia).
To Descartes, therefore education is a process of searching for knowledge
that is certain and indubitable, which constitutes indefeasible convictions
that the individual acquires, accepts and adopts. The main contribution that
Descartes’ insights made in promoting the course systematic inquiry on the
truth is scepticism as a tool to use in pursuing certainty. The scientific
revolution in its investigations of phenomena uses scepticism by
77
78
withholding final conclusions during any scientific investigation until there
is sufficient data to warrant the purported conclusion. (Nyirenda and
Ishumi 2000).
Descartes’ contribution to both in philosophy and in education is extremely
significant. Philosophy is the love of wisdom that is the ardent pursuit of
the truth. Education has no meaning if it fails to impart or facilitate the
acquisition of indubitable information i.e. the truth. The pursuit for
certainty is the essence of philosophy and its main contribution to
education. Education is not a process of misinforming learners or
misdirecting them away from the truth.
Descartes’ contention that his own education was virtually a mere
collection of traditional ideas, most of which were false is a challenge to
modern education systems in the world. It challenges them to examine the
curriculum contents of each discipline they teach to see if such contents are
indubitable. Moreover each of these contents of education should eliminate
in each discipline all areas that embody causes for the slightest incredulity.
This scrutiny is particularly directed to those disciplines that are value
laden.
In the widest sense, education may be defined as the development of
mental and physical capabilities and capacities, including talents of an
individual to their fullest potentiality for the purpose of meeting his needs
and interests as well as those of the society he lives in. Such talents are
conceived as innate or present within the individual at birth. Through the
process of education the individual is guided and assisted in developing
them to their fullest fruition. This is a process of education that is identical
to Plato education of the philosopher king of the ideal state, i.e. Plato’s
Republic entailing what Paul Hirst (2005) called practical discourses. Such
78
79
disciplines prescribe what is to be done and the doing or implementation of
such prescriptions achieves human good or eudaimonia. These are
disciplines such as law, politics and education. It is generally agreed
among philosophers of education the overarching aim of education is the
attainment of human good or eudaimonia. Ishtiyaque Haji and Stefaan
Cuypers, (2008) for example stated that “educators should strive to do their
best to ensure that our children develop into individuals who enjoy lives
that are good in themselves for them.” (Ishtiyaque, Haji and Stefaan
Cuypers, (2008): “Authenticity-Sensitive Preferentism and Education for
Well-Being and Autonomy” in Journal of Philosophy of Education
(PESGB Online) Volume 42, Issue 1, p.85).
Idealism
Rene Descartes was idealist like Plato and Socrates.
Philosophical thinking on education has often dealt with the question of
knowledge or the truth. Plato as we saw earlier addressed the question of
‘what can be known?’ It was necessarily followed by the question ‘how do
we know?’ Both of these questions are central concerns in education.
Education as a process of acquiring knowledge including meaning or
understanding along with competences and values is an epistemological
concern. There have been two opposing schools of thought in philosophy,
namely empiricism and rationalism or idealism, which have addressed
questions on knowledge and sources of knowledge. The contention of
idealism is that ultimate reality is found in the upper sunlit chamber world
above the cave in Plato’s ‘Allegory of the Cave’.
79
80
Idealism is a metaphysical and epistemological position which contends that
the essence or fundamental reality of any material entity is immaterial or
mental, not matter. All concrete entities are reducible to ideas. Ideas are
generalisations from particular incidents.
The conversation between Socrates and a priest called Euthyphro, which was
cited in Chapter Two page 24 above, illustrates the difference between ideas
and incidents in which their existence is manifested.
Socrates: And what is piety, and what is impiety?
Euthyphro: Piety is doing what I am doing: that is to say prosecuting any
one who is guilty of murder, sacrilege or of any other crime - whether he is
your father or mother or some other person - that makes no difference; not
prosecuting them is impiety.
Socrates commented saying that the priest’s definition of piety was no very
helpful. It merely pointed out an example of such a quality. The priest’s
statement avoids stating the nature or essence of piety. The essence of piety
as an idea that applies to all specific incidents or acts of piety is shown in the
conduct of people. Any one can use such knowledge or idea to justly decide
if a particular incident of human behaviour is or is not holy or pious.
Ideas are products of the mind. Socrates wanted the priest to define piety and
impiety, as ideas that apply every time in the conduct of every human being.
Idealism is then a metaphysical and epistemological theory which asserts the
basic essence of things, or fundamental reality is not physical or corporeal,
or in the form of a body; it is not matter. Matter is either not wholly real, or
at most, a subordinate and dependent reality. Socrates and Plato who held
this conception of reality maintained that material things are only imperfect
ideas. They are similar to shadows of objects, or the tips of icebergs.
Sensory experiences convey to us mere shadows of reality. It is reason
80
81
which conveys to us the ideas behind the concrete objects. Reason conveys
to us ideas that are the fundamental realities behind the particular incidents
which we observe as external manifestations of such ideas.
Idealism maintains three major contentions as follows:-
(1) Reason is the primary and most superior source of knowledge
about reality.
Idealists argue that fundamental truths about reality can only be understood
adequately through reason. For example in logic, the law that if argument
‘A’ is true, then argument ‘not-A’ cannot be true and vice versa. This is law
of no contradiction.
In mathematics the area of a triangle will always be one half of the length of
the base times its height.
A
h 1/2 b
!
B C
Area of triangle ABC = 1/2 b x h, where b is the base and h is the height of
the triangle. This is a mathematical truth obtained through reason based on
calculation of the area of a rectangle.
In metaphysics, the assertion that “Every event has a cause” is a fundamental
truth about reality. An entity with contradictory properties cannot exist; no
matter how long we search for a round square, we shall never find it because
it cannot exist.
81
82
(2) Sensory Experience is an Unreliable and Inadequate Route to
Knowledge
Sensory experience is often illusionary, vague and unpredictable. What
seems “sweet music” to one individual may turn out “harsh noise” to a
second individual. The stick that is half submerged in water appears broken
to an observer. The puddles of water that appear in the centre of the tarred
road on a hot day are illustrations produced by the unreliable sensory
experiences. Sensory experiences can only tell us about particulars and
concrete objects. They cannot give us universal, foundational truths about
such images. Sensory experiences tell us about the appearance of a particular
ball we see, but not the properties of all spheres in general.
(3) Fundamental Truths about the World Can Be Known A Priori:
They are either Innate or Self- Evident in our Minds.
To be known a priori is to be perceived or to be made manifest before or
without experience. Innate ideas are those that exist in our minds at birth,
they are inborn ideas. These ideas are principles that the mind contains prior
to experience. The idealists compare the mind with a computer that comes
from the factory with numerous programmes already loaded on its disks
waiting to be activated.
All the ideas such as natural justice, existence of God, equality of the
corresponding angles of congruent triangles etc. are already contained deep
within the mind and only need to be brought to level of conscious
awareness. Some other idealists believe that even if the mind does not
already contain these ideas at birth, they are at least either self evident or
natural to the mind or the mind has a natural disposition to recognise them,
(Lawhead 2003).
82
83
Idealism forms the basis of modern conceptualisation and characterisation of
education as a process. Etymologically education is derived from three Latin
expressions, namely educatum, which means the act of teaching or training,
educere, which means to lead out or draw out, educare, which means to
bring up or to raise. The three terms have their root educa, which means to
draw from within. This implies that each child is born with some innate or
in-born tendencies, capacities, talents or powers and other such qualities or
attributes. Education has to draw out these capabilities and talents so as to
develop them. Educare and educere also mean bring up or lead out and
develop. In this sense, education means developing the innate qualities of
the child to the full. These include cognitive capacities or powers to derive
meanings and understanding of acquired information.
3.2 Modern Empiricism
John Locke (1632 -1704)
The scientific methods of inquiry and pursuit of the truth are under- pinned
by the philosophical movement of empiricism. John Locke (1632-1704) is
the philosopher who laid the foundations of modern empiricism. John
Locke’s philosophical discourses on education are found in his
publications: The book he wrote to express his empiricist thoughts is ‘An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding’.
The Age of Enlightenment was ushered by John Locke’s publication of
this book in 1689. The publication also ushered the scientific revolution
and it was the most influential book in the 18th century in Europe, apart
from the Bible. John Locke’s other book: “Some Thoughts Concerning
Education”, which addressed issues on education directly, was published
later in 1693. The Essay on human understanding addressed the questions
83
84
that: (a) Is knowledge possible? (b) Does reason provide us with
knowledge of the world independently of experience? (c) Does our
knowledge represent reality as it really is? These are epistemological and
educational questions, which John Locke attempted to answer. He laid the
foundations of modern empiricism as a philosophical movement
underpinning the scientific revolution.
Empiricism is an epistemological position which contends that genuine
knowledge is what comes to us through our sensory experiences.
Empiricism contends that the only sources of genuine knowledge are our
senses of sight, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting. Thus the Baconian
method of inquiry, through observation is the only certain way of ensuring
our discovering genuine knowledge. The mind is like a blank sheet of
paper upon which experience makes its marks. John Locke stated that the
child’s mind is like ‘a white sheet of paper on which experiences are
recorded. (Axell, James L. (1968) Introduction to the Educational Writings
of John Locke cited in Lawhead, 2003).
John Locke’s discourses on education had significant contribution
especially in the epistemological movement of empiricism. Empiricism
argues that without sensory experience we would not know specific
features in the world around us. We have no ability to conceive qualities
such as colours, odours, sounds or musical notes, tastes and textures
including hard or soft and smooth surfaces. Without taste buds we cannot
tell whether the food we are eating has too much salt or no salt at all. If one
has no taste buds one will not conceive how bitter quinine is, or how sweet
honey is. The child gets information about his surroundings only through
his senses. It then reaches his mind. His mind works on such information
using its reasoning capacity. Empiricism contends that reason is grounded
84
85
on the solid bedrock of sensory experience. Reason alone cannot generate
brand new ideas.
John Locke’s basic questions were “How far can human understanding
attain certainty?” and “In what cases can human understanding only judge
and guess?” According to John Locke the building blocks of knowledge
are ideas. An idea is anything that is “the immediate object of perception,
thought or understanding”. Ideas are expressed in words, such as
whiteness, hardness, sweetness thinking, motion, man, elephant, army etc.
These are basic units of knowledge or atoms of thought. The mind can’t
invent a brand new idea that it has not experienced. “Whence has it (i.e. the
mind) all the materials of reason and knowledge?” Locke posed the
question. “To this I answer in one word: From Experience” he replied. “…
all our knowledge is founded and from that it…” John Locke (1689) An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding an Edition with Introduction by
Peter H. Nodditch (1975) Oxford, Charendon Press p.105).
In a dictionary, the word ‘yellow’ is defined as the colour of a ripe lemon.
The dictionary refers one, to elements of one’s experience to make the idea
clear, that is to give it meaning.
Ideas are sensational or reflectional. Sensational ideas are those ideas we
have on sensory qualities such as red, yellow, cold, soft, hard, better or
sweet. Reflectional ideas are those ideas we gain from reflecting about our
experiences during mental operations. These are ideas created during
introspection. We have ideas through perception, thinking, doubting,
believing, reasoning, knowing, willing and the emotions or feeling, which
are psychological activities.
The human mind passively receives simple ideas through experience, such
as sounds, colours and other sensations. The mind can process these ideas
85
86
into complex ideas, which are combinations of simple ideas that are treated
as unified objects such as books, trees, elephants and human beings.
To produce complex ideas, John Locke discerned three activities of the
mind: (i) compounding or uniting together several simple ideas; (ii)
relating one idea with another, which produces complex ideas concerning
relationships such as husband and wife, father and son, cause and effect, all
of which are complex ideas; (iii) abstracting from a series of particular
experiences that provide us with general ideas. Individual books can have
specific colours; some are blue, black, red; or paper or hardbound covers.
All books are rectangular objects containing pages with writings in them.
So, this is John Locke’s answer to the question “is knowledge possible?”
“Yes it is”. Knowledge is gained by the individual through sensation that is
direct sensory experience or through reflection. Sensation produces merely
simple ideas which John Locke referred to as ‘concrete’. Reflection
produces complex ideas by compounding or relating simple ideas and by
abstracting the complex ideas from a series of particular incidents of
experience.
(b) John Locke’s answer to the question of the role of reason i.e. does
reason provides us with knowledge of the world? John Locke answered it
with a “No”. Without sensory experience man has no way of gaining
knowledge of the world around him. According to John Locke, there are
no innate ideas in the mind. “All knowledge is founded from, that is, it
ultimately derived from experience.”(Jon Locke (1689) Chapter One Book
II). He said that we first arrive at the concept of, say, ‘imperfection’ from
the things we experience and then we imaginatively remove these
imperfections until we form the concept of perfection.
86
87
According to John Locke even the concept of ethics can be put on an
empirical foundation. Because we have no direct sensations that
correspond to the concepts of good and evil, we find other sensations and
from which, the notions of good and evil may be derived. John Locke’s
empiricist moral theory begins with our experiences of pain and pleasure.
We call good whatever tends to cause us pleasure; and we call evil
whatever tends to cause us pain. Experience can in this way teach us that
certain behaviours are morally good, such as keeping promises prevents
harm. They lead us to the most satisfying results. Moral codes of most
cultures have a great number of similarities or commonality, because
morality consists of the wisdom derived from collective experiences
among human beings. Thus in John Locke’s views what constitutes ‘good
conduct’ is acquired among human beings through collective experiences.
It is not innate or derived from mere intuition in the mind.
(c) John Locke’s answer on the representation of reality i.e. does our
knowledge represent reality as it really is? Is that “Yes it does”; although
we need to be clear on what parts of our experience objectively represent
reality; and what parts only reflects our own subjectivity.
John Locke guards us against illusions. Sensory properties according to
him are objective when they are experienced in the same manner by every
one of us. These are called primary qualities. They include properties of
solidity, extension, shape, motion and number. These are properties that
can be mathematically expressed and scientifically studied.
Sensory properties are subjective when they appear or seem different from
one individual observer to another. These are secondary qualities, such as
colour, sound, smell, taste and texture. They form secondary qualities of
87
88
objects with properties that are subjectively perceived by our sense organs
making them appear different from the objects that produce them.
So, John Locke’s answer on the question “Does our knowledge represent
reality as it really is?” is that it does except only when reporting about
objects’ primary qualities, which are objectively perceived.
Thus both meaning and credibility of our beliefs must be subjected to
reality-based empirical tests. Empiricism seeks verity of propositions and
concepts in reference to objective reality.
Empiricist insights are of benefit in the exercise of formulating educational
policies and in the exercise of conducting educational practices. The
teaching of concepts during instructions for example must refer to their
meanings in this way.
Moreover there is a research method in education called ‘empirical
educational research’, Philips (2005). This method seeks to establish the
truth by reference to “real cases” from field observations. Philips defines
empirical educational research as “a broad domain of inquiry that covers
not only the work of teachers, but also covers inquiries into materials, the
processes in learners, specific subject matter, the teachers’ decision
making, the study of gender and cultural differences and their impact on
learning and access to opportunities to learn, programme evaluation that is
intended to reveal both the positive and unintended harmful classroom
interventions, the design experiments that are becoming more common as
researchers teachers and curriculum developers cooperate, and the broader
interests of those who monitor or plan at a regional or national level the
operation and organisation and funding the educational system”. Thus
empirical educational research does not deal merely with the activities of
teachers in classrooms. Nor does it deal with merely curriculum
88
89
development, implementation and evaluation. Philips seeks an empirical
research that can illuminate educational phenomena and can be useful to
practitioners and policy makers in education. Empiricism thus relates
philosophy to educational discourses and undertakings.
The implication of empiricist insights in education is on justifying the
verity of ideas as truly representing reality. According to John Locke to
test that every idea, concept or term used in education one has to trace it
back to an original experience from which it was derived. David Hume
also supported this by stating that impressions or sensory data are what
give our terms meaning. Sensory experiences indicate the meanings of the
words we use. To find out whether a philosophical term or idea we are
using has any meaning “we need but enquire from what impression
(sensory experience) that idea is derived. And if it is impossible to assign
any (sensory experience) this will serve to confirm our suspicion (that it
has no meaning). “By bringing ideas into so clear light we may reasonably
hope to remove all disputes, which may arise concerning the nature of
reality”. All reality is based on sensory experience. (Hume, David: An
Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding)
John Locke’s Direct Contribution on Education
Apart from founding the philosophical movement of modern empiricism
John Lock also contributed insights directly on education in his treatise
titled Some Thoughts Concerning Education, which was compiled from
Locke’s letters to a friend advising him about his child’s education.
(Yolton, John (1971) John Locke and Education; New York, Random,
House). This philosophical discourse on education influenced most
89
90
subsequent writers on the philosophy of education in Europe including
Jean Jacques Rousseau.
John Locke dwelt on nature of the human personality. He argued that the
human personality is mainly an outcome of education. “Of all men we
meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not,
by their education.” (Locke, John; Some Thoughts Concerning Education
and Of the Conduct of the Understanding: (Eds. Ruth W. Grants and
Nathan Tarcov; Indianapolis; Hackett Publishing Co. 1969. p.108).
Education instills moral qualities in the individual, apart from knowledge
and understanding as well as competences.
John Locke’s treatise in his book “Some Thoughts Concerning Education”
identified three areas in which the development of the child’s personality is
effected through education. These are (i) physical or bodily health (ii)
moral or character development (iii) and intellectual or mental
development.
On bodily development of the child’s personality Locke advocated that
parents should nurture their children’s physical “habits” before pursuing
their academic education. He quoted Decimus Junius Juvenalis, who was a
Roman poet during the first century A.D. and who had stated: “a sound
mind in a sound body”.
On moral or character development of the child’s personality John Locke
stated that “Virtue is the first and most necessary of the endowments that
belong to man or gentleman”. He defined virtue as self denial in conduct,
guided by reason. “ … a man is able to deny himself his own desires, cross
his own inclinations and purely follow what reason directs, though the
appetite leans the other way”,( Locke, John; Some Thoughts Concerning
Education and of the Conduct of Understanding; Eds. Ruth W. Grants and
90
91
Nathan Tarcov. p 25). Thus the most important quality education is
supposed to effect in the development of the child’s personality is
character or moral development.
John Locke’s definition of virtue as “self denial in conduct guided by
reason” is an assertion on an individual person’s will-power. It presupposes
that among the mental capacities of human beings is his power to decide,
want or will. It is power of determination. That is, for example, the will to
live, the will to fight or the will to succeed. Will-power is the central
commanding capacity of the individual person’s conduct and character. It
needs to be fostered, strengthened, developed and guided through moral
development in education. The outcome of the individual person’s moral
development is his attainment or accomplishment of moral integrity as a
habit.
On academic development Locke contended that education is concerned
with instilling not just virtuous but also cognitive skills. The teacher
“should remember that his business is not so much to teach knowledge as
to raise in him (in the child) a love and esteem for knowledge and to put
him in the right way of knowing and improving himself”. Leaning is an
undertaking in which the learner must be active and strive to improve
himself. The teacher merely facilitates the process of learning, which is
entirely done by the learner, (Locke, John opt. ct p. 148.)
John Locke advocated the teaching of geography, astronomy, and
anatomy. Besides he favoured vocational education. “… every child should
learn a trade.” (Bantock, G. H. “The Under-labourer in Courtly Clothes”:
Locke; Studies in History of Educational Theory: Artifice and Nature
1350-1765; London, George Allen and Unwind (1980) pp. 240-2).
91
92
There is a modern educational theory on the taxonomy of educational
objectives which divides such objectives into three domains, namely the
cognitive, the affective and psychomotor domains, (Bloom 1956,
Krathwoh 1964, Harrow 1972 .Cf. page 140 below). This educational
theory is based on John Locke’s insights in respect of the development of
the child’s personality through education.
John Locke’s Contributions to Political and Moral Philosophical
Foundations of Education
Apart from the direct contribution on educational thought John Locke also
made contributions in the political and moral philosophical foundations of
education. These have a bearing on the ends or fundamental purposes of
education. They address the question of whether education should be
established for achieving the common (collective) human good, in stead or
negligence, of achieving the individual person’s good without at the same
time violating his natural rights. John Locke’s thesis is that government is
justified to exist only in order to protect the natural rights of its citizens.
John Locke was the founder of the social contract theory and contributed a
lot to political and moral philosophy. He is the key source of government
by consent, rule through majority will, natural human rights, and
separation of power. He together with others influenced the move to
circumscribe or restrict the powers of the British monarchy. He stated that
although we delegate our powers and freedom to the government through
the social contract, we do not surrender them. We retain the ultimate
control of our lives. The government is always our creation and servant.
The individual citizen has ultimate control over his own life. The
92
93
government provision of education to its citizens is part of its duty to
accord every citizen his right to social amenities and promote his well-
being.
John Locke was a believer of the theory of natural law which contends that
the conduct of individuals and that of society was governed by a universal,
objective natural moral law, which is not based on human conventions.
Thus he wrote: “To understand political power right and derive it from its
origin, we must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a
state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their
possessions as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature,
without asking leave or depending upon the will of any man.”
This means that all human beings possess the natural right to freedom or
liberty to control their own lives. Thus education, as a way of instilling
control on the individual’s liberty and right to choose what to do in life,
can only be legitimated by the individual person’s consent to be educated.
Or else it is an infringement on the individual’s right to liberty.
In his second book on “Treatise of Government”, John Locke considered
the government as originating in the consent of the governed to protect
their natural rights to life, liberty and property or ‘estate’ (Shipka and
Minton 1996 p.389). Government is established through a social contract
in which the citizens agree to be bound by law and to decrees of the
government, as long as the government abides by the will of the majority.
The citizens have the ultimate power of removing the government when it
fails to abide with the duties and responsibilities it shouldered in coming
into political power.
93
94
Thus it is the will of the majority which dictates the limits of government
authority. The government exists only because it is a creation and servant
of the governed. It is there to pursue the collective good of the governed.
John Locke’s discourses on government had far reaching repercussions in
regards education. They inspired respect for natural human rights to life,
liberty and property including the right to education as a means of attaining
human good.
According to Lawhead (2003). Natural law is innate human natural
inclination and disposition (or conscience) that judges the moral
correctness of one’s conduct. John Locke believed that this natural moral
law is the basis of human beings’ good nature. Man is not naturally evil he
is naturally good.
Man’s good nature also guarantees us our natural inherent rights. We do
not have any natural inclinations for doing harm to one another by
violating the natural rights inherent among us. Each individual has a
natural inclination of respecting the rights of his fellow human beings who
in turn are naturally inclined to respect his rights.
William Lawhead (2003) defines a right as a justified claim to something.
At the same time, it implies that others, i.e. those in position of power,
have obligations to respect and provide us what is due to us. The
government has an obligation to accord each of its citizens their natural
rights.
The right to education as a means of raising human qualities to their best
levels of excellence is a prerogative of every human being. It is not the
privilege of the elite in society alone. Education is one of the services the
94
95
government is expected to provide in pursuit of human good for its
citizens.
This fact was recognised by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948
when it passed and proclaimed the resolution that every human being has a
right to education. (United Nations: Universal Declamation on Human
Rights, article No. 26; 1948). The article reads as follows:
“(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at
least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall
be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made
generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all
on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human
personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall
be given to their children.”
Thus the best and most fundamental social amenity a government is
expected to provide to the people under it is education. Education offers
unlimited opportunity to all citizens in a state to develop their capacities
and talents to the highest levels of excellence. It is an opportunity that
matches the aspirations and ideals of every individual in the state to pursue
the development of his or her own natural endowments to their highest
potentialities.
95
96
References
Axell, James L. (1968) Introduction to the Educational Writings of John Locke. Cited in Lawhead, William (2003).
Bantock, G. H. (1980) “The Under-labourer in Courtly Clothes”: Locke;
Studies in History of Educational Theory: Artifice and Nature 1350-1765;
London, George Allen and Unwind.
Ishtiyaque, Haji and Stefaan Cuypers, (2008): “Authenticity-Sensitive
Preferentialism and Education for Well-Being and Autonomy” in Journal
of Philosophy of Education (PESGB Online) Volume 42, Issue 1, p.85.
Locke, John; (1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding an Edition with Introduction by Peter H. Nodditch (1975) Oxford, Charendon Press.
United Nations (1948); Universal Declamation on Human Rights, Article No. 26.
Locke, John; (1969), Some Thoughts Concerning Education and of the Conduct of Understanding; Eds. Ruth W. Grants and Nathan Tarcov, Indianapolis; Hackett Publishing Co.
Yolton, John (1971) John Locke and Education; New York, Random, House
Chapter FourPhilosophical Discourses on Education in the
Period from Seventeenth Century to the Twentieth Century
96
97
4.0 Introduction
Philosophical discourses on education during the period after the sixteenth
century can be grouped into two categories, namely those whose inception
occurred during the earlier period and continued to be upheld in the
subsequent era, and those that were discerned during the period after the
sixteenth century. The first category includes the philosophical movements
of idealism, empiricism, constructivism and modernism along with the
scientific revolution. These were discerned prior and during the era of
enlightenment and the wake of the scientific revolution. The second
category includes the philosophical movements of analytic philosophy,
behaviorisms, pragmatism, existentialism and post-modernism. These
tended to be reactions against earlier or antecedent advocacies and
contentions. The discourses in the first category are covered in this chapter
while those in the second category are covered in chapter five.
Discourses in the Seventeenth to Twentieth Century
4.1 Idealism
As we saw in chapter three, idealism is a metaphysical and epistemological
theory which asserts that the basic essence of things, or fundamental reality
is immaterial not physical or corporeal, or in the form of a body; it is not
matter. Matter is either not wholly real, or at most, a subordinate and
dependent reality. Socrates and Plato held this conception of reality. They
maintained that material things are only imperfect ideas. They are similar to
shadows of objects, or the tips of icebergs. Sensory experiences convey to us
97
98
mere shadows of reality. It is reason which conveys to us the ideas behind
the concrete objects we see around us. Reason conveys to us ideas that are
the fundamental realities behind the particular incidents which we observe as
external manifestations of such ideas. In the modern era, a number of
philosophers have upheld idealism.
George Berkeley
George Berkeley 1685-1753 is one of the staunch advocates of idealism.
He believed that sensory experiences are reducible to ideas. Ideas are such
things as the redness of a rose, the coldness of ice, the smell of freshly mown
grass, the taste of honey and the sound of a flute. Ideas are products of the
mind manifested as vivid sensory perceptions, images, memories, feelings,
thoughts and decisions or volitions. To Berkeley the idea of an apple is the
experience, image or memory of the combined mental attributes of
roundness, redness, hardness and sweetness commonly found in all apples.
Thus all that a person knows is the result of his or her own mind’s act of
perceiving, i.e. working on, sensory materials reaching the mind from
outside. Ultimate reality, in Berkeley’s view, is what each individual’s mind
produces, which in essence is not physical or material, but actually, spiritual
or immaterial.
Thus Berkeley’s type of idealism has been labelled as “subjective idealism”,
(Lawhead 2003). Every thing that exists is either in the category of minds
i.e. spirits, or in the category of ideas that such minds perceive or produce.
According to Berkeley, to exist is to be perceived. What we designate as real
is in actual fact a collection of experiences produced within our minds.
Education as a process where by the individual gains new knowledge
including understanding, constitutes essentially acts of his mind working on
98
99
new sensory materials his senses present to his mind. In education the mind
of an individual produces new ideas or perspectives of the world that have
hither to been obscure to the individual. In terms of George Berkeley’s
subjective idealism, education is a means of raising the individual’s powers
of his mind to their fullest potentiality.
4.2 Empiricism
Empiricism is an epistemological position which contends that genuine
knowledge is what comes to us through our sensory experiences.
Empiricism contends that the only sources of genuine knowledge are our
senses of sight, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting. Thus the Baconian
method of inquiry, through observation is the only certain way of ensuring
our discovering genuine knowledge. The mind is like a blank sheet of paper
upon which experience makes its marks. John Locke stated that the child’s
mind is like ‘a white sheet of paper’ on which experiences are recorded.
(Axell, James L. (1968) Introduction to the Educational Writings of John
Locke); (Lawhead, 2003).
David Hume
After John Locke the next philosopher who advocated empiricism is David
Hume (1711-1776). He believed that all knowledge about the world comes
to us through experience. He however contended that most of our knowledge
depends on our understanding of causes and effects. Our ability to infer
causal connections among events is based on an assumed principle of
induction that “the future will be like the past”. This assumption is based
on the general thesis that the laws of nature that have been true so far will
continue to be true in future. Hume questioned this general thesis, (Lawhead
2003).
99
100
David Hume advanced a number of contentions on epistemology, and hence
on education, that uphold empiricism.
(i) In the first instance Hume identified two types of perceptions, namely
sensations and ideas. Sensations are feelings such the pain one feels on
being burnt by intensive heat from a flame of fire; and the pleasure one feels
when one warms oneself at a fire place in a cold weather. Thus excessive
heat produces painful sensations, while moderate heat in a cold weather
produces pleasurable sensations. Ideas are images and memories of
sensations whereby one’s feelings “mimic or copy the perceptions of the
senses, but they never entirely reach the force and vivacity of the original
sentiments”; (Hume cited in Lawhead 2000 p.194). The two types of
perception differ in intensity. The sensations are more intensive than the
imaginations and memories of such feelings. Hume expressed this difference
by stating: “The most lively thought is still inferior to the dullest sensations
… When we reflect on our past sentiments and affections, our thought is a
faithful mirror and copies its objects truly; but the colours of which it
employs are faint and dull in comparison with which our original
perceptions.” (Ibid. page 195). Thus Hume views the internal processes of
perception as acts by which the mind produces feelings or sentiments in two
levels of intensity. The initial level entails acts of the mind as sensations.
The second level entails acts of the mind as ideas involving imagination,
memory, thought and acts of the will or volition, which mirror the
sensations. The second level entailing perception of ideas is less vivid than
the first one. David Hume refers to sensations, i.e. the lively perceptions of
the mind as ‘impressions’. “By the term impressions, then, I mean all our
more lively perceptions when we hear or see, or feel, or love, or hate, or
100
101
desire or will. And impressions are distinguished from ideas which are the
less lively perceptions, of which we are conscious when we reflect on any of
those sensations or movements…” (Hume, Ibid p.195). Hume, moreover,
believed that the creative powers of the mind are not boundless. They are in
fact limited or confined to just the processes of’ ’compounding,
transposing, augmenting or diminishing the materials afforded to us by the
senses and experience’. Thus Hume did not discern the more complex
intellectual acts of the mind such as comprehension including discernment
of meaning and implicit information from explicit facts.
(ii) In the second instance, David Hume shared the empiricist insight that the
meanings of terms or ideas employed a discourse are rooted in original
sensory experiences or sensations. As we saw in Chapter Three, according to
John Locke the building blocks of knowledge are ideas. An idea is anything
that is “the immediate object of perception, thought or understanding”.
Ideas are expressed in words, such as whiteness, hardness, sweetness
thinking, motion, man, elephant, army etc. These are basic units of
knowledge or atoms of thought. The mind can’t invent a brand new idea that
it has not experienced. “Whence has it (i.e. the mind) all the materials of
reason and knowledge?” Locke posed the question. “To this I answer in one
word: From Experience” he replied. “…all our knowledge is founded and
from that it…” John Locke (1689) An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding an Edition with Introduction by Peter H. Nodditch (1975)
Oxford, Charendon Press p.105).
In a dictionary, the word ‘yellow’ is defined as the colour of a ripe lemon.
The dictionary refers one, to elements of one’s experience during one’s first
encounter with that colour to make the idea of yellow clear; that is to give it
meaning. Thus the meanings of words or terms expressing propositions or
101
102
arguments in philosophical discourses are derived from the original sensory
experiences during our first encounter such words. This supports John
Locke’s assertion that “The mind can’t invent a brand new idea that it has
not experienced” (Ibid. Locke above).
Thus David Hume asserted: “When we entertain therefore any suspicion that
a philosophical term is employed without any meaning, we need but enquire
from what impression that supposed idea is derived. And if it is impossible
to assign any, this will serve to confirm our suspicion. By bringing ideas
into so clear a light we may reasonably hope to remove all dispute, which
may arise concerning their nature and reality”, (Hume cited in Lawhead
2003, p. 196).
(iii) In the third instance Hume deals with the objects of enquiry i.e. the
contents of education. He identifies two kinds of such contents of
education: (a) relations of ideas and (b) matters of fact. The relations of
ideas, such as those found in geometry, algebra and arithmetic are, either
intuitively or demonstratively, certain or indubitable. The propositions in
such relations of ideas are discovered through operations of thought.
The matters of fact and their verity on the other hand reflect previously
observed events in the world. The sun will rise tomorrow because in the past
it has always risen every morning. Hume asserted that all reasoning on
matters of fact depended upon our understanding of causes and effects. The
reason to justify a matter of fact is another matter of fact. This means that
the cause of a current event is an antecedent event. All reasoning on a fact is
based the assumption that “there is a connextion between the present fact
and that which is inferred from it.” When we hear utterances of words in a
dark room we infer that there is some one there. To assess the verity of facts
102
103
we need evidence of the existence of causes and effects that constitute the
facts under consideration.
(iv) In the fourth instance Hume declared that “knowledge of this relation
(i.e. the existence of causes and effects) is not attained by reasoning a
priori (i.e. before experience) but arises entirely from experience,” (Hume
cited in Lawhead p. 197). A man encountering an object that is totally new
and strange to him cannot be acquainted with its qualities and will not be
able to discover its causes and effects. Adam would not have inferred that
water could suffocate him nor that fire could burn him. Adam was unable to
infer the causes and effects of water and fire when he came to be acquainted
with these for the first time. “Our reason cannot draw any inferences
concerning real existence and matter of fact”, (Hume in Lawhead Ibid. p.
197). Causes and effects are discoverable not by reason, but by experience.
The quality of gun power to explode could not be discovered by a priori
arguments. It was discovered in practice through experience. “All of nature
and all operations of bodies are known only by experience”, (Hume in
Lawhead 2000 ibid. p.197).
This is the general thesis of empiricism that all knowledge about the world
around us reaches us through sensory experiences, The teaching and learning
activities in education and all enquiries including systematic investigations
to enable us gain new knowledge cannot be undertaken without the use of
sensory experiences. The Baconian method of modern scientific enquiry
gives support to this empiricist perspective of searching for the truth. The
entire episode of the scientific revolution came about through application of
empiricist thinking.
4.3 Constructivism
103
104
Constructivism is an epistemological theory, which the claims that
knowledge is neither already in the mind nor passively received from
experience; but rather, the mind constructs knowledge out of the materials of
experience. This view was first introduced by Immanuel Kant.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Plato and Descartes believed that reason alone was the source of those truths
that are universal and necessary. The mind, they argued, was full of innate
ideas. The rationalists argue that experience alone cannot give us knowledge
for knowledge requires the rational principles found in the mind.
On the other hand, the empiricist like John Locke and David Hume held the
view that originally, the mind is like a blank slate “tabula rasa”. All
knowledge is derived from experience. Reason cannot give us knowledge for
it requires contribution from experience.
Immanuel Kant agreed with both the idealist (and rationalist) and the
empiricist theories on knowledge. He agreed with the rationalists that we do
not know universals and necessary truths from experience alone. He also
agreed with the empiricists’ assertion that all knowledge arises from
experience. The problem was, as Hume showed, experience can only tell us
what has happened to be true on past occasions; it cannot give us universal
and necessary truths about all possible and future experiences. Kant’s
solution was to observe that rationalists and the empiricists each provided us
with one half of the answer and that a compromise between them was
required. Kant concluded that reason and experience play a role in
constructing our knowledge. The mind constructs knowledge using
information from experience, i.e. sensory experience, through rational
processes. In Kant’s view, the mind is not a passive recipient of sensory
104
105
impulses brought in by the nervous system. To him epistemology was
rational empiricism or empirical rationalism, (Lawhead 2003 p.204). The
least one can say about the mind is that it interprets and gives meaning to all
sensory inputs it receives. “Our experience of the world is formed by the
way the mind organises and categorises the data of senses”, (Lawhead 2003
p. 204).
In the theories of learning constructivism is based on the philosophical
system of idealism. It proposes that there is an innate human drive to make
sense of the world. Instead of observing or passively receiving objective
knowledge from outside, the learners construct knowledge by integrating the
new information and experience into processes of understanding revising
and reinterpreting old knowledge in order to reconcile it with the new,
(Bruner, 1996). Bruner proposed a theory that learning is an active process
in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current
and past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information,
constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure
that he already possesses. Cognitive structures are schema, or mental
models that provide meaning and organisation to experiences and allow the
individual to extrapolate or transcend beyond the given information.
Teachers should encourage their students to construct new knowledge by
themselves. Through a series of question and answers or dialogue, the
teacher should engage his students in constructing information that was
unknown to them hither to. In curriculum development emphasis should be
placed on organising a spiral learning programme that enables the student to
continually build upon what he already knows. The task of the teacher is to
translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's
105
106
current state of understanding. Such a state is what Bruner referred to as the
student’s “readiness to learn”, which is kind of the student’s predisposition
towards learning. .
Bruner (1966) stated that a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of
knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the
learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and
(4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for
structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new
propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information. In his more
recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, and 1996) has expanded his theoretical
framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning. Thus
according to Bruner’s theoretical framework, learning is an active process in
which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their existing
knowledge. They select and transform information, construct hypotheses,
and make decisions while deploying their abilities to reason as well as
existing cognitive structures within the minds.
Immanuel Kant’s insights that reconciled empiricism with rationalism are
significant contributions in promoting our understanding of how the human
mind works in its pursuit of veracity during the acquisition of new
knowledge. Both careful and accurate observations of phenomena as well as
sound analyses, correct interpretation and drawing of sound inferences on
the observed data contribute towards our reaching veracity in our enquiries
on phenomena.
References
106
107
Berkeley, George; (1713), Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous;
cited in William Lawhead, (2003) Philosophical Questions McGraw Hill
Higher Education. New York.
Bruner, Jerome, S., Towards a Theory of Instruction, Belknap Press.
Cambridge, Mass.
Hume, David (1748): An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding; cited in William Lawhead, (2003) Philosophical Questions McGraw Hill Higher Education. New York.
Kant, Immanuel; (1781), Critique of Pure Reason; trans. J.M.D. Meiklejohn, Bell & Daldy; London.
Kant, Immanuel (1781); Critique of Pure Reason (Trans. Norman Kemp Smith; Martin’s Press New York.
Lawhead, William, (2003): The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive approach; Hill Book
Smith, M.K. (2002) ‘Jerome S. Bruner and the Process of Education’ the encyclopedia of informal education htt://www.ifed,org/thinkers/bruner.htm,
4.4 Modernism
Modernism is a philosophical trend of thought which asserts that human
beings have power to create, improve and reshape the environment they live
107
108
in with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical
experimentation, (Leonard 1997). Modernism is an overall socially
progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to make
improvements and progress towards resolving difficulties and hardships they
face in their environment. They accomplish this main through deployment of
scientific knowledge, technological innovations and reason. This is the view
of Marshall Berman who stated: “In the twentieth century, the social
processes that bring this maelstrom (a confusing situation full of events that
is difficult to understand or deal with) into being and keep it in a state of
perpetual becoming, have come to be called ‘modernisation’. These world-
historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas
that aim to make men and women the subjects as well as the objects of
modernisation, to give them power to change the world that is changing
them, to make their way through the maelstrom and make it their own. Over
the past century, these visions and values have come to be loosely grouped
together under the name of modernism,” (Berman 1988, p.16).
This philosophical movement is in essence aligned with empiricism and
pragmatism. Modernism is characterised by progress, or change for the
better, and optimism. In education we may interpret modernism as a
contention that human beings have power to improve the quality of their
lives through learning, including the acquisition of knowledge, competences
and desirable attitudes.
An ancient Greek philosopher called Heraclitus maintained that society was
in a constant flux, everything was always on the move. Heraclitus said “You
cannot jump the same river twice.” The water you jumped at first has
already gone past by the time you attempt to jump the river again, (Barry
108
109
Burke 2000). Many philosophers through out time maintained that society
moved according to immutable and unchanging laws. There was a driving
force behind society’s constant changes that propelled society forwards.
In modern times the evolutions of society has been regarded as a progressive
movement rather than a retrogressive movement. Retrogression is a return to
an earlier and worse situation. Progression is an advance to a better situation.
Through the development of rational and scientific thinking human kind has
been able to conquer the world and has started looking to the stars in outer
space. Thus modernism is the progressive movement of society associated
with modernity an era whose inception was during the Enlightenment in the
18th century.
According to Barry Burke, (2000) the age of Enlightenment was
characterised by three features as follows: (i) Intellectually, there was power
of reason over ignorance. (ii) There was power of science over superstition.
(iii) There was power of order over disorder.
These were regarded as universal values that modernist culture adopted.
Modernity was revolutionary whereby the old ruling classes were replaced,
such as what happened to King Louis XVI in the 1789 French revolution.
These three features heralded the advent of capitalism as a new mode of
production and a transformation of the social order. The three features
provided the bases on which humanity was able to achieve progress.
P. Leonard (1997 Postmodern Welfare: Reconstructing; Emancipatory
Project; London, Sage Publications,) wrote as follows: “Enlightenment was
now seen as possible through the application of reason. It was through
reason that enlightenment, the conceiving of infinite possibilities, would
enable emancipation of humanity to take place: emancipation from
109
110
ignorance, poverty, insecurity and violence”, (Leonard, 1997 p. 6). Thus
there was a general movement of society towards progress through an
unseen driving force that the era of Enlightenment had brought about.
In science there were dramatic changes in scholars’ ways of investigating
and thinking about the physical world. Fundamental transformation in
scientific ideas in physics, astronomy and biology emerged. According to
J.D. Bream, “the renaissance enabled a scientific revolution which let
scholars look at the world in a different light. Religion, superstition and fear
were replaced by reason and knowledge.” Scholars who contributed to
scientific discoveries during this scientific revolution apart from Nicolaus
Copernicus, Galileo Bacon and Johannes Kepler, are Isaac Newton, Antony
Leeuwenhoek, Charles Darwin and others.
In philosophy, a number of grand theories were developed to form the
foundations of modernist thinking, such as Marxism, which was concerned
with economic institutions and political power. Marxism attempted to
explain the reality of social life. It became an ideology or social theory that
justified human action as a means to progress and order. Order was to be
achieved through communism where private ownership of property would
be abolished. All wealth would be owned by the state.
In industry, according to Daniel Bell (1973) there was during modernity
progress from a traditional society based on agriculture to an industrial
society based on modern manufacturing industry and then a post industrial
society where emphasis was on the production of goods has been overtaken
by the service economy with the majority of people being employed in the
service sector rather in the industrial and agricultural sectors. Bell asserted
110
111
that we now live in a changed structure, a “knowledge society” run by
university trained professionals and technical elites: whereas before we lived
in an industrial society run by industrialists and employers.
Manufacturing grew from Europe and Northern America to spread
throughout the world including the Third World. Typical modernist progress
in manufacturing is what has come to be termed “Fordism” (Burry Burke
2000). Burke defined Fordism as a system of mass production involving the
standardisation of products, large scale use of machinery that are suitable
only for a particular product, and the scientific management of production
including assembly-line production.
The founder of scientific management was Fredrick Tailor (1856-1917). He
was concerned with efficiency on the factory floor in manufacturing
industry. In 1878 his studies revealed that production and pay to workers
were poor and inefficient. There was rampant waste and underutilisation of
resources. He introduced the scientific management approach, which
included four components that he referred top as principles of scientific
management as follows: (i) the development of precise approaches to
perform a labourer’s work: or job description; (ii) the selection and training
of the right person for the right job; (iii) work should be matched with
designed plans and principles; (iv) division of work into basic movements
and motions that were timed: or “one best way” to perform a job. Scientific
management was accepted and adopted by most industries.
Henry Ford was a car manufacturer. He adopted the scientific management
approach in his factory, whereby he reaped its full benefits. In the 1910s
Henry Ford built cars that were the cheapest while at that time they were
111
112
also the fastest and strongest. He sold them in millions. Henry Ford placed
the workers and their tools and equipment on an assembly line, so that they
built the motor vehicle in stages along a moving production line called the
‘conveyer belt’. Thus there was division of labour and specialisation among
the craftsmen placed at each stage along the assembly line. Some fixed the
engine on the chases others fixed gearboxes as the motor vehicle moved
from one stage to the next. This system of production saved factory owners
both time and costs in production. Because many cars were produced with a
short time this system became known as “mass production”. The assembling
of a car was accomplished in two days instead of 30 days. All the cars Ford
was producing were identical or standardised products.
Mass production as a modern mode of producing goods on a large scale has
been adopted by industrialists everywhere in the world. It has reduced costs
and prices of every commercially produced commodity all over the world. It
is a typical outcome of modernity as an era when the philosophical
movement of modernism prevailed. All this was learnt and diffused through
informal education. It reflected the main contention of modernism that
human beings have power to improve the quality of their lives through
learning, including the acquisition of knowledge, competences and desirable
attitudes.
Generally, the philosophical movement of modernism influenced
philosophical conceptions on education, including the conceptualisation of
‘Philosophy of Education’ as a discipline of study for professional educators.
This happened in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when philosophy of
education began to be taught in courses for teachers.
112
113
There was progress everywhere and in every occupational field fanned by
the spirit of enlightenment and systematisation of human engagements. In
1913, for example, Franklin Bobbitt published an article: “The Supervision
of City Schools: Some General Principles of City School System” in the
Year Book of the Society for the Study of Education. During those days,
schools were characterised by gross mismanagement, just like the situation
that had earlier been prevailing in manufacturing industries. The
manufacturing industries however had just then devised “principles of
scientific management” to reform their managerial procedures in
manufacturing. Franklin Bobbitt argued that the principles of scientific
management that were being applied the management of manufacturing
industries could also be applied to solve the problem of mismanagement in
education. “Education is a shaping process as much as the manufacture of
steel and nails”, he declared. “Education must focus on the product, just like
industry does. Standards for the product must be established measuring them
utilised to see whether the product rises to the standard. It is possible to set
up standards for various educational products,” (Bobbitt and scales for,
1913). In his propositions, pupils were be treated like raw materials and
processed, transforming them into finished products of the educational
system. To be efficient and effective the schools needed to eliminate waste
just like the manner, by which industries were doing while applying the
newly discovered scientific management approach. Product specification,
i.e. specification of learning objectives was to be carried out. This was an
important step in curriculum planning. Bobbitt defined the curriculum as
“those series of things which children and youth must do and experience by
way of developing an ability to do this well”. The curriculum was a plan that
specified processes the students were to undergo. The curriculum came to be
113
114
defined as “all the learning, which is planned or guided by the school,
consisting of contents, teaching methods and purpose”, (Tailor 1967). Thus,
modernism as a philosophical movement influenced the ordering and
systematisation of education as part of progressivism. In education public
schools were introduced to provide skilled manpower to the mushrooming
manufacturing industries. The aim of education was viewed as not merely
the moulding of children into future workers, but according to educational
thinkers’ and philosophers’ prevailing thought, the aim of education was to
produce the holistic personality. One who is mentally, physically and
morally as well as spiritually properly groomed and nurtured.
114
115
A brief introduction to holistic education by Ron Miller elaborated its
nature. Ron Miller identified the key cultural factors that influenced the
purpose, structure, and methods of modern educational institutions. He
explained, for example, how the modern world-view associated with
capitalism and scientific reductionism undermined conventional views about
schools, teaching, and learning. Miller then demonstrates that holistic
education, reflected progressive views on the purpose of education and
schooling.
115
116
Throughout the 200-year history of the provision of public education, a
group of educational critics and thinkers have pointed out that education
should aim at much more than merely moulding children and young people
into future adults ready to take up their responsibilities in life as workers or
citizens. Johann Pestalozzi, the founders of "progressive"
education - Francis Parker and John Dewey and the pioneers of
innovative education programmes such as Maria Montessori and
Rudolf Steiner, all insisted that education should be understood as
the art of cultivating the moral, emotional, physical, psychological and
spiritual dimensions of the developing child. This is what holistic education
is concerned with. It deals with the development of the whole range of
human qualities. A holistic way of thinking seeks to encompass
and integrate multiple layers of meaning and experience
rather than defining human possibilities narrowly. Every
child is more than a future employee; every person's
intelligence and abilities are far more complex than his or
her scores on achievement tests. Ron Miller (2000) Paths of
Learning; Infed. stated: “Holistic education is based on the
premise that each person finds identity, meaning, and
purpose in life through connections to the community, to
the natural world, and to spiritual values such as
compassion and peace”. Holistic education aims at calling
forth from people an intrinsic reverence for life and a
passionate love of learning and thus improving each
learner’s capacities and capabilities to reach their highest
levels of excellence. This is done, not through an academic
116
117
"curriculum" that condenses the world into instructional
packages, but through direct engagement with the
environment. Holistic education nurtures a sense of wonder
and an ambition for excelling.
One of the typical modernist educational thinkers that embraced holistic
education along with the belief that all human beings are capable of
improving their capacities and capabilities is Maria Montessori (1870-1952).
She rejected the idea that purports the existence of ‘ineducable’ children, i.e.
children who are impossible or very difficult to educate. Drawing from the
ideas of Fredrick Froebel, Johannes Pestalozzi and Jean Jacques Rousseau
she formulated a pedagogical principle of ‘first the education of the senses,
then the education of the intellect’.
She worked out a programme for teaching ‘defective’ children to read and
write through a series of repeated exercises of ‘looking becomes reading;
touching becomes writing’. This came to be known the as the Montessori
Method. Montessori established Casa dei Bambini i.e. children’s house
where children from poor homes were to live and learn in an environment
conducive to their development in self determination and self realisation of
their personalities through well designed ‘exercises de la vie practique’ i.e.
exercises in daily living. These and other exercises were to function like a
ladder – allowing the child to pick up challenges in day-to-day living and to
judge his own progress in overcoming such life challenges. Montessori
wrote: “The essential thing is for the task to arouse such an interest that it
engages the child’s whole personality” (Maria Montessori (1949): The
Absorbent Mind, New York Dell. P. 206).
117
118
Montessori emphasized that ‘cosmic’ education, i.e. holistic education, helps
the child to feel as being part of the wholeness of the universe and learning
will naturally be enchanted and inviting.
Thus the purpose of holistic education is to foster, guide and assist the
individual in raising his total personality, including the entire range of
capacities and endowments in him to their highest level of excellence.
Public policies on education were based on reasoned and scientific
systematic formulations. Purposes and justifications of educational
activities, for example were influenced by modernism consisting of
progressive view points. The field of education was itself institutionalised
and professionalised especially as it was expressed in the ideals and
aspirations for the establishing of public schools. In this context a
philosophy of education was linked intimately with the conception of
personal betterment and social perfectibility or progress. As Agustin Basave
(Paideia Project 1998) stated: “Education, an action, is a process of
development intentionally directed at achieving the ideal human plenitude in
the best possible manner.” In other words the aim of education is to achieve
human plenitude ‘in the best possible manner’. This formed the purpose and
agenda in John Dewey’s ‘progressive’ discourses and ideals.
References
Basave, Agustin (Paideia Project 1998): “Integral Philosophy of Education:
A New ‘Paideia’” in Paideia: Philosophy of education.<htt”www:bu.edu/wcp/index/html>.
Bauman, Z. (1992) Intimations of Postmodernity, London: Routledge.
118
119
Bell, D. (1973) The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, London:
Berman, Marshall, All that is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of
Modernity. London, Penguin, 1988.
Bobbitt, Franklin (1913) “The Supervision of City Schools: Some General
Principles of City School System”; in the Year Book of the Society for the
Study of Education.
Burke, Barry (2000), Post-Modernism and Post Modernity; the
Encyclopedia of Informal Education, 2009.
Heinemann. Cohen, P. (1997) Rethinking the Youth Question: Education,
Labour and Cultural Studies, London.
Montessori, Maria (1949): The Absorbent Mind, New York Dell. P. 206).
Macmillan Hall, S. (1996) ‘The meaning of New Times’ in D. Morley and
K-H Chen (eds.) Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies,
London: Routledge.
Kumar, K. (1997) ‘The Post-Modern Condition’ in A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder,
P. Brown and A. S. Wells (eds.) Education: Culture, Economy, and Society,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lash, S. and Urry, J. (1987). The End of Organised Capitalism, Cambridge:
Polity Press.
Layder, D. (1994): Understanding Social Theory: an Emanicipatory Project. London: Sage Publications.
Montessori, Maria (1949): The Absorbent Mind; New York Dell. McGraw
Hill Book Company, New York.
119
120
Smith, M. K. (1994) Local Education: Community, conversation, praxis, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Leonard, P. (1997) Postmodern Welfare: Reconstructing an Emanicipatory
Project, London: Sage Publications.
Miller, Ron (2000) “A Brief Introduction to Holistic Education;” In The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education; <Infed>.
4.5 Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Thomas S. Kuhn (1962) who wrote on ‘The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions’ (1st ed. Chicago: Chicago University Press) commented that
Aristotle’s Physics was astonishingly unlike Isaac Newton’s work in its
concepts of matter and motion. He concluded that Aristotle’s concepts were
not “bad Newton”, or misconceptions of Isaac Newton’s insights, they were
just different.
Kuhn attempted to establish the various kinds of ideas that were thinkable
at various particular times in the past. Different thinkers came up with
different thoughts on phenomena around the world in each era of history.
The evolution of scientific theory does not emerge from the straight
forward accumulation of facts, but rather from changes in intellectual
circumstances and possibilities. It follows a nonlinear history where there
are no regular patterns in the recurrence of similar events. Kuhn’s accounts
and insights in the evolution of scientific thinking is narrated through use of
examples. In chemistry for example, Kuhn gave an account of how chemists
began to explore the idea of atomism. When heated most substances tend to
decompose into their constituent elements. Often if and when different
substances are heated together one can easily observe them combining in set
proportions. At the beginning, a combination of water with alcohol was
regarded to result in producing a compound of water with alcohol.
120
121
Nowadays such a combination is regarded as resulting into a mere solution,
not a compound. The atomic theory was then advanced contending that all
compounds whose elements combine in fixed proportions show normal
behaviour. And all known exceptions to this pattern were regarded as
anomalies. It is nowadays held that such an atomic theory still stands.
Kuhn also cited the Copernicus revolution which had swept aside the earlier
Ptolemy’s school of thought that used cycles and epicycles for modelling the
movements of planets in the universe where the earth was believed to be the
stationary centre of such universe. Kuhn pointed out that a shift of paradigm
in our conceptions and understanding of cosmology occurred with increased
accuracy in celestial observations. Through experiments Galileo discovered
the principle of inertia that an object at rest tends to remain so or resist
movement; when is in motion it tends to keep on moving; or resist a
discontinuation of its motion. Both objects will remain in their rest or
motion, until they are moved, or stopped by another force. We always
observe moving objects coming to a halt because of friction.
The paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic paradigm facilitated greatly by
Johannes Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion which are paraphrased as
follows:
The first law upholds the Copernican astronomy. It endorses the notion that
the earth along with other planets revolve around the sun. The planets
revolve around the sun not along circular orbits, but rather along elliptic
orbits called ellipses.
The second law is more technical. It proposes that the line which links a
planet to the sun, in other words the radius of the planet’s orbit, goes through
121
122
equal areas in equal units of time. This means that one can calculate, in
number of days, the duration the planet takes to complete its revolution, or
sweep around the sun. The earth for example, takes 365.25 days to complete
its revolution around the sun.
The third law states a mathematical formula, where by, the orbital period,
i.e. the period during which a planet completes a revolution around the sun,
is squared and proportionally related to the cube of the mean distance of the
sun to the planet, i.e. the mean radius of the planet’s orbit.
According Kuhn, Galileo’s and Kepler’s work on cosmology facilitated
greatly the prevailing perceptions of the scientific community. Later Newton
showed that Kepler’s three laws could from a single theory of motion and
planetary motion. Newton solidified and unified the paradigm shift initiated
by Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler. Keplerian cosmology represented a
coherent framework that was capable of rivalling the Aristotelian and
Ptolemic framework.
It should be noted that Isaac Newton (1687), in his book ‘Philosophiae
Naturalist Principia Mathematic’ formulated three laws of motion as
follows: (1) In the absence of net external force, a body either is at rest or
moves in a straight line with constant velocity. (2) Force is proportional to
mass times acceleration (F=ma). (3) For every force forward there is a
counter-force, which is equal to it and exerted in the opposite direction.
In addition, Isaac Newton formulated the universal law of gravitation (what
Kepler called laws of planetary motion). The law states that every object in
the universe attracts every other object with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
122
123
square of the distance between their centres. (F) = G(m1x m2)/r2). This is an
important law in modern cosmology. Aristotle and Ptolemy had earlier
suggested that celestial bodies moved through their being propelled by an
impetus, which had to continuously keep on applying its force on each
celestial body to avoid its coming to a stand still. Newton’s law of universal
gravitation eliminated the concept of an impetus as the force behind the
continuous motions of celestial bodies.
A paradigm shift results in a rewriting of the history of science. Previous
successes of the established paradigm tend to generate confidence among
science scholars that the approach taken guarantees that a solution to a
puzzle exists. This is what Kuhn calls a process of ‘normal science’.
When a paradigm is stretched to its limits anomalies accumulate around its
applications, Anomalies are failures of the current paradigm in taking into
account all observed incidents concerning a phenomenon. Kuhn was not
concerned with incidents and isolated cases of anomalies, such as those due
inaccuracies in observation, he was main concerned with persistent
anomalies that make the paradigm fail to function as expected. These tend to
bring about scholars’ loss of faith in the paradigm. The paradigm is then
regarded as irrelevant to the problems at hand,
Kuhn stated that in any community of scientists there are some individuals
who are bolder than most. It is these bold scientists who embark on
revolutionary science when confronted with crisis anomalies. New
paradigms tend to be created thus. If the challenging paradigm is solidified
and unified, it will eventually replace the old paradigm, and a paradigm shift
will have occurred.
References
123
124
Kuhn, Thomas, S. Structure of scientific Revolutions 1st Ed, Chicago
University Press; Chicago 1962,
Field, H. (1973); “Theory Change and the Indeterminacy of Reference”:
Journal of Philosophy 70: 462- 481.
Kordig, C.R. (1973) “Discussion: Observational Invariance”, Philosophy of
Science 40 558-568.
Chapter Five
Philosophical Discourses on Education in the
Twentieth to Twentieth-twenty-first
Centuries
5.0 Analytic Philosophy
According to Roger Jones (2009) ( [email protected]), to analyse is to
break something down into its constituent parts. Analytic philosophy
attempts to clarify the meanings of statements and concepts through the
procedure of analysis. During the 19th century a revolution in philosophy
occurred. One of the main outcomes of such a revolution was an emergency
of two camps in philosophy: analytic philosophy and continental philosophy.
Analytic philosophy was an academic philosophical strand main in the
English speaking countries and in the Nordic countries since early in the 20 th
century.
124
125
Continental philosophy was practised mainly on the European continent.
The differences of these two schools of academic philosophy were on
idealism. Continental philosophy was idealist. Its typical followers were
George Hegel and the existentialists including Nietzsche and Heidegger.
Analytic philosophy was empiricists all along.
The term analytic philosophy has three meanings, a set of doctrines, a
method and a tradition.
5.10 Analytic Philosophy as a Set of Doctrines
The doctrines or strong beliefs connected to analytic philosophy were those
advocated by (i) the logical positivists and (ii) the logical atomists.
5.11 Logical Positivism
Logical positivism combines empiricism with rationalism. In empiricism
logical positivism contends that sensory evidence is indispensable for
knowledge of the world. Moreover natural science based on observation
comprises the whole of human knowledge. In its version of rationalism,
logical positivism contends that our knowledge includes a component, which
is not derived from sensory observations. It is a component derived from
reasoning on the raw materials supplied by the senses. This a logical
procedure resulting in the discovery of implicit information contained in
observations.
Logical positivism grew just before World War I from discussions held by a
group of philosophers called the Vienna Circle. The group included Hans
Hahn and Moritz Schlick along with Otto Neurath who made the movement
125
126
popular in the 1910s. Otto Neurath and Rudolf Camp wrote a summary of
the logical positivist doctrine in 1929.
The major claims it advocated included an assertion that any thing that was
not empirically verifiable was meaningless. Statements about God, ethics,
art and metaphysics, especially ontology and synthetic a priori knowledge
arrived at through synthesising were meaningless.
Logical positivists claimed that a criterion of meaning should be based on
the idea that all knowledge is modifiable in a standard of the science of
language. Schlick stated that “The meaning of a proposition is the method of
its verification” (cf. Roger Jones 2009 Ibid.). This criterion was based on
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s “logical atomism as stated in his book Tractatus
Logico Philosophicus. In this book Wittgenstein proposed a “picture theory
of meaning”. A picture may mirror the external world showing objects and
their arrangements. To mean any thing, sentences must mirror reality in the
same way as pictures do. Every sentence has names of objects or events
found in real life situations. The analysis of a statement should show its
elementary particles, which picture the world and its logical constituents. A
sentence, which does not picture the world, is devoid of meaning. It does not
contain concrete facts observable in the real world. Statements that do not
picture the world such as those about religion and ethics are not, strictly
speaking, meaningful- since they have no correspondence to concrete facts.
Language is the act of picturing world. This is what Wittgenstein called the
science of language. The logical positivists used it as the basis of judging
meaningful and meaningless propositions and discourses.
126
127
5.12 Logical Atomism
Logical atomism is a philosophical belief that originated in the 20 th century
during the development of analytic philosophy. Its principal proponents
were Bertrand Russell (1872- 1970) and Ludwig Wittgenstein Russell’s
disciple and ward. Logical atomism, as advanced by Russell, contended that
the world is composed of atomic facts, which are concrete. Meaningful
sentences correspond to such atomic facts. Analysing sentences is an act of
breaking them up into their atomic constituents. True propositions should
correspond to atomic facts. One of the main tasks of philosophy is to analyse
propositions so as to reveal their proper logical forms i.e. their
corresponding to atomic facts.
An expression such as “the average woman in the world has 2.6 children” is
not an atomic fact. It is a statement of a world average figure made to relate
the number of women and to the number of children they give birth to. The
expression is thus devoid of any atomic facts or concrete objects - since
there can never be 0.6 of a child. Atomic facts cannot be broken down any
further than one. The number of atomic facts in the world is a whole number
or integer.
5.13 Analytics Philosophy as a Method
Towards the end of the 19th century, the advances in discovering new knowledge through the scientific methods introduced earlier by Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon and others caused some philosophers to think of doing philosophy in the same ways as modern science was doing. One of these was George Moore who published his ‘Principia Ethica,’ which argued that analysis was vital in understanding moral problems. The method of analytic
127
128
philosophy is a generalised approach to philosophy, which involves logical analysis. Logical analysis emphasises clear and precise approach in the pursuits of sound argumentation and adequate evidence while avoiding ambiguity and vagueness as well as paying attention to important details.
Logical analysis seeks to express propositions in ideal formal language of
symbolic logic, so that they reveal their true logical forms. Bertrand Russell
together with Alfred North Whitehead first developed logical analysis in a
book entitled Principia Mathematica published in 1910. The analyses were
written in logic quasi-mathematical symbolic notation that made the
analysed propositions clearer. For example ‘Mx’ denoted “x is a Mountain”.
‘Gx’ denoted “x is golden”.
Many analytic philosophers received Principia Mathematica as providing an
ideal language capable of elucidating all sorts of ordinary-language
confusions. Thus Russell’s logical analysis was seen as a new brand of the
linguistic analysis that had earlier been established by George Moore.
Logical analysis was regarded as superior to Moore’s ‘ordinary language’
analysis insofar as Russell’s logical analysis resulted in eliminating the
illusions and confusions of ordinary language.
By early 1960s the introduction of logical analysis had laid down ground for
logical atomism, which was a doctrine that Russell and Wittgenstein
propounded in dealing with meanings of expressions. Logical analysis as
described in Principia Mathematica is entirely truth- functional that allows
only for molecular propositions whose truth-values are determined by their
atomic constituent.
128
129
5.14 Analytic Philosophy as a Tradition
The tradition of analytic philosophy began with Gottlob Frege (1848-1925).
He sought to put rigorous logic at the heart of philosophy, where no double
standards and ambiguities were allowed. Only uniform principles would be
applied. Frege’s most important contribution was his development of
predicate logic which allowed sentences to be parsed (i.e. described
grammatically) into logical form. The tradition includes being consistent
across all cases along with a high degree of completeness by means of the
use of formal language as employed in mathematics, logic and computer
science.
Formal language is the language that defines precisely mathematical
formulas, which can be used automatically in processing data through
machines.
Part of the tradition of analytic philosophy is the clarification of
philosophical issues by examining the language used in expressing them.
This is done through formalism and natural language.
Formalism seeks to understand language by use of logic. This is one of the
ways philosophical statements expressed. The outcome of formalism is the
determination of the meanings of expressions.
Natural language seeks to closely examine the natural language used in
expressions, while emphasising the importance of commonsense in dealing
with different concepts. Ludwig Wittgenstein started out in formalism,
where meaning of an expression was seen in its relation to some atomic fact
or concrete entities that were reflected or pictured in the expression.
129
130
Wittgenstein changed his initial picture theory on meaning to natural
language perspective, where the meaning of an expression was determined
by its use or context in which it applied.
Generally in education, analytic philosophy seeks to clarify philosophical
problems by focusing on the language used in expressing such issues while
using formal logic. It focuses on the terms and propositions in arguments.
Formal logic is the study of inference whereby the content is made explicit.
According to Richard Peters, analytic philosophy raises and seeks to answer
questions on the concepts used in education, and examines justifications for
what is advocated and done, and questions the presuppositions that are made
in these educational processes, (Peters, 1966, p.16). Paul Hirst and Richard
Peters produced in the 1960s a historical narrative on philosophy of
education as a branch of analytic philosophy. The narrative was designed to
show how in the past philosophy of education had been based on an
erroneous view of the nature philosophy of education as a discipline. It was
also designed to demonstrate that it was only after philosophy of education
had embraced analytic philosophy in the twentieth century that it became a
distinct area of academic philosophy, (Hirst 1998 p.). The narrative recounts
this history as a story of methodological progress and philosophical advance.
Philosophy came to be considered as “an analytical pursuit concerned with
the clarification of concepts and propositions through which our experience
and activities are intelligible”, (Hirst 1974 p.1). By embracing this view
philosophy of education liberated itself from the errors and confusions of its
past and matured into a respectable academic discipline.
References
130
131
Ammerman, Robert (ed.). 1990: Classics of Analytic Philosophy,
Indianapolis: Hackett. Baillie, James (ed.). 2002: Contemporary Analytic
Philosophy: Core Readings, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall.
Martinich, A. P. and Sosa, David (eds.). 2001a: Analytic Philosophy: An
Anthology, Blackwell Publishers. Martinich, A. P. and Sosa, David (eds.).
2001: A Companion to Analytic Philosophy, Blackwell Publishers.
Michael, Peter (2008); “Wittgenstein as Exile: A philosophical topography”
in Educational Philosophy and Theory; Vol. 40, N0. 5
Rorty, Richard (ed.). 1992: The Linguistic Turn: Essays in Philosophical
Method, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
5.20 Pragmatism
5.21 Nature of Pragmatism
The term pragmatism is rooted in a Greek word “pragmatikos’, which is a
joint expression of “pragma” and “matos”. The former means deed or action
or practice, while the latter means ideas. Accordingly, pragmatists view
ideas and beliefs as guides to action. This means the truth or validity of a
theory can only be judged by its practical results. Pragmatism rejects the
contention that a statement or belief is true to the extent that it corresponds
to reality. Pragmatists criticize this notion of regarding a statement or belief
as a photograph of the external world. The pragmatists are concerned not
with how statements or beliefs relate to the world, rather they are concerned
with how we put such statements and beliefs into practice to verify their
assertions.
131
132
Pragmatism is a philosophy that deals with the question of change as a
process that affects the essence of things. It advances the idea that every
thing keeps changing; there is no absolute reality. Since the world is
changing, our society is changing, and our experience is continually
changing, knowing the world is an ongoing active process rather than an
accumulation of static finished results. For the pragmatists, cognition is a
way of dealing with dilemmas, perplexities and problems that arise in
experience and finding creative solution that will enable us to act in effective
ways”, (Lawhead 2003 p. 150).
Pragmatism stresses the intimate relation between thought and action,
(Lawhead 2003 p. 148). Thought defines the meaning of conceptions in
terms of the practical effects associated with such conceptions. Truths of
beliefs are defined in terms of how successful they are in guiding actions.
William James asserted that ‘truth is agreement with reality in actual
practice; and falsity is disagreement with reality in actual practice;
(Paraphrased from James cited in Lawhead, 2003). The truth is dynamic and
changing so that ideas, which are part of our experience, become true as they
help us to get into satisfactory relation with parts of our experience. “The
truth is the name of whatever proves itself to be good, (James cited in
Lawhead 2003 p. 213).
For pragmatists every belief is like a scientific hypothesis, and every action
based on that belief is like an experiment that either confirms or refutes the
belief.
5.22 Method of Pragmatism
132
133
Pragmatism upholds the scientific method of arriving at the truth.
Pragmatists believe that the scientific method of finding knowledge applies
not simply in performing experiments in laboratories but also in making
moral decisions, working out the meaning of life, educating children and
setting public policy. Sound theory under girds or prepares practice in life.
Pragmatic philosophy is a creative instrument of change, a means to address
problems of contemporary culture and a way to clarify and bring coherence
in science, art, religion politics and morality.
One of the most influential pragmatists was John Dewy. He developed ideas
into a theory of progressive education, and established an experimental
elementary school to serve as a laboratory for testing his educational theory.
His theory of education was renowned and transformed the American
education school systems. Dewey made pragmatism a comprehensive
philosophy with implications on nature, knowledge, religious and human
nature.
On knowledge, the pragmatists criticised the idea that the mind is like a
passive mirror that reflects external reality. The pragmatists believe that this
idea of the mind being like a mirror divorces meaning, truth and knowledge
from our practical engagement with the world. Dewey said that the model of
knowledge should not be that of a spectator viewing a painting, but that of
an artist producing the painting.
Epistemology should focus on knowledge less as a noun, more on knowing
as a verb. Since the world is changing, our society is changing and our
experience is changing, knowing the world is an ongoing active process
rather than the accumulation of static finished results. Cognition or knowing
for the pragmatist is a way of dealing with dilemmas, puzzles and problems
that arise in our experience. And finding creative solutions to enable us act
133
134
in effective ways. Pragmatist methods of inquiry are thus empiricist
upholding the scientific revolution that initially was confined to inquiries in
the physical sciences i.e. astronomy and physics. Pragmatism extends to
scientific revolution to cover social and axiological inquiries including all
other fields of human endeavour such as law.
5.23 Pragmatist Model of the Educated Person
Dewey wrote in his ‘Democracy and Education’: “If we are willing to
conceive education as the process of forming fundamental disposition,
intellectual and emotional, towards nature and fellow-men, philosophy may
even be defined as the general theory of education. Unless philosophy is to
remain symbolic –or verbal – or a sentimental indulgence for a few, or else
mere arbitrary dogma, it auditing of past experience and its program of
values must take effect in conduct.”
Pragmatism saw the educated person as one who was formed through
interactions with his physical and social environment. John Dewey saw the
educated person in a social context. Both the individual and his society had
no meaning without each other.
The pragmatist-educated person was reflective, critical of the authority of
custom and tradition. He was the determinant of belief and action. He
preferred the method of science as the best way to solve his problems. His
interests had been fostered rather than repressed by the pragmatist education
he received. The subjects he studied consisted of activities that enabled his
intellectual abilities to reflect upon his social experiences. The subject
gained meaning to him when it was related to his interactions with the
134
135
physical and social surrounding. It was a medium for him to continue
reflecting upon and reconstructing his subsequent experiences as he
continued to live. Education had no end for the pragmatist. He continued to
learn as new challenged emerged in his physical and social environment.
Because everything around him keeps on changing the pragmatist keeps on
learning and gaining new perspectives of reality and truth.
References Dewey, John, (1859-1952) (1929) Experience and Nature. LaSalle Open Court. Dewey, John (1850-1952) (1948) Reconstruction in Philosophy Beacon
Press, Boston.Dewy John, (1938), Democracy and Education. In \Encyclopaedia of Philosophy of Education\.htm Encyclopaedia Britannica (2007) “Different Conception of Education:
Model Theories of the Educated Person- Pragmatist View”. Encyclopaedia
Britannica Online Nov. 2007.
James, William, (1842-1910) (1907) “Pragmatism’s Conception of Truth”
Lecture IV. in A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking; Longmans,
Green, New York.
Lawhead, William, F. (2003) The Philosophical Journey: An interactive
Approach; McGraw-Hill. New York.
Pierce, Charles, Sanders (1839-1914); “The Fixation of Belief” in Collected
Papers 5 (371)
Pierce, Charles Sanders, “How to make Our ideas Clear” in Collected
Papers 5 (407).
135
136
5.30 Behaviorism
5.31 Nature of Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a psychological theory that limits the scope of the subject
matter of psychology to scientific study of publicly observable behaviours
and their causes while rejecting any explanations that refer to unobservable
interior mental states or processes. Behaviourism maintains the position that
all beliefs and theories have observable correlates and that there are no
physiological differences between overt observable processes and their
corresponding covert ones. (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2009)
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) is one of the most prominent proponents of
behaviourism. He claimed that all mental terms such as belief, desire, and
thinking can be reduced to scientific statements about behavioural
probabilities. Just as the medical researcher seeks to study and control the
causes of various diseases, so does the behavioural scientist study the causes
of behaviour. He seeks to explain, predict and control behaviour. Every
thing one does is the result of prior causes or conditioning, which is why
psychology is a science. Every response is caused. Consequences of
previous behaviour often act as causes of subsequent behaviour. The
behaviour we learn and repeat as well as the behaviour we avoid or cease
performing: are all directly functions of past consequences of those types of
behaviour. A large number of those are provided by society. All this is show
in the following diagrammatic representation:
S R1 C R2
Stimulus (S) leads to response (R1) resulting in consequence (C), which
arouses further response (R2). This essentially was the behaviourist principle
of reinforcement. Using this principle doctors in mental hospitals found that
136
137
they could make rebellious patients behave like civilized mentally healthy
human beings. Reinforcing the desired or correct behaviour increases the
frequency of the desired behaviour and reduces and extinguished the
undesired behaviour.
Later, Skinner developed his research on behaviour into philosophy in
addition to the psychological studies he had started with.
He believed that the science of behaviour could solve problems related to
human behaviour. This solution however required that we give up or
denounce our belief in the “illusions” of human freedom, responsibility and
dignity.
“The free inner man who is held responsible for the behaviour of the
external biological organism is only a pre-scientific substitute of the kinds of
causes which are discovered in the course of scientific analysis. All these
alternatives lie outside the individual,” (Skinner B.F. Science and Human
Behaviour; 1953. and Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Hackett
Publishing Co. 1972)
Skinner’s philosophy on human nature took on a hard-line view; that was
determinism.
Determinism is the claim that all events are the necessary result of previous
causes. Determinism contends that every thing has a cause. Every event is
conditioned to be just as it is by what immediately preceded it, which in turn
was conditioned by another event that preceded it. What happens must
happen - there is no alternative.
The individual is a passive object manipulated by hidden forces that are
impossible to resist. We cannot alter the future, which is laid down at the
beginning of time.
137
138
Opposed to determinism is the viewpoint of freedom and responsibility.
Man controls and is responsible for his own life and his own acts. The
behaviourists regard this notion as an unscientific illusion. It does not
confirm to the laws of causality.
The laws of causality refer to the degree to which one is influenced by
heredity and by environment. Much of our behaviour is the product of our
genes and our environment. As a determinist Skinner believed that every
event, including human behaviour has a cause. Once we improve scientific
knowledge of human behaviour we will be able to explain, predict and
control behaviour more effectively than we do now.
If the idea of controlling human behavior is repulsive, Skinner points out
that, control is the goal of many social interactions. Parents use various
methods such as persuasion, role modelling, punishment or reward and
verbal rebukes or praises to make their children behave appropriately and
develop into well-mannered, considerate moral persons. Society uses various
means to make its citizens behave consistently with the good of society.
Education, religion and peer-group pressure, social sanctions aim at
controlling behaviour. So do advertisements, law makers and law enforcers:
all of whom are involved in controlling behaviour or influencing it.
According to Skinner “If we did not have ability to control behaviour
civilization would be impossible to achieve”. We would all remain a bunch
of savages, scrambling selfishly to grab what we want before any one else
takes it. The law of the jungle of survival for the fittest would prevail.
Skinner’s other assertions are on creativity.
138
139
5.32 Creativity
It is commonly thought that creativity is based on free choice and free
actions - or on originality of thought. To Skinner creativity is a product of
environmental causes that act on the artist for which he is not responsible.
Every creative activity is under the banner of behaviour control. We
compose songs that society demands to hear. We sing to please society. We
paint picture that people want to see. Our social environment causes our
songs and our paintings. The poet does not create, originate or even initiate
the poem; his behaviour of making a poem is the product of his genetic and
environmental histories.
We say that a woman has a baby, where “has” means “possesses”. To have a
baby is to come into possession of a baby. The woman who does so is then a
mother. The child is her child. But what, is the nature of her contribution?
She is not responsible for its skin colour, eye colour, strength, intelligence,
talents and other features of the baby.
Thus the mother made no positive contribution to the existence of the baby
except through conveying it heredity. The mother did not design the baby
willfully. It was designed by heredity. She merely passed to the baby half of
its genes, which she herself had inherited from her own parents. As it grows
the baby’s personality will add environment influences to it. It is only
through environmental influence that the mother will mould the child’s
personality. She will do so as part and instrument of the environment herself.
Education and teachers are environmental causes of the child’s behaviour
and personality. Education is a means of controlling and shaping the human
being in accordance with the ideals of his society. Through education we
cultivate and acquire the characteristics in our personality that our social and
139
140
physical environment dictates. Behaviourist education addresses one of the
most important environment demands on human beings.
5.33 Behaviourist Influence on Education Systems
Behaviourism, in its discernment of the processes involved in educational
practices, contends that learning entails covert as well as overt activities of
the individual. It is a process in which the individual gains knowledge,
including understanding, competences and values. The major portion of this
process of learning involves covert acts of the mind, which cannot be
observed or noticed to be happening by an observer. The behaviourist
contention is that all mental acts are reducible to external observable
scientific statements about behavioural probabilities, (Skinner beyond
Freedom and Dignity 1972). This contention forms a powerful mechanism
of objectively observing and measuring the covert acts of the mind. We have
no information at all about what goes on in the mind of a learner as he
listens to instructions during a lesson. We don’t know whether he
understands or misunderstands what is taught. To find out the learner’s
conception of, say, “photosynthesis” in a lesson on biology, we ‘reduce’
what is happening in his mind by requiring him to define ‘photosynthesis’.
His answer will be an overt manifestation of the processes that went on in
his mind as he listened to the lesson on photosynthesis. This mechanism of
reducing the covert acts of the mind into overt responses of the learner
allows the instructor to determine whether or not the learner has understood
the process of photosynthesis. It provides a means of measuring in precise
terms the learning outcomes of the lesson. It provides educational
measurement expertise and lays the fundamental basis of curriculum
planning and development. It also forms the fundamental basis of specifying
lesson objectives in precise observable and measurable terms.
140
141
Modern educational practices in curriculum planning and development; and
in lesson planning, presentation and evaluation; as well as practices in
educational measurement and test development, including the setting and
administration of public examinations:- have all benefited from the
fundamentals of the behaviourism as a philosophical movement. This is
mainly due to the mechanism it provides in specifying the outcomes of
learning in precise observable and measurable terms as overt reductions of
mental activities.
Influence of Behaviourism in Measuring the Outcomes of the Process of EducationMeasuring the outcomes of activities and operations in education has been
influenced over the last century by the philosophical theory of behaviourism.
Behaviourism is one of the philosophical theories, which is based on the
psychological school of thought that advances that the subject matter of
psychology is external behaviour. Psychology is the scientific study of overt
behaviour rather than covert behaviour or states of consciousness or mental
states.
Behaviourists, such as J.B. Watson, stated that psychology is the science of
behaviour dealing with externally observable and measurable phenomena,
rather than the processes and conditions of the mind. It avoids dealing with
the intangibles and inapproachable or mental processes because they are
covert. They cannot be seen heard, tasted, touched or smelled.
As a philosophy behaviourism is part of determinism. It seeks to determine
the causes of behaviour. According to B.F Skinner, who was a prominent
experimental psychologist and philosopher, all mental terms can be reduced
to scientific statements about behaviour. Beliefs, understanding, and
intellectual activities and even desires, can be reduced to externally
141
142
observable and measurable expressions. We cannot see what is going on in
the learner’s mind, for example we cannot tell whether he understands what
we are teaching him. We have to translate such internal processes occurring
in the learner’s mind into externally observable behaviour by asking him,
say, the meaning of what we are teaching him.
The behaviourists’ reduction of covert mental processes, in learning, into
tangible overt behaviour, has influenced educational systems all over the
world. Statements of educational objectives and the objectives of test or
examination questions to measure educational achievements are all
expressed in terms of externally observable students’ behaviour or
responses.
Lesson objectives are expressed are expressed in terms of externally
observable and measurable learner’s behaviour. They state what the student
will be able to do at the end of the lesson. Test questions on the topics taught
during the lesson are also formulated in a manner that they demand the
learner’s external behaviour to demonstrate internal conditions in his mind.
They use action verbs like “describe”, “show”, “state”, “solve”, “define”,
“explain”, “distinguish” and so forth. It is only in that way that we can find
out about what went on in the minds of the learners during the lessons. It is
thus the only way of measuring the outcomes of learning or the process of
education.
The problem at issue, in connection with testing, is that most tests cannot
measure every item that was covered by the lessons. They cover mere
samples of what was taught, leaving out large junks of the materials covered
during the lessons. Such samples may not always accurately represent what
142
143
was taught. When a learner fails a test, it does not necessarily mean that he
did not master the subject matter covered by the lessons.
The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
In the 1950s to the 1970s a way of classifying educational objectives in
precise behavioural terms was devised by Benjamin S. Bloom, D.R.
Krathwoh, Anna Harrow and others. The writers identified a set of
categories of educational objectives, which was termed ‘taxonomy of
educational objectives’. They devised three domains in that taxonomy,
namely: the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the psychomotor
domain. Each of these domains was subdivided into precise learners’
responses, such as recall of mastered specifics, methods or procedures and
abstractions.
The cognitive domain was most influential category in curriculum
development, teaching and developing tests to measure precisely the
outcomes of learning.
The Cognitive Domain
This domain was written by Benjamin Bloom and published in 1956. It
comprises six cognitive or knowledge levels. Cognition is a process of
acquiring knowledge through reasoning, intuition or the senses. These
cognitive levels are retention or memorisation of knowledge, comprehension
or understanding, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
(i) Retention of Knowledge
The learners manifest cognition or the process of acquiring knowledge and
retaining knowledge by recalling, remembering or recognising specific
elements in the subject area they were exposed to. The elements they recall
or recognise are (a) specifics, (i.e. facts, terms, conventions, and trends) (b)
143
144
ways and means of dealing with specifics (i.e. conventions, trends,
sequences, classifications, categories, criteria and universals) and (c)
abstractions (i.e. principles, generalisations, theories and structures).
(ii) Comprehension or Understanding
The learners manifest comprehension by translating known concepts or
messages into different expressions or changing the known materials from
one form of symbols to another form. The learners also manifest
comprehension by interpreting the known materials into their implicit
meanings indicating interrelations among the parts of known materials.
Moreover the learners manifest comprehension by extrapolating the known
materials, i.e. by going beyond the literal meaning of such materials making
inferences about consequences or perspectives extended in time dimensions,
or in a logical sequence. To extrapolate is to calculate or extend from known
information to reach new information. For example the learner may be asked
to complete the following statement: “Hat is to head as --- --- to foot.” It
would be wrong if he gave the answer that “Hat is to head as shoes are to
foot”, because he would be producing the inferred new information in plural
whereas the stem is in singular. He would be failing to extrapolate that stem
in its singular form.
(iii) Application
The learners manifest application by applying known abstractions to
particular and concrete situations. The abstractions can be general ideas,
rules, or procedures and generalised methods. They could also be technical
principles, ideas and theories, which must be remembered and applied in the
concrete or particular situations.
(iv) Analysis
144
145
The learners manifest this level by breaking down the known -materials into
their constituent parts whereby revealing their relative hierarchy to clarify
them or determine their relationships. Analysis can be done on elements,
relationships or organised principles.
(v) Synthesis
The learners manifest synthesis by putting together elements or parts of the
known materials to form wholes or patterns and structures that were not
clearly discernable before.
(vi) Evaluation
The learners manifest evaluation by making judgements about the value of
ideas or known materials on the basis of evidence or criteria such as
comparison with prescribed standards.
The cognitive domain of education objectives assesses or appraises students’
mastery of knowledge by means of achievement tests. These are test set for
learners to answer using paper and pencil, i.e. writing down their responses
on paper to externalise the processes going on in their minds through overt
responses.
The Affective Domain
According to Benjamin Bloom the affective domain includes objectives,
which describe changes in interests, attitudes and values as well as the
development of appreciations and adequate or appropriate adjustments to
new conditions in the environmental situation.
145
146
Something “affective” is something related or having an effect on the
emotions or feelings. The affective domain of educational objectives deals
with changes in emotions or what the individual feels, desires likes or
values, etc.
D.R. Krathwoh and others published taxonomies of educational objectives in
the affective domain. The classification of educational objectives in the
cognitive domain used the principle of proceeding from the simple to the
complex, and from the concrete to the abstract. This principle, however,
could not be used in the classification of educational objectives in the
affective domain because it was concerned with interests and appreciations.
In 1964 several authors including D.R. Krathwoh, B.S. Bloom, and B.B.
Masia wrote the following domain of the taxonomy. The classifiers of the
affective domain realised that at the bottom of the classification the process
of “internalisation” was needed. Internalisation was defined as a process
whereby the new idea gradually dominated the learner’s thinking and
motives. He began acting in the new value orientation.
The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Affective Domain as
written by Krathwoh and others can be summarised as follows
(i) Receiving or Absorbing the New Idea.
At this stage the learner becomes merely sensitive to the stimulus. He shows
willingness to pay attention to the communication. The stage starts with (a)
the individual’s becoming aware of the new idea and goes on to (b) his being
willing to receive the communication and (c) selecting some aspects of the
new communication.
(ii) Responding.
146
147
This stage follows up the new idea by doing something with it. The stage
starts by (a) acquiescence in responding, followed by (b) willingness to
respond and finally by (c) satisfaction in response.
(iii) Valuing.
This stage involves receiving the new idea as worthwhile having; this is
shown by the learner’s behaviour that is consistent to or in harmony with the
new idea or the values contained in it. Valuing starts with (a) acceptance of
the value in the idea, followed by (b) preference for the value, and by (c)
commitment to the new idea.
(iv) Organisation
There are, at this stage, several values involved. It therefore necessary to
organise these values into a system, determine the interrelationships among
them, and establish the dominant and pervasive values (that is those that are
present everywhere). Thus organisation starts with (a) conceptualisation of
values, followed by (b) organisation of a value system.
(v) Characterisation by Values or Value Complex
The new values are already placed in the individual’s value hierarchy. They
are organised into an internally consistent system. The individual in his
behaviour has adopted them whereby he acts according to their
prescriptions. He is characterised by these values. a or value system.
Characterisation by value starts with (a) establishing a generalised set of
behaviour that is in accordance with the new values, followed by (b)
characterisation or formation of habits that are in accordance with the new
values.
147
148
Krathwoh’s taxonomy has been criticised, as too abstract, that is not specific
enough, for curriculum development purposes where particular objectives to
be attained by learners must be specified in behavioural expressions. The
taxonomy has not provided the methodological and theoretical framework
for evaluating and measuring the affective or emotional outcomes of
processes in education. This is unlike the case of the cognitive domain where
the educational objectives are converted easily into observable expressions
of the students’ cognitive states. A reform or refinement of the taxonomy is
needed. Such a reform should examine the possibilities of reducing desires,
aspirations and so forth, to externally observable behaviour. Plays and drama
including films tend to portray a great deal of such sentiments and beliefs
overtly. They include expressions of emotions such as deep grief through
acting.
The affective domain is not assessed directly as a separate outcome of the
process of education. The acquisition of new values, attitudes or
appreciations is often measured indirectly through the achievement tests
used in assessing learning achievement in the cognitive domain or and
through performance tests.
The Psychomotor Domain
This domain is concerned with locomotion or ability to move and agility, or
ability to move quickly, nimbly and with ease. Its effective executions
involve dexterity or physical skills combined with accurate mental
coordination. A pool or snooker player for example uses accurate visual
acuity to estimate the angle between two lines. That is the line from the cue-
ball to target-ball, and the line from target-ball to the hole.
148
149
He also uses accurate muscular movement to strike the cue-ball at that
estimated angle between those two lines.
Hole
Target-ball
Estimated Angle
Cue-ball
Cue
A number of psychomotor domains on the taxonomy of educational
objective have been developed on the. Among the most comprehensive one
is that of Anna J. Harrow (1972). It was published as under the title “A
Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for Developing
Behavioural Objectives”, published by McKay, in New York.
A.J. Harrow defined “psychomotor” as “any human voluntary observable
movement that belongs to the domain of learning.” The taxonomy is divided
in six stages as follows: -
(1) Reflex Movements.
These are involuntary actions of the body made instinctively in response to
stimulus. They are subdivided into (i) Segmental reflexes, or movements of
merely certain parts of the body. (ii) Inter-segmental reflexes or movements
149
150
certain interconnected part of the body. (iii) Supra-segmental reflexes. These
are movements of the whole body.
(2) Basic Fundamental Movements
These are locomotion that are divided into: (i) locomotor or muscular
movements; (ii) nonlocomotor or sensory movements involving mainly the
nerves; (iii) manipulative movements which combine both muscular and
sensory movements.
(3) Perceptual Abilities
These are mental and sensory processes involving the intake of messages
through the senses and discerning their meanings. They are subdivided into:
(i) kinesthetic discrimination, whereby an internal sensory feeling receives
and discriminates in-coming messages; (ii) body awareness, which is an
awareness and control of the pause or position of the body in relation to its
surroundings. It includes awareness and control of body balance. (iii) Visual
discrimination, i.e. visual acuity, visual tracking, visual memory and figure-
ground discrimination. (iv) Coordinated abilities such as eye-hand
coordination.
(4) Physical Abilities
These are muscular abilities such as muscular endurance, cardiovascular
endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility. They are also coordinated
muscular reaction in, say, reaction-response time and stopping and starting
activities.
(5) Skilled Movements
These are subdivided into: (i) Simple and adoptive skills ranging from
beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels. (ii) Compound adoptive skills
150
151
that also range from beginner, intermediate to advanced levels. (iii) Complex
adoptive skills that also range from beginner, intermediate and advanced
levels.
(6) Non-discursive or Coherent Communication
These are non-verbal expressive movements. They include postures,
gestures and facial expressions. They also involve artistic or aesthetic
movements like in dancing. The mastery of these skills is ordered starting
from simple initial beginner levels and proceeding steadily to higher levels,
which are normally unattainable without the initial mastery of the lower-
level skills in the hierarchy.
Reference:
Bloom, Benjamin S., et al.,(1956); Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Book I, Cognitive Domain. Allyn and Bacon. Boston MA.
Harrow, Anna J. (1972); Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain: A Guide
for Developing Behavioural Objectives. McKay, New York.
Krathwoh, David, R., Bloom B.S., Masia B.B. (1964), Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. Handbook II: The Affective Domain. Allyn and
Bacon. Boston MA.
Lawhead, William, F.: Philosophical Journey: An Interactive Approach.
McGraw- Hill Book Co. New York 2003
Lawhead, William; Philosophical Questions; McGraw-Hill Book Co
Skinner, B.F. (1972): Beyond Freedom and Dignity; Alfred Knopf; New
York.
Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behaviour; Macmillan New York 1953
Skinner, B.F. About Behaviourism Alfred Knopf, New York, 19974
151
152
Skinner, B.F. “A Lecture on ‘Having’ a Poem” in Cumulative Record a
Selection of Papers. Appleton-Century Crofts; New York 1972.
Shipka, Thomas A, and Minton. Philosophy: Paradox and Discovery;
McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York 1996.
Maugham, Somerset, W. Of Human Bondage; Penguin Books, New York
1991.
Watson J.B. (1924), Behaviourism; Appleton-Century-Crofts; New York.
Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia Article on behaviourism, 2009,
5.40 Existentialism
5.41 Introduction: Existentialism and the Meaning of Life
The meaning of human existence and the threat of meaninglessness have
been the concern of existentialism. As a philosophical movement
existentialism offers insights in the meaning of human life. It is a
philosophical trend that arose in the 19th century through the writings of
Soren Kierkegaard (1813- 1855), who was a theist and Friedrich Nietzsche
(1844-1900), who was an atheist.
No body bothered about the writings of these two until the 20 th century when
existentialism became a popular movement. The 20 th century writers in
existentialism include Jean-Paul Sartre (1905- 1980) Gabriel Marcel and
others. Sartre was an outspoken atheist, while Gabriel Marcel was a
Catholic. Thus both the theists and atheists embrace the concern on the
meaning and raison d’être of human existence.
Existentialism is concerned with the individual person, as he subjectively
perceives himself and the meaning of his existence. Existentialists indicate
insights on the priority of subjective choosing over objective reasoning.
152
153
They also indicate a priority on concrete experience over intellectual
abstraction, and a priority on individuality over mass culture, as well as a
priority on human freedom over determinism, a priority on authentic living
i.e. living for achieving the satisfaction self-felt needs over unauthenticated
needs of society i.e. living to merely to comply with what society expects
one to be like.
Kierkegaard for example advised people to live out their choices
authentically. He presented an “ideal person” from an external appearance as
follows:
The ideal person is completely a real or ideal man. He is a university man, a
husband and a father, a very competent civil functionary, a respected and
carefulness itself with regards to his children, and very gentle to his wife. Is
he a religious man? Well that too after a sort.
The problem with this real person is that he lacks a self. He is nothing but a
collection of social roles- husband, father and civil servant. This description
could fit any number of people. There is no unique authentic self behind all
these roles he holds. He dare not believe in himself. He cannot be himself
even for a moment because of a fear to be ridiculed by others. He forgets his
own being to merely play properly the social roles others expect him to
fulfill. It is far easier and safer for him to be like others and to become an
imitation and a mere number in a crowd than to be the unique self he is.
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was a French novelist and an existentialist
philosopher. He began his career by teaching philosophy after graduating at
a prestigious university in France.
In 1943 he published his philosophical master- piece entitled “Being and
Nothingness: A Phenomenological Essay on Ontology”. It has been called
the principal text on modern existentialism. In 1964 he was awarded a Nobel
153
154
Prize for literature, which he refused to accept. He did not want to become a
tool for the establishment.
Sartre claimed that we are always free. Man cannot be sometime a slave and
some time free. He is either wholly or forever free, or he is not free at all.
Each of us is thrust into existence without any one or anything determining
what our purpose shall be. For human beings: “their existence comes before
their essence”.
“What is meant here is that first of all man exists, turns up, appears on the
scene, and afterwards defined himself- at first he is nothing, only afterwards
will he be something. He himself will have to make what he will be. He
wills himself to be after he has been thrust into existence.”
Freedom is not something we have. It is something we are. “We are
condemned to be free.”
There are situations in which one finds one’s self incapable of choosing
freely what to do, and in which one has no power to choose what to be.
Sartre calls these situations as a person’s facticity. A facticity is Sartre’s
term for those features of our past or present that we were not free to choose
and yet they set limits on the course of our lives. In spite of our facticity,
freedom prevails in the end. We are continuously deciding how the facts of
our situation fit in our present self-conception and projects. One is not born a
singer. One becomes a singer by choosing to be so.
There is what Sartre calls transcendence, which is the root of our freedom
of ability to define ourselves by our possibilities and all the ways in which
each of us is continuously creating our own future in terms of our choices,
our plans or our dreams and ambitions. Because of our transcendence, what
we have been or done in the past does not dictate our future.
154
155
Although my past seems to weigh on me and determine who I am; but this is
only because of the way they enter into my present engagements. I could
disengage my self from them if I choose. In each moment of our existence
we are creating our present selves out of the possibilities that define our
transcendence.
“To existentialists, a human being, unlike a rock, or a cat, carries a burden
that cannot be escaped short of death - the burden of freedom, Freedom
means making a dozen of choices every day, choices in which one shapes
one’s fundamental project or plan in life, including choices of one’s beliefs,
values, and goals.” (Thomas Shipka and Arthur Minton 1996 p.228). The
individual human being is free to choose what to be in every moment of his
life.
5.2 Existentialism and Education
Existentialism is a philosophy that contends that the individual person is free
and is not to be culturally marshalled or coerced by society. He has basic
rights, which should not be infringed upon by social machinations. Society
has no right to determine the essence of an individual person. That is his
prerogative. The individual has the basic right choose what to become. We
are what we are because we chose to be so. Human beings are not already
predetermined personalities. Existence precedes essence. The essence of an
individual is his personality. The individual first exists, and then he becomes
a personality, i.e. his essence. It is he who chooses what to be or what his
essence should be.
The ultimate goal or purpose of education is to cultivate the authentic
person. An authentic person is one who determines for himself what to be.
155
156
Contemporary education systems impede and violate the development of the
authentic person. Schools are nothing but means of manipulating and
controlling the individual. They structure instructions to make the individual
attain learning objectives, which they pre-determine and prescribe or set for
him to achieve. They choose what he should be like, without his consent. He
is never consulted on whether or not he wishes to achieve those set
educational objectives.
In existentialist education it is the individual who chooses the purposes and
contents of education, and not society. The students should create their own
destinies, rather than being slotted into predetermined positions or roles for
the advancement of a common social good. Many philosophers of education
agree that education should aim at promoting the individual’s well being.
The end of education is the individual’s good life: the opposite of a
miserable life. In addition philosophers of education contend that education
should nurture the autonomy of the individual letting him determine his
personality, John White (1999) stated that an aspect of the individual’s well-
being is his autonomy or freedom to choose what he believes to be good for
him. Thus personal liberty is a central value which rests on the individual’s
right for a good life – a life that is free from miseries or hardships, (Haji and
Cuypers 2008).
References:
Kaufman, Walter. Existentialism from Destohimyngevsky to Sartre;
Meridian New York 1975.
Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia Article on Behaviourism, 2009,
156
157
Shipka A. Thomas and Minton J. Arthur; Philosophy: Paradox and
Discovery; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 1996.
Haji, Ishtiyaque and Cuypers, Stefaane: “Authenticity-Sensitive
Preferentism and Education for Well-being” in Journal of Philosophy of
Education (online) Vol. 42 Issue 1 2008. pp.85-106).
White, John (1999) “In Defense of Liberal Aims of Education”; in R.
Marples (ed.); The Aims of Education. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Lawhead, William, Philosophical Journey; (2003). McGraw Hill Company, New York.
5.50 Postmodernism
5.51 Nature of Postmodernism
Postmodernism is an epistemological movement defined as “an
abandonment of the Enlightenment confidence, which had prevailed during
modernity in the achievement of objective human knowledge through
reliance upon reason in pursuit of fundamental essentialist realism.
Postmodernism began as a critique of continental philosophy and eventually
attacked and doubted many of the values and bases of analytic philosophy.
The most influential postmodern philosophers include Michel Foucault
(1926-1984), Jean Francois Lyotard (1924-1998), Jacques Derrida (1930-
2004) and Richard McKay Rorty (1931-2007).
5.511 Michel Foucault
157
158
This is a postmodern philosopher that doubted the assertions of
structuralism. He used historical investigations as a method of exposing how
conventional social institutions and practices including especially the
forceful marginalisation of deviant behaviour by incongruent rationality
shaped the structure of human thought. He focused on the social power to
circumscribe or limit and control subjective human experience. He
maintained that genuine freedom could be achieved only through
detachment from what is expected of us as normal.
Foucault and other postmodern philosophers’ attacks were addressed on
structuralism. Existentialist perspectives also influenced the criticisms.
Structuralism refers to theories in social sciences and in the humanities,
which advance that structural relationships between concepts vary among
different cultures and languages. These relationships can be explored to
explain phenomena in the various fields of knowledge. Through these
structures, meanings are produced within a particular person, system or
culture. Such meanings can then form the bases for actions of individuals as
well as groups. Structures were used in psychology by, for example the
psychoanalysts like Freud. They were used in Marxist philosophy as well as
in analytic philosophy. The existentialists attacked social control and the
circumscribing of individual freedom by means of structuralism that was
attacked by Foucault. Ever since the era of ancient Greek philosophers,
society has always circumscribed or limited individuals from speaking out
what they thought or believed and from expressing or airing what they felt,
and from putting their thoughts and feeling into actions. Society has always
tended to coercively structure its members in what to think and believe, feel
and what actions to take, (Huckaby 2008).
158
159
5.512 Jean Francois Lyotard
This is a leading postmodern philosopher who maintained that human
discourses occur in any number of discrete incommensurable realms. They
are eclectic or lacking any single disciplinary core that characterises such
human discourses. Lyotard attacked contemporary literary theories that
attempted to explain human discourses on the basis of grand social theories.
He asserted that human discourses are experimental expositions that are
unbounded by excessive concerns for truths or “metanarratives such as
Marxism.
The term ‘metanarratives’ or sometimes ‘grand narratives’ refers to an
abstract idea that is supposed to be a comprehensive explanation of historical
experience or knowledge. The prefix “meta” means ‘beyond’, but here it
refers to ‘about’. And narrative means ‘a story’. Therefore a metanarrtive is
a story about a story encompassing and explaining other stories within it.
In his book: “The Postmodern Condition”, published in 1979, Lyotard
characterised the increasing scepticism towards the totalising nature of
metanarratives or grand narratives like Marxism and modernism. They
assume some form of transcendent and universal truths.
“I define postmodernism as incredulity towards metanarratives. It is a
doubted product of progress in science,” Lyotard wrote in 1979.
One example of a metanarrative is what the Enlightenment theorists
believed. It asserted that rational thought was allied to scientific reasoning;
and that this would lead to social and ethical progress. The other example is
Marxism where by the Marxists believe that in order to be emancipated
society must undergo a revolution: the inevitability of a class struggle
resulting in communism. Just as the bourgeoisie took power from the
aristocratic class, where wealth was based on control over land, they believe
159
160
that the present system of capitalism will fall and the proletariat will take
over; and that this change will be driven by the unstable cyclic nature of
capitalism and the alienation of labourers’ feelings that keep the system
working.
The postmodern philosophers put all these grand narratives to question and
regarded them as perhaps mere illusions. Lyotard and other postmodern
philosophers have doubted the structuralist theories as being positive
developments because: (i) Attempts to construct grand theories tend to
dismiss the naturally exiting chaos and disorder in the universe. (ii)
Metanarratives are created and reinforced by power structuralism and are
therefore not to be trusted. Metanarratives ignore the heterogeneity or
variety of human existence. Besides, metanarratives are seen to embody
unacceptable views of historical development in terms of progress towards a
specific goal. The latent diverse passions of human beings will always make
it impossible for them to be marshalled or controlled under some theoretical
doctrine or ideology. This is one reason for the fall of the Soviet Union in
the 1990s.
Lyotard proposed that metanarratives should give way to “petit recits” or
more modest and localised small narratives. His vision of progressive
politics and social organisation is that which is grounded in cohabitation of a
whole range of diverse and always locally legitimated multiplicity of
theoretical standpoints, rather than all-embracing theories. Postmodernity is
characterised by eclecticism, which is by nature devoid of any single
disciplinary core, (Chambliss 1996).
While interpreting Francois Lyotard, Mary Klages’ (2003) Postmodernism
Online: [email protected]) stated that the postmodernist
philosopher “equates stability with the idea of totality… Totality, stability
160
161
and order, Lyotard argues, are maintained in modern societies through the
means of grand narratives, which are stories a culture tells about its practices
and beliefs. …. Postmodernism then is a critique of grand narratives… such
narratives serve to mask the contradictions and instabilities that are inherent
in any social organisation or practice … every attempt to create order always
demands the creation of an equal amount of disorder.” Mary Klages
interprets “petit recits” as “practices, local events, rather than large-scale
universal global concepts… situational, provisional, contingent and
temporary, making no claim to universality, reason, or stability.” Each of
such petit recit is incommensurate i.e. not matched with any of the others. It
claims neither of being more superior nor of being more appropriate than
any of the others. It stands alone and it is directly relevant to existing
contingencies it is posed to address.
Behind Lyotard’s postmodernist theory is a deep mistrust of theories that are
projected as universal and categorical assertions of the truth or reality about
human life and situations in human existence across the globe and through
out the history of the human race and forecasts of future events in history. A
clear example of such forecasts is Karl Marx’s prediction that “What the
bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, is its own grave diggers. Its fall
and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable”: (Marx, Karl, and
Fredrich Engels, Communist Manifesto, trans. Samuel Moore in 1888).
Both the fall of capitalism and the triumph of communism did not occur. It
is obvious that Karl Marx’s prediction was a mere illusion. Lyotard
believes that such assertions could possibly be mistaken, and could easily
mislead people into making wrong decisions and taking wrong actions in
life.
161
162
5.513 Jacques Derrida
This is one of the postmodern philosophers who used deconstruction to
demolish metanarratives. He advocated the view that meaning emerges only
from an endless process of re-interpretation based on interactions between
reader and text. He argued that all dichotomies between subject and object
are ultimately unattainable. Jacques Derrida proposed a theory of
deconstruction as a postmodern perspective of meaning. Deconstruction is
a term, which is used to denote the application of postmodern ideas of
criticism to a text or an artifact. Any text or artifact has more than one
interpretation; the text itself links these interpretations inextricably or
virtually in a manner that is impossible to separate them. Many of such
interpretations oppose the foundation framework of the text or artifact.
Deconstruction is a process of undermining the frame of reference and the
assumptions that underpin the text or artifact. Martin Heidegger (1889-
1976), in his book “Being and Time” had called for destruction or
deconstruction of the history of ontology. Heidegger attempted to describe
being as covered by Plato and other philosophers after him i.e. Post Socratic
perspective of being as viewed against the perspective of being during the
Pre-Socratic period, when ‘being’ was an open question. He concluded that
there was deconstruction in comparing these two perspectives of being.
Postmodern philosophers used deconstruction to describe and analyse
existing texts. Any text when examined and found to contain conflicts or
contradictions would be deconstructing or undermining its own foundations,
thus destroying its meaning. Postmodernists, beginning with Jacques
Derrida, along with the poststructuralists argued that the existence of
deconstructions in any text or artifact implied that there was no intrinsic
162
163
essence to that text or artifact. It did not have a meaning or core to under pin
it anymore.
According to Derrida, deconstruction is not a method or tool; rather it is an
occurrence of contradictions within the text or artifact itself. Thus
deconstruction is a process of pointing out contradictions between the intent
of a text or artifact and its existing manifestations.. For example if some one
can pass as the opposite sex; if a young man passes as a young woman; he is
said to be deconstructing his gender identity because there is conflict
between his outward appearance and the reality of his gender. He appears
female although he is male. In election campaigns politicians express intents
and visions of conditions in human living that are rosy and bright or pleasant
to all. The campaigners promise to achieve all these once elected. Close
examination of past political campaigns easily reveal deconstructions
between what the campaigners had promised and what actually happened
after they were elected into the public offices they were campaigning for.
The grand social and political theories or metanarratives tend to deconstruct
the essence of human living conditions. Theorisers’ of such grand social
theories confuse the reality of human living conditions with imaginary and
illusionary desires they conjure in their minds.
5.514 Richard McKay Rorty
This is a postmodern philosopher who attacked the foundationalism
assumptions of traditional epistemology. He proposed a postmodern
conception of philosophical method as an edifying discourse. He was a
professor of philosophy at Stanford University. In his book:
“Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature” (1979) Rorty argued against the
163
164
central theme of modernist epistemology which depended on a picture of the
mind trying to faithfully represent or mirror a mind-dependent extended
external reality. This is foundationalist epistemology. Foundationalists hold
the view that all beliefs are justified by other beliefs which are self-justifying
and forming the foundations of all knowledge. Rorty criticised
foundationalism in its attempt to justify knowledge claims by tracing them
back to a set of foundations. He also criticised the claim that philosophy
functions foundationally within a culture.
Thus the foundationalist contention that knowledge could be started from
nothing by finding pieces of certain infallible knowledge i.e. foundation,
upon which all other knowledge could be constructed was questioned by
Rorty. The grounds advanced to justify the infallibility or veracity of such
foundational knowledge as self-evident nature of that foundation knowledge,
are also questionable. The assertion that something is self-evidently true is a
subjective. What is self evident - requiring no other reasons for its veracity -
differs from one person to another in its being perceived as self evident.
Thus the postmodern philosophers question the existence of singular and all-
embracing disciplinary cores in characterising knowledge on the ground
that such all embracing theories are objectionable assertions found in
structurism, modernism and foundationalism. They are also objectionable on
grounds that they contain deconstructions rendering their meanings fallacies.
What post modernism proposes is the existence of a multiplicity of mini-
narratives or petit recits that are locally justifiable, suited and contingent in
terms of local situations.
5.50 Postmodern Philosophy in Education
164
165
5.51 Education for Liberation and the Process of ConscientisationOne example of what Lyotard called ‘small narratives’ that emerged in the
wake of modernist mode of producing agricultural commodities under large-
scale mass production was Paul Freire’s conception of education for
liberation.
The concept of liberation presupposes a social situation where the
democratic principle of equality is violated. John Locke (1632-1704), as we
saw earlier, stated that every human being has the natural rights to life, to
liberty and to property. The violation of individuals’ rights to liberty and to
property tends to occur in situations where the more powerful members in a
community infringe upon the rights of the weaker or less powerful members
in that community.
Liberation in such a situation is an act of restitution to redress the injustices
suffered under the violation of natural human rights. It is a process of setting
the aggrieved individuals free and thus restoring their natural prerogatives.
To liberate some one is to set him free from the control of someone else, so
that the liberated person is in control of his own life. It is a restoration of the
human natural right of liberty. Thus liberation from colonial rule or foreign
domination results in empowering the liberated people to rule themselves-
restoring their right to control their own lives.
Paul Freire (1921-1997), an influential thinker on education in the late
twentieth century was the first philosopher to concern himself with
oppressed people whose natural rights to liberty and property were violated
by plantation owners who employed them. In his book “Pedagogy of the
Oppressed” he viewed education an instrument for liberating oppressed
people from oppressors’ unjust dealings with such oppressed people. He
165
166
proposed to do this through a process of education whereby their awareness
of the oppressive situation they lived in would be raised to a new awareness
of the oppressive plight they were in. Their new awareness would be one of
discontentment with that oppressive situation, changing their being resigned
to such an unjust situation. Such a new awareness would also make them
realise that they could change or transform the oppressive situation. Paul
Freire called this process of raising the oppressed people’s awareness about
the plight they were in ‘conscientisation’.
In his advocacy of education for liberation, Paul Freire included a pedagogy
or method of instruction that focused on educational activities which should
be conducted under ‘lived experiences’ of the participants. “Educators
should discuss with the “educatees” and help them in re-labelling or
generating new ideas and ways of renaming the world around them during
their reflections to reach the new realisation about their oppressive
conditions”, he wrote (in the Pedagogy of the Oppressed p.5)
Education for liberation should use dialogue methods whereby the educators
would discuss with the oppressed people about their living conditions. The
methods involve people discussing together or conversing, rather than using
written books and syllabuses in a curriculum of study. Paul Freire
discouraged the formal education context as a means of liberating people
from the oppressive plight they live in. The formal education context is what
Paul Freire called ‘banking education’ whereby the educator merely deposits
knowledge into the learners as though they were vessels. The dialogue
methods also involve “praxis” a Greek expression, which means actions of
putting into practice the ideas realised during the process of reflection. It is
informed action linked to certain values or human good. Thus the dialogue
method is to be used to in changing the participants’ attitudes on their living
166
167
conditions. Dialogue was seen as a cooperative activity involving mutual
respect between the educator and the participants and amidst themselves.
Praxis should be a follow up activity to implement the decisions reached in
the dialogue sessions.
The acts of liberation were reflected in praxis involving the participants’
taking “transformative actions” against their oppressors.
The Process of Conscientisation
Conscientisation comes from the Portuguese expression “concientizacao”
which means consciousness raising. Consciousness in English means the
state of being conscious or knowing what is going on around one through
the use of bodily senses and mental powers. It is a state of being awake,
rather than being asleep or unconscious. When one is conscious of
something, one is aware or knows about such a thing.
Conscientisation is not an English expression it was coined by Paul Freire
from its Portuguese source, which may simply be defined as a process of
raising an awareness of some one to reach a new level in his perception of
reality.
It was Paul Freire (1972) in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed who
coined term ‘conscientisation’ from Portuguese, his native tongue. Freire
defined it to denote two intertwined concepts.
(i) “Making people conscious of the reality about themselves and their
circumstances including the fact that they are human beings, or “their
humanity” as well as their ability to control and transform their environment
and even overpower the oppressive elements in the process of their own
development”. It should be noted that under this meaning Freire assumed
that the people who were to undergo conscientisation were in an oppressive
167
168
situation and that they were either not aware of that fact or they were
resigned to, or contented with it.
(ii) Conscientisation means a removal of the mystery, or to use Freire’s
expression ‘demystification’ of the perception of reality about the world
around. It is a removal of hither-to misconception that has prevailed among
people. It is a removal of a perception of their oppressive plight, about which
their oppressors have kept them in the dark, and against which they were
incapable to fight and overcome. They had thus no alternative except to
resign to the oppressive plight they were in – believing that it was their fate.
Paul Freire asserted that conscientisation is a process involving
“transformative series of actions” which include the following:
(i) An awakening of consciousness that entails a change of attitudes and
which enhances realistic critical awareness of one’s position in society and a
drive to analyse critically the causes and outcomes of such a situation,
comparing it with other situations and possibilities.
(ii)A decision and commitment to take action aimed at transforming the
unhappy socio-economic conditions associated with the oppressive plight.
Conscientisation involves learning to perceive the contradictions existing in
one’s environment, including socio-economic and political contradictions,
hence taking actions against such contradictions. It should be noted that by
“contradictions” Freire refers to the unfair dealings with or ill-treatments of
people conducted by their oppressors or the exploitation of workers by their
employers in Marxist expression.
Types of Consciousness or Awareness
Paul Freire distinguishes three types of states of consciousness as follows:
(1) Magic consciousness, which is a state of consciousness whereby the
168
169
individual is aware of existing problems around him but cannot explain them
in terms of natural phenomena, and attributes them to some supernatural or
nonmaterial explanations such as fate. Paul Freire maintained that this state
of consciousness produces responses, which are characterised by fatalism.
Fatalism is a belief that events are decided by fate, leading to acceptance that
all that happens as inevitable. Some supernatural being is believed to have
pre-determined all occurrences. A kind of god is supposed to have ordained
all events in one’s life. Fatalism produces an attitude of resignation to the
unpleasant situations one encounters in life. (2) Naive Consciousness, which
is a state of consciousness that seeks rational explanations of the problems
one encounters in life. Such explanations are however merely academic and
idealist, characterised by unrealistic and naïve solutions to the problems at
hand. They are abstract and detached from the material reality around. They
make one tolerate one’s plight and accept it philosophically that life is in
that manner. (3) Critical consciousness which is a state of consciousness
whereby man tries to judge the situation realistically, leading to concrete
responses of overcoming the unpleasant situation. According to Freire
critical consciousness involves ‘praxis’, a term he used to mean a
combination of reflection and practice – or thought linked to practice.
Actually the term is derived from Aristotelian insights on moral philosophy
in which he identified ‘phronesis’ as prudence in regards the kind of actions
to take that are morally appropriate. Phronesis is knowledge of proper moral
ends and praxis is a set of actions or deeds as means to achieve the morally
appropriate ends.
The oppressed individuals are assumed to be too immersed in false
contentment with the oppressive reality around them. They do not perceive
169
170
themselves capable of reacting against the world around and the possibility
of actually transforming it. It is only when they are involved in combined
reflection and action, i.e. praxis that they emerge into realising that they can
transform or change the reality, in which they are. Praxis combines theory
with action or practices in a penetrating process of knowing and doing.
According to O’German (1983) “Knowing and transforming are two
fundamental attributes of the conscientisation process.”
Paul Freire asserted that: “The process of men’s orientation in the world
involves not just the association of sense images as for animals. It involves
above all thought and language, which is the possibility of the act of
knowing through man’s praxis by which he transforms reality. Orientation in
the world, so understood, places the question of purpose of action at the
level of critical perception of reality” (A quotation from Paul Freire in
‘Cultural Action for Freedom’: Harvard Educational Review Monograph
Series No. 1, Cambridge Massachusetts; 1970).
Social and Political Background of Conscientisation
Freire’s conceptions and propositions on conscientisation are rooted in
political and socio-economic situation that existed in South America at the
time he wrote his “Pedagogy of the Oppressed”. Brazil and other South and
Central America countries had economies based mainly on plantation
estates, such coffee and sugar plantations. They grew commercial crops on
large scale and employed large numbers of labourers. It was a common
practice among plantation owners to pay meagre wages to their workers, and
provided little or no social amenities to their employees. The majority of
them worked under very poor and miserable conditions with hardly enough
income to meet most of their basic needs. Hunger and diseases were
170
171
rampant. (Darylos, L.K.T. “A Philosophical Sketch of Functional Literacy:
The Freirean Way”, in Adult Education and Development, 39, 1999. pp143-
149).
The main concern of conscientisation was transformation of the people from
a situation of being merely regarded as objects by their employers, the
plantation owners, to being subjects whose basic right are to be restored and
justice redressed. Such a situation can only occur through educational
experiences, where the teacher and the learners discuss together and uncover
the gravity of an oppressive plight and take actions to redress it.
Conscientisation is that kind of education. It is aimed at making the
individual to use the unfair situation to his advantages. He becomes an actor
to reform such an oppressive situation. As an educational process
conscientisation has a liberating potential. It can set the individual free of the
oppressive in which he has hither-to been. These were Paul Freire’s
presuppositions as he advanced his theory on education for liberation
through the raising of the aggrieved plantation labourers’ level
consciousness about the unjust working conditions under which they lived
and worked
As it turned out, Paul Freire’s suggested informal context of education
effected a change of attitudes in respect of the unjust working conditions of
plantation workers in Brazil and elsewhere. The change of attitudes however
did not occur among the aggrieved workers as Paul Freire had envisaged. It
is the plantation owners, i.e. the employers that changed their attitudes
towards their employees’ terms and conditions of work. Plantation owners in
Brazil and else where, dropped their excessively unfair dealings with
employees and adopted more humane treatments to the plantation workers.
Apart from increasing the wages of their employees, the plantation owners
171
172
introduced a set of incentives to promote higher production along with added
amenities, such as issuing weekly rations to every plantation worker.
Lifelong Education
Paul Freire’s insights on education for liberation presuppose lifelong-
learning conception of education. The conception of education as a lifetime
engagement in one’s life span has pervaded in all countries world wide
especially during the second half of the twentieth century. It came along
with the focus, and renewed attention on the right of every human being to
education as envisaged in article 26 of the UN Universal Declaration of
Humana rights. It is part of the prevailing influence of postmodernism on
education which focuses on Lyotard’s petit recits or small narratives that are
concerned mainly with relevant needs of individual peoples’ lives in their
local environments.
The Nature and Necessity of Lifelong Learning
We are living in a changing world. We need to go on learning in order to
keep abreast with the changes that keep on emerging around us. What we
learnt earlier tends to become obsolete. This is a phenomenon that every one
of us encounters in life all the time. Learning is however viewed in a
different manner in traditional thinking.
Layman’s View and Traditional Thinking on Learning:
Traditional thinking on learning has basically three misconception on
learning:- (i) Learning is confined to school-going children alone. (ii)
Education is preparation for future life. (iii) Education is terminal.
(i) Traditional thinking has always regarded learning as confined to just
the school-going children in society. The layman holds the notion that “you
172
173
can’t teach an old dog new tricks”. His assumption is that ability to learn
declines with age; and that there is an age in one’s lifespan, which ranges
from 6 to 18 years of age, when one’s ability to learn is at its peak. It is
commonly called the “plastic age”. It is the age that is most suited for one to
go to school and pursue all the learning one will ever need in life.
These notions of confining learning in the life span of an individual only to
his ‘plastic age’ when his learning ability are at its peak is questionable.
There has been no empirical evidence to support the existence of a “plastic
age’ in the individual’s lifespan. On the contrary there is plenty of empirical
data to support the proposition that a substantial portion of ability to learn, or
intelligence, tends to increase with age. Baltes, P.B. and Reese, H.W.(1980),
for example discovered in a series of studies found that “crystallised
intelligence” tends to increase with age from the lowest level at the age of
six to the oldest age of over seventy. John L. Horn (1980) too collected data
showing that “crystallised intelligence increased with age. Many studies on
lifespan development have found the same trends. In a series of longitudinal
studies McClusky, (1970) found that most outstanding discovery in
chemistry and other natural sciences as well as in the creative arts were
invented or produced by people, whose ages ranged from fifty to over
seventy. Paul Baltes and his colleagues (1996, 2000) conducted studies on
wisdom as an important aspect of intelligence. Wisdom was defined as
expert knowledge on the practical aspects of life, which permits excellent
judgement, and which involves exceptional insights and understanding in
coping with difficulties in life. Wisdom focuses on more than what standard
conception of intelligence deals with. Wisdom deals with life pragmatic
concerns. McClusky finding were confirmed in Paul Baltes and his
173
174
colleagues’ studies, that wisdom tends to increase with age due to their of
life experiences.
(ii) Traditional thinking on learning tends to regard education as a
preparation for future life. Many laymen while considering issues in
education; moreover, it assumes that schooling is concerned with the mere
transmission of information and facts from the adults to their children. Such
information is passed on to the pupils in order to prepare them for meeting
their needs in future. They regard schooling as a mere preparation for future
life. They assign education the role traditional initiation ceremonies fulfill in
primitive societies. This is the role of getting the youth ready to take up
adult responsibilities in future when such youth are of age. Pupils are
expected to receive knowledge and competences as well as adopt attitudes
they will need in future during their adult life. This assumption has tended to
divorce the school curricula from current day-to-day events and situation in
the pupils’ lives. The laymen ignore the fact that science and technology are
revolving and coming up with new ideas and discoveries that tend change
life, and challenge every individual in society to relearn new ways of
adjusting himself to such changes.
(iii) Traditional thinking on learning tends to regard education as terminal.
This is the third misconception in traditional thinking on learning. The
layman tends to look on education as a mere stage of growing up, similar to
going through initiation ceremonies. In this manner education and learning
is considered to reach the end of its being required by the individual who
over grows such a need. Education stops affecting the individual since he is
now beyond its sphere of influence.
174
175
According to John Field (2006) in his book ‘Lifelong Learning and the New
Educational Order’, (cited in Wikipedia) and G. Dohmen (1996), any school
system that strives to prepare the youth for future life or for making them
accomplished after going through an education programme is attempting to
accomplish a futile it task. At the end of their programme of study the
graduates will discover that they have merely been preparing to learn more
about life and the occupations they are now taking up. It has been realised
world wide that formal learning typically concentrated in the earlier stages
of life can no longer sustain an individual throughout their life.
John Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy points out that we should be prepared
to consider false any thing we current regard as true. New discoveries are
likely to come up with evidence that our current notions are based on false
beliefs. Learning and inquiring into the truth is essentially endless, not
terminal because of the continual changes occurring around us. It goes on
throughout the lifespan of the individual. It can never be terminal or
confined to a small portion of our life. It not a mere preparation for future
living either.
Lifelong learning is defined as an endless process of acquiring knowledge,
skills and attitudes. It begins at the birth of the individual and it never
terminates until his demise.
The Functions of Lifelong Learning
Lifelong Learning enables people of all ages to cope with, or adopt
themselves to ever changing environmental conditions in their lives. It
enables them to acquire new understanding and insights about the world
around and to apply such insights in meeting emerging needs and adequately
confront new problems in their lives.
175
176
Lifelong learning has the following functions: - (i) It remedies the defects or
inadequacies of schooling; (ii) It also compensate those who have not had a
chance of or those who missed the opportunities of entering any schools and
those who dropped out of the school system prematurely. (iii) It integrates
the process of educating learners holistically and it thus complements the
formal education system. (iv) It also promotes the democratic principle of
according all members in society access to education.
Societies all over the world are facing rapid changes under the influence of
science and technology, quickening the pace of life in all social spheres
including most fields of human occupation. There is hardly a new innovation
that is not accompanied by a chain of other changes in the lives of people.
Every innovation tends to be accompanied by structural changes in
previously accumulated knowledge. What we learnt at school tends to
become obsolete in just a few years. We have to learn and accommodate
new innovations that keep on emerging from time to time.
Contexts , in which Lifelong Learning Takes Place.
Lifelong learning like the process of education, takes place in three contexts,
a formal context, an informal context and a nonformal context. In all these
three contexts the acquisition of knowledge, competences and attitudes or
values occurs among learners of all ages throughout their life spans.
(i) The formal context involves full time scholars who follow formally
prescribed programmes of study, which have clearly defined learning
objectives, contents, methods as well as intended learning outcomes. On
attaining the intended learning outcomes the scholars are granted formally
recognised awards in the forms of certificates that society considers as
acceptable qualifications with which the scholar get tenure or appointment in
176
177
occupations demanding such academic qualifications. Thus the scholars who
participate in educational progammes under this context have clearly defined
aims for undertaking the learning endeavour. They aim at achieving
recognised academic qualifications that are demanded in occupational fields.
The knowledge, values and competences the scholars gain during the
learning events need not be closely related to the occupations in which they
seek employment. What matters is that such knowledge, values and
competences should be related only in a generalised way, to the demanded
qualifications for securing the jobs in question.
(ii) The informal context involves incidental learning whereby the scholars
spontaneously acquire new knowledge, attitudes, and even competences in
incidental encounters with situations that present learning opportunities
during the course of other planned activities. This context is not deliberately
arranged as and organised learning endeavour; it has no learning objectives,
contents, methods and intended learning outcomes. It merely happens during
the course of the individual’s preoccupations with other engagements in life.
It is nonetheless an opportunity for the individual to learn. As he listens to
conversations of, for example fellow passengers in a bus he is traveling in,
or while exchanging greetings with an acquaintance, the individual learns
something he feels he needs to know.
As a process education is a lifelong engagement. It is an endless acquisition
of knowledge, competences attitudes. The individual is involved in
continuous learning as long as he lives because he goes on experiencing new
and continuous encounters with his environment. According to John Dewey,
“every learning situation is new and unique”, (Dewey 1938). The
environment keeps on presenting new and unique situations to the
177
178
individual, demanding his acquiring additional knowledge, competences and
attitudes to enable him deal effectively with emerging new unique situations
in his surroundings.
Informal education is a natural spontaneous process of acquiring knowledge,
skills and attitudes from day-to-day experiences as the individual interacts
with stimuli in his environment. According to B.F. Skinner (1960) the
organism learns by emitting spontaneous operant responses on its
environment. John Dewey (1938) proposed that because the world around us
keeps on changing we need to keep on learning how to deal with it at every
point in time. A human individual cannot stop learning. He must go on
learning in order to keep abreast with continuously changing conditions
around him. This in essence is informal learning, which happens
spontaneously all the time.
Basic Features of Informal Education
(a) Informal education is a natural spontaneous acquisition of knowledge,
competences or attitudes. It is an opportunity that arises incidentally in the
course of other pre-arranged activities of an individual. Thus informal
education is not deliberately planned or organised in advance.
(b) Informal education has no pre-determined goals, objectives, methods
or procedures, learning experiences, teachers and places or points in time
where and when learners are to engage in the learning endeavour.
(c) Agencies providing informal education are not social organisations
especially set up for that. They are incidental providers of education in the
course of their other engagements. They include the family members and
relations, neighbours, peer groups and acquaintances, religious leaders and
178
179
elders, supervisors and colleagues at work, and even well-wishers and
friends of the individual learner.
(d) Informal education merely provides indirect learning opportunities. It
is up to the learner to pay attention to such learning opportunities, if he feels
he needs to acquire the knowledge, competences, or attitudes offered by
such incidental learning opportunities.
(f) Learning achievement in informal education is not assessed nor
graded for any awards of certificates or diplomas. Its accomplishments are
only rewarded by feedback to the learner through his success or lack of
success in meeting his needs adequately.
Informal education is therefore characterised by lack of formality in the
individual’s acquisition of knowledge, skills or attitudes that leads to his
meriting recognised and standard qualifications on the discipline he is
engaged in learning.
(g) Informal education occurs continuously through the dissemination of
information in the form news or reports of events as well as campaigns and
publicity of current issues in society. Publicity is defined as the attention
someone or something gets through newspapers, radio, or television etc.
Campaigns are series of publicity activities including demonstrations aimed
at airing and publicising a cause. The mass communication media are the
chief disseminators of such a feature of informal education. Campaigners of
certain causes such as women suffrage are the agencies of this form of
informal education. Suffrage is the right to vote in an election. Before the
campaigns for women suffrage, women were not allowed to vote in
elections.
179
180
It is informal education in the form of campaigns that brought about the
restitution of women suffrage. It is also through informal education in the
form of campaigns and widespread publicity that the diffusion and adoption
of the move to abolish slavery and slave owning was accomplished. This
was an enormous accomplishment in successful riddance of injustices to
humanity that were deep rooted in ancient traditions which had prevailed for
centuries all over the world.
(iii) Nonformal Education
This is an organised set of educational activities provided outside the school
or the formal educational system. The concept of nonformal education arises
from the distinction made between education and schooling. In considering
the right of mankind to education, educationists realised that people who had
had no opportunity to enrol in the school system ought not to be ignored or
denied organised education. Educational planners saw the chance of
providing education outside the school or formal official system. The
provision of nonformal education is conceived as a complementary
provision of formal education.
Basic Features of Nonformal Education
(a) Nonformal education is based on the individual’s needs for and
interests in learning, rather than institutional needs and goals. The goals and
objectives for nonformal education are derived from the individual’s lack of
knowledge, competences or desirable attitudes.
(b) Nonformal Education tends to be provided to meet immediate needs
of learners in their day-to-day lives. Mothers with children suffering from
severe malnutrition require knowledge and skills for providing their babies
with balanced diet.
180
181
(c) Nonformal education is a continuous process; it allows learners to go
back to the formal education set up, time and again, for additional education.
(d) Nonformal education is a compensational and remedial provision of
education for those who did not have opportunity to go to school or those
who dropped out of school before completing It thus caters for the needs of a
wide range of learners in society.
5.52 Policy and Globalisation
One of the main features of postmodernism is its eclectic nature or
eclecticism, which allows the accommodation of several diverse theoretical
perspectives in underpinning knowledge of the world and human affairs.
Such eclecticism of postmodernism is reflected in the globalisation
phenomenon.
Globalisation is the increasing interconnection of people and places as a
result of advances in transport, communication and information technology
that causes political, economic and cultural convergence. Globalisation
involves convergence of cultural and moral values including political and
moral philosophical perspectives. It entails homogenisation of culture,
awareness of issues of poverty, stress or misery or human hardships
including hunger diseases poverty and other severe human stresses.
Globalisation has potential to accommodate many diverse forms of
perspectives at the same time. It is an application of the eclectic nature of
postmodernism.
In education globalisation has involved an expanded conceptualisation of the
human right to education as a global universal value that policy makers
needed to concern themselves with. Globalisation is one of the several
philosophical cores that postmodern philosophers like Lyotard refer to in
181
182
‘‘petit recit’ or small narratives, which meet diverse needs of the human
race.”
Lyotard stated: “Metanarratives should give way to petit recit.” It involves
cohabitation of a whole range of diverse and always reflects postmodernist
eclecticism. Globalism was initially a locally legitimated multiplicity of
theoretical viewpoints rather than all embracing theories. Through a process
of informal education that deploys diffusion and adoption of such theoretical
view-points, globalisation spreads the multiplicity of theoretical view-points
throughout the world via modern mass communication technologies. It
causes convergence of divers ideas, beliefs and cultural values held by
communities galore all over the world to occur. People become aware of and
begin to understand and appreciate the beliefs, values and technologies of
others that are outside their own communities. Globalisation induces
tolerance and cooperation among various ethnic and religious groupings,
including groupings based on different political ideologies.
5.2 The Global Policy of Education For All
Education for all is a global policy that was proclaimed at the World
Conference on Education, at Jomtien, Thailand, from the 5 th to 9th March in
1990. Delegates from 155 member countries of the United Nations, and 150
representatives of international organisations attended the conference. They
deliberated on, passed and adopted policy propositions advocating
expansion and universalisation of the provision of education to all mankind.
A policy is a statement of ideals proposed or adopted by a government, a
political party, or a business enterprise. The global policy of education for
all (EFA) is an expression of a universal postmodern philosophical
perspective on education. It presupposes that human rights have natural and
182
183
universal values that are inalienable and not circumscribed by any cultural or
legislative measures. The philosophy of human rights addresses the question
of the existence of human rights that are naturally inalienable, universal and
have justification and legal status. John Locke (1689) regarded human
beings’ rights to life, liberty and property as basic natural human
prerogatives.
The global policy of education for all is based on the human right to
education. It advocates that education is a fundamental right to every human
individual in the whole world as it was envisaged in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Thus the right to education for the
human race is an international norm covering all people living today. It is
universal, and it is especially concerned with groups of mankind that have in
the past been marginalised and denied of the prerogative to education.
Lyotard, Foucault and other prominent postmodernists attacked the
marginalisation and neglect, by those in authority, of the interests and needs
of diverse communities in every country world wide.
The basic presupposition the world community had in resolving to adopt
education for all, as a global policy of education was that too many of
mankind in the world are denied of their right to have access to education.
The global policy was proclaimed precisely in a document entitled “World
Declaration on Education for All” that was passed, accepted and adopted by
all United Nations member countries at the Jomtien conference of 1990.
It was argued in that document that whereas the nations of the world had, in
1948 proclaimed through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that
“every human being has a right to education” and in spite of great efforts
made by many countries in the world to provide education to all their
nationals, nonetheless, there were more than 100 million children, 60 percent
183
184
of them were girls, who had no access to primary education. There were also
960 million adults who were illiterate, two thirds of whom were women. In
addition, there were more than 100 million and countless adults who had
failed to complete basic education programmes, and had acquired no
knowledge or skills at all.
The World Declaration of Education form All was therefore proclaimed to
match theses challenges to the right of all mankind to education. The
declaration contained ten articles. They presented an expanded vision in the
provision of education with increased resources and other supporting
facilities that would result in broadening and universalising access to basic
education throughout the world. The learning environment was to be
strengthened and enhanced through education policy reforms in every
member country, and through increased partnerships as well as mobilisations
of the necessary fiscal and human resources to support the provisions of
basic education, even and especially among the poorest countries, for
improvement of the lives of their citizens and for the transformation of their
societies.
Principle Behind the World Declaration of Education for All
There are a number of principles behind the proclamation of the Jomtien
world declaration which crystallise its main philosophical presuppositions as
follows: (1) Education is a fundamental right to all people, women and men
of all ages throughout the world. (2) Education can help in ensuring a safer,
healthier, more prosperous and environmentally sound world, while
simultaneously contributing to global social, economic and cultural progress,
tolerance and international cooperation. (3) Education is an indispensable
184
185
key to, though not sufficient condition for, social improvement and the
world- wide attainment of individual and collective happiness.
(4) Traditional knowledge and indigenous cultural heritage have a value and
validity in their own right and capacity to both define and promote
development; they however need to be linked with modern educational
advances for their greater contribution to human welfare. (5) The current
provision of education is seriously deficient and it must be made more
relevant, quantitatively improved and made universally available. (6) Sound
basic education is fundamental to the strengthening of higher levels of
education and scientific and technological literacy as well as capacity, thus
self- reliant development in each country. (7) The present and coming
generations must be given an expanded vision of, and renewed commitment
to, basic education, to address the scale and complexity of the challenges
that such generations have to face in future.
Philosophers of education such as Paul Hirst (2000) interpret the World
Declaration of Education for All as a global proclamation of the social
practices of education which are values laden, the execution of which
achieve the eudaimonia or the ultimate human well being, (Maganga 2007).
5.524 Developments in the Implementation of the Jomtien Declaration
During the decade 1990- 2000 several ventures were launched in all member
state countries of the United Nations all over the world. There were reports
monitoring students’ achievements that enabled countries to share
experiences as well as encourage one another in forging ahead with putting
into actions the global policy they had themselves proclaimed.
185
186
Many countries introduced educational reforms to accommodate the
dimensions agreed upon at Jomtien. Countries replaced their national
education policies with the global policy.
The Dakar World Education Forum
The monitoring reports on the implementation of the Jomtien declaration
were made available at a follow up world summit on education. This follow
up summit was called the World Education Forum. It was held at Dakar,
Senegal in April 2000. It was aimed at reviewing the progress made in the
implementing the global policy and to redesign and streamline actions for
achieving better results. The reports from every member country were
analysed and new resolutions on what to do were passed. The Dakar summit
summarised its 21 resolutions in a document called Framework for Action
on Education for All. The resolutions reaffirmed the commitments made at
Jomtien. The framework also set targets for the complete achievement of
education for all by 2015.
Among the clauses in the framework is clause number 5 which deplored the
fact that there had been too little progress made in achieving education for
all so far: “But it is unacceptable in the year 2000 that more than 113 million
children have no access to primary education and 880 million adults are
illiterate, gender discrimination continues to permeate education systems
and the quality of learning and acquisition of human values and skills fall
short of aspirations and needs of individuals and society.”
The framework set up six goals to be achieved by 2015 as follows:
(1) Early childhood care and education; (2) Universal access to complete,
free and compulsory primary education of good quality; (3) Meeting
learning needs for all young people and adults; (4) Reducing illiteracy by
50% ; (5) elimination of gender disparity in the provision of education; (6)
186
187
improving the quality of education and ensuring excellence of every one.
Thus the six EFA goals aimed at ensuring increased early childhood care
and education, full participation of all children in free, schooling, meeting
the learning needs of youth and adults, halving adult illiteracy, eliminating
gender disparities in the provision of education and improving all aspects of
quality education.
Theoretical Presuppositions of the Six EFA Goals
The six goals in the Dakar Framework for Action were underpinned by four
theoretical assumptions as follows:
(i) Education is a human right. Education has intrinsic value that is based on
moral and legal foundations. It is also an indispensable means of unlocking
and protecting other human rights. It provides scaffolding for human
requirements such as good health, liberty and political participation on equal
bases. Where the right to education is guaranteed people ‘s access to all
other human rights, such as equality political power are enhanced.
Promotion of human-right based education is an obligation to governments.
The policy requires governments to translate their commitments to the
international resolutions made at Jomtien and Dakar into legislation, against
which their citizens have legal recourse.
(ii) Human development is nowadays measured not as growth in income per
capita, rather by the extent to which people’s capacities have been enhanced
and their choices widened enabling them to benefit from a number of
freedoms. These freedoms encompass the rights of access to resources that
allow people to avoid illnesses, have self-respect, be well nourished, sustain
livelihood and live in peaceful relationships.
In the Dakar Framework of action, education is viewed important because:
(a) All the skills provided by basic education such as reading and writing are
187
188
valuable fundamental outcomes of development of human capacities. (b)
Education can help in displacing the negative features of life; for example
compulsory education can help in reducing child labour. Education will
empower those who suffer from multiple disadvantages, for example women
who receive education sustain better and longer lives than otherwise.
Thus when defined in this manner, education is universal, attained by all
regardless of their classes or gender. Education has a powerful impact in
addressing social and economic barriers within society and is central in
reaching human freedom.
(iii) Since all people have a right to education, and since it has impact upon
people’s capacities, then the provision of basic level of education for all
must be made universal if development is to become universal.
Understanding the relationship between educational goals and other
development goals is helpful if education is to be defined as productive.
There is empirical internationally derived evidence supporting the
assumption that schooling improves productivity in rural areas and increases
employment in urban areas. These benefits stem from literacy, which
requires minimum of six years of fulltime education of good quality.
Good primary education has also a positive impact on production,
population low fertility rates, better diets and early and more effective
diagnosis of illnesses. There is a high positive correlation between literacy
and life expectancy. Parents with high level of schooling particularly
women, tend to have healthier longer living children. New economic growth
models have emphasised human resources development as a central factor in
development returns.
(iv) Human rights, human freedom and human development constitute a
triumvirate of arguments to support education for all. They demonstrate that
188
189
there is a fundamental identity between EFA and development, and that each
brings separate opportunities for securing the gains.
Governments of the world are challenged to recognise the validity of this
triumvirate of arguments. Each of the world governments is also challenged
to define its own policy priorities and design its own routes for achieving the
EFA six goals.
5.3 Postmodernist Implications in the Global Policy of Education for All
Both the Jomtien declaration on education for all and the Dakar framework
for action are policy formulations which deployed the Aristotelian insights
on phronesis. Phronesis is currently defined in dictionaries as practical
wisdom or knowledge of the proper ends of conduct and the means to attain
them.
The delegates to the world summits on education held at Jomtien in 1990
and at Dakar in 2000 used ‘practical reason’ during their deliberations in the
proceedings prior to the proclamations they made at both summits. In the
Aristotelian sense we exercise practical reason when we pursue morally
justified actions. In the exercise of practical reason the expected outcomes
are actions or practices on which we agree as constituting some form of
human good. The pursued outcome of the exercise of practical reason is the
conduct of actions or practices on which we can agree in achieving what
constitutes eudaimonia. This is then the practical discourse. The practical
discourse is value laden unlike the theoretical discourse, which is value free.
Thus the Jomtien World Declaration on Education for All and the Dakar
Framework for Action are practical discourses which form the outcomes of
the exercises of practical reason conducted during the proceedings at both
Jomtien and Dakar world summits. These two sets of proclamations are the
189
190
agreed upon bodies of actions the implementations of which are expected to
achieve the eudaimonia for mankind.
The right and actual access to education for the whole human race are the
pursued ends of the Jomtien and Dakar proclamations as agreed upon bodies
of actions and practices to achieve the desired good for all mankind.
During the deliberations and proceedings at Jomtien and Dakar, a
convergence of diverse viewpoints, attitudes and beliefs was achieved under
the influence of postmodernist eclecticism and broad mindedness in thinking
which pervaded among the delegates during their deliberations. Thus the
delegates agreed upon and were committed to the global policy they had
themselves formulated and proclaimed. The proclamations were
demonstrations of the adoption postmodernist eclecticism among the
delegates at both world summits on education.
In its current historical development philosophy of education is not an
instrument for ethical and intellectual elitist education, but an intellectual
disposition and a methodological approach to problems in the world,
(Bellatalla 2009). It is an instrument for promoting universal and
nondiscriminatory provision of education underpinned by the philosophical
movement of postmodernism through eclecticism. Postmodernism
accommodates small narrations that address localised contingent human
needs in different situations throughout world. At the Jomtien summit for
example, it was declared as follows: “Education is a fundamental right to all
people, women and men of all ages throughout the world”. Moreover,
resolution number six of the Dakar Framework for Action stated:
“Education is a fundamental human right. It is the key to sustainable
development and peace and stability within and among countries, and thus
an indispensable means for effective participation in the societies and
190
191
economies of the twenty-first century, which are affected by rapid
globalisation. Achieving EFA goals should be postponed no longer. The
basic learning needs for all can and must be met as a matter of urgency.”
Through postmodernism, philosophy changed from underpinning
metanarratives or grand narratives to underpinning small natives catering for
a diversity of contingent human needs at a universal level.
References
Aspin, David, N. and Chapman, Judith (2007), “Lifelong Learning Concepts
and Conceptions”, in David N. Aspin (ed.); Philosophical Perspectives on
Lifelong Learning; Springer, ISBN 1482061827.
Baltes, Paul (2000); “Wisdom”. In A. Kazdin (ed.) Encyclopedia of
Psychology; Washington D.C. & New York American Psychological
Association and Oxford University Press.
Bellatalla, Luciana,(2009) “Philosophy of Education: From Elitism to
Democracy.” In 20 World Conference of Philosophy Logo; Paideia
Online.
Burke, Barry (2000) “Modernism” in Encyclopedia of Informal Education:
post—modernism@innformal education page.
Darylos, L.K.T. “A Philosophical Sketch of Functional Literacy: The
Freirean Way”, in Adult Education and Development, 39, 1999. Pp143-149).
Field, John (2006): Lifelong Learning and the New Educational Order;
Trentham Books, cited in Wikipedia.
Freire, Paulo ‘Cultural Action for Freedom’: in Harvard Educational Review
Monograph Series No. 1, Cambridge Massachusetts; 1970).
191
192
Freire, Paulo (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed New York, Herder &
Herder.
Hirst Paul and Carr, Wilfred: “Philosophy and Education: A Symposium”
Journal of Philosophy of Education Vol.39 Issue 4 pp.414-653
Hue-liLi (1998) “Multicultural Foundation for Philosophy of Education”; in
Philosophy of Education Year Book 1998.
Klages, Mary’ (2003) Postmodernism Online: [email protected])
Lyotard, Jean François; The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge
ISBN 0-866-1173-4
Maganga, Cajetan, Kumbai. (2007); Philosophy and Education: Analysis
and Clarification in Reference to Education for All. Doctoral Thesis;
Belford University.
Marx, Karl, and Fredrich Engels, Communist Manifesto, trans. Samuel
Moore in 1888).
Peters, Michael, (1999) “Lyotard and Philosophy of Education” In
Encyclopaedia of Philosophy of Education.
Python, Monty, (1990) Foundationalisn and Hermeneutics, Paramount Ltd
London.
Rorty, MacKay; (1979) Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature Princeton NJ
University Press.
UNESCO (2001) Document: “World Declaration on Education For All”;
Education Webster: Paris.
Huckaby, Francyne, M. (2008) “Making Use of Foucault in a Study of
Specific Parrhesiastic Scholars.” In Journal of Educational Philosophy and
Theory. Vol. 40, Issue 6 pp.770-788
192
193
UN Human Rights Treaties: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Adopted via General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI) 1976.
UNESCO Document (2003);”World Education Forum”; Paris Education
Webmaster.
APPENDIX I
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION:
LECTURES:
Dr. Cajetan K. Maganga
193
194
Lecture OneConceptualising Education
1.1Purposes of Education as Philosophical Bases and Guiding Principles
Education as a process is a deliberate conscious undertaking organised by
human beings. As such, it is goal-directed. It has purposes or goals it is
designed to attain. Such purposes form the principles to guide the process of
education. A study of the purposes behind human engagements is a
philosophical study. Philosophy poses questions on the meanings of human
activities and engagements. A question such as “What is the purpose of crop
production?” is a philosophical question demanding the fundamental or
ultimate “raison d’être”, that is, reason for existing. The question is on why
people engage in growing crops. Similarly, the question “What is the
purpose of education?” seeks an answer that tell us why education exists, or
what education attempts to achieve, or what education was instituted to
achieve.
Education in all societies is instituted to pursue predetermined ends in
society. Plato who is renowned Ancient Greek philosopher set up an
academy in Athens. One of Plato’s major concerns, at that academy, was
how to bring up a generation that was sensitive to the service of society; -
which he called “The Republic”. In that society every one was supposed to
be usefully deployed according to their abilities. Plato believed that the
character and survival of any state depended on the quality of its people and
their rulers. It was education that was to raise the quality of the people in the
state. Each individual was to cultivate excellence in his abilities to render
service to the Republic. The end or purpose of education in Plato’s Republic
was a well-ordered and highly capable state to ensure its survival. Thus in
194
195
Plato’s Republic education was to be instituted to meet the needs of the
Republic- a well-ordered and highly capable state. This purpose of education
is reflected even today in most societies all over the world. The purpose of
education for liberation according to Paul Freire (1970) is the liberation of
oppressed people from the oppressive plight they live in. One may
generalise that the purpose of all forms of education in the whole history of
mankind has always been the attainment of some human good. Education is
instituted in all societies to achieve what is good for mankind (Hirst 2005).
1.2 The Concept of PrincipleThe term principle means the essence of an entity. It is a general or universal
rule that applies to several specific manifestations of such an entity. An
entity is any being, including a person, an object, an event or a situation.
Hunger and starvation in a country is an entity in the form of a situation
where there is food shortage. Rainfall is an entity in the form of the event of
water falling towards the ground. Rain falls after water vapour in the
atmosphere has cooled and condensed into droplets of water. The cooling of
water vapour to make it change from a gaseous state to a liquid state is the
essence or principle of rainfall.
The principle is an abstract constant that underlies or forms the foundation
of specific objects, events or situations. In a nutshell principles are
generalisations or universals that form the basis of and underlie specifics. In
the situation where there are people dying of lack of food, i.e. starvation,
food shortage is the principle, forming the basis or foundation of starvation.
Principles have three major functions. (i) Principles cause the existence of
entities. In the case of rainfall, the condensation of water vapour from a
gaseous state to a liquid state causes the occurrence of rainfall. (ii) Principles
explain or give meaning to the entities they underlie. People grow crops to
195
196
procure food to eat and thus sustain life. (iii) Principles guide or orientate the
entities they under lie. Rain falls towards the ground due to the force of the
earth’s gravity on the droplets of water after their losing the capacity to float
during the change from water vapour to liquid water.
In education principles are generalisations that serve as bases or foundations
of educational policies and practices. In formulating educational policies,
educational decision makers adhere to principles that are behind such
policies. In teaching and learning practices teachers are guided by principles
on the processes of learning and lesson presentation, while directing learners
towards the attainment of educational objectives. There are principles behind
the practices of testing and assessing the outcomes of learning, which is
teachers follow in educational evaluation. For example the principle that
every test item must have a specific objective which is expressed in overt or
external observable and measurable terms. In mathematics for instance, the
objective could read: “The learners can solve a simultaneous equation using
the elimination method. Curriculum designers such as those in Tanzania
Institute of education follow principles of curriculum development in their
activities. For example the principle of spiral curricula which involves
repetition of topics to be learnt at every level of education while raising their
complexity gradually at each successively higher level.
Level Four
Level Three
Level Two
196
197
Level One
The Spiral Principle in Curricula
Public examinations institutions, such as the National Examinations Council
of Tanzania, also follow principles in developing tests and examinations, or
educational measurement. The principle that every test must be a valid
measure of learners’ mastery of the subject matter has to be followed or else
the test results will be declared null and void. This means that the test failed
to measure learners’ mastery of the subject matter they were tested on.
Principles of education act as bases for a society to conduct educational
undertakings to enable it attain its goals such as its survival in a competitive
environment.
Generally, those principles that form the purposes of human undertakings
perform the function of causing the existence of such human undertakings.
The National Examinations Council of Tanzania is a public examining
organisation that was established by an act of parliament to administer
public examinations in the country. Its raison d’être, or purpose of existing,
is the development and administration of public examinations. This is also
its principle. This principle performed the function of causing the existence
of that organisation. The National Examinations Council Tanzania was
established to meet the need of developing and administering public
examinations in the country, without that need of developing and
197
198
administering those examinations in the country, the Council would never
have come into being.
A watch is designed and manufactured to tell time. Watches owe their
existence to the function of telling time. If there were no need to inform
people, what time it was, at any moment, watches would not be made.
We can identify two sets of principles or purposes of education in this
connection. The first ones are the principles or purposes of education that
focus on the individual level. The second ones are the principles are
purposes of education that focus on the society level.
At the individual level, the purpose is the individual’s good, such the
attainment of educational high qualifications. In Plato’s Republic, this
principle was excellent abilities of people and their rulers in their services to
the Republic. This entailed individual excellence.
In modern societies at the individual level the principle is the individual
learners’ attainment of educational and professional qualifications to meet
their needs or the demands of the labour market in which they will seek
employment eventually.
At the society level in Plato’s Republic the guiding principle of education
was the well being of the state to ensure its survival. In Plato’s view, the
survival of the state depended on the qualities of its people and their rulers.
The qualities of the people and their rulers could only be raised through their
education. Education instilled high-level capabilities and capabilities in
society’s young generation while preparing them to serve it. The well being
and survival of the Republic was the principle or raison d’être for
establishing an education system in Plato’s Republic.
198
199
Lecture TwoThe Concepts of Philosophy and Philosophy
of Education
2.1 The Concept of Philosophy Philosophy
It was stated in lecture one that principles of education in a society are
generalisations or universals, which serve as bases or foundations of the
process of education. They give a meaning and an orientation to, and even
cause the existence of, educational policies and practices. When they cause
the existence of such educational policies and practices, they form the
purpose or raison d’être of education. It was also stated that a study of the
purposes behind human engagements and institutions is a philosophical
study.
Philosophy poses questions on the meaning of human activities. It tries to
find out the fundamental “raison d’être” or reason for an entity to exist, or
what it was instituted for.
Etymologically the term “philosophy” is derived from the Greek words
“philas” and “philia”, which mean love or search for or pursuit of. The other
word forming part of philosophy is “sophia” which means wisdom. Thus
philosophy is defined as the love of wisdom, or the pursuit of wisdom. In
other words philosophy is an ardent pursuit for the truth, the real and the
right.
Plato stated that the ultimate reality, which comprises the fundamental
principle of existence, is that which transcends knowledge gained by mere
199
200
use of sensory experience. This ultimate knowledge is achieved through the
use of pure reason alone.
Philosophy involves constant search for answers to philosophical questions.
Philosophical questions seek knowledge and understanding of the nature and
meaning of phenomena in the universe and in human life. It also deals with
ultimate principles on which human engagements are based.
2.2 Facets of philosophy Facets of PhilosophyFacets of philosophy are points of view in which philosophy can be defined.
They are supplementary rather than competitive alternatives. There are five
of them. They are part of the whole essential conception of philosophy. They
are like a palm with four fingers and thumb.
METHOD ATTITUDE
SYNTHESIS
LOGICAL LANGUAGE
ISSUES OR CONTENT MATTER
(a) Philosophy is an Attitude:
This a disposition the philosopher adapts in his search for the truth. As an attitude philosophy involves the philosopher’s awareness of
200
201
one’s own biases towards the issue one is investigating. The philosopher approaches an issue with honesty in regards one’s own pre-conceptions about the issue to avoid blurring one’s investigations with preconceived ideas or prejudices. As an attitude philosophy also involves having a desire for, that is, an inclination to collect as much relevant information on the matter as possible, before one reaches a conclusion or judgement. Finally, as an attitude, philosophy involves one’s openness to learning. This is the philosopher’s readiness to accept new and conclusive evidence on the issue, even when such evidence goes contrary to one’s earlier views. Essentially this is the attitude of being open-minded, willing to accept unexpected outcomes of an investigation.
(b) Philosophy is a Method of Reflective Thinking and Reasoned
Inquiry.
This forms part of philosophy as an activity. As a method, philosophy is a
process of inquiring into issues and problems in the universe and in life. It
uses tools of inquiry. These tools include reflection, speculation, or
contemplation, analysis and critical examination of matters including
evaluation of facts, processes and dispositions, without bias, to find
supporting or corroborating evidence. In addition, as a method philosophy
uses deductive and inductive reasoning.
(c) Philosophy is a Synthesis
Where by it attempts to get a wholesome view of matters. In synthesis
philosophy combines conclusions from various disciplines along with
accumulated human experiences into consistent and wider views and
collections of human development perspectives. It reflects on generals and
wholes to gain comprehensive visions of matters. It attempts to get holistic
views rather specific fragmented perspectives of knowledge.
(d) Philosophy is a Logical Language
Philosophy as a logical language entails clarification of meanings of words
and concepts and propositions. Philosophy involves the use of linguistic
201
202
analysis to clarify the meanings of terms and language usages. In linguistic
analysis philosophy aims at exposing confusions and fallacies. It also
clarifies the meaning and uses of terms.
(e) Philosophy is a Group of Issues
Philosophy as a body of issues entails problems and their theories as well as
solutions. This is philosophy as content. Philosophy directs its inquiry into
deeper issues on human existence and the universe rather than on simple
facts. It asks questions such as “What is truth?” “What is reality or what is
existence?” “What is the distinction between right and wrong?” Answers to
philosophical questions have given rise to theories and systems or paradigms
of thought such as idealism, empiricism, pragmatism existentialism and
others. Philosophy as an ardent pursuit of wisdom is a passionate search for
the real, the truth and the right.
This last facet of philosophy also deals with broad and systematic bodies of
principles and assumptions that underline particular fields of knowledge.
They include philosophies of say history, music, literature, religion and
education.
2.3 Philosophy of EducationThe “philosophy of education” may be regarded as a ‘systematic body of
principles and assumptions that underline the field of education. It is often
defined as the application of philosophy in education. Philosophy of
education geared at applying philosophical concepts, principles, theories and
methods in analysing, clarifying and finding solutions to issues in education.
This is the reason why a course on “Principles of Education” is essentially a
study of the philosophical bases or foundations of education. Philosophy of
education focuses on the main branches of philosophy which, philosophy as
content consists, in view of applying them to educational policies and
202
203
practices. The main branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology and logic. Metaphysics deal with questions on reality,
epistemology deals with questions on truth, axiology deals with questions on
value and logic deals with questions on correct reasoning or rationality.
Lecture ThreeThe main Branches of Philosophy Relevant in
Education
3.0 The Relevance Philosophical Thoughts in Education
Principles of education are a sub-division of the discipline of education.
They are part of “Philosophy of Education”. Philosophy of education, as we
saw in lecture two is the application of philosophy to issues in education.
Philosophy of education applies the four major branches of philosophy to
problems, goals and objectives, contents, methods or practices in education.
The branches in question as we stated in lecture two are metaphysics,
epistemology, axiology and logic.
3.1Metaphysics MetaphysicsThe term “metaphysics” originates from the Greek word “meta” which
means above or beyond, and the Greek word “physica” which means
material reality. So, “metaphysics” literally means reality that is beyond or
above material reality. Most Greek writings were concerned with physics or
material reality. These were matters or substances found in the physical
world. The Greeks also speculated about matters beyond the physical world,
203
204
or beyond sensory experiences. Hence metaphysics came to be concerned
physical reality as well as the reality that transcends or goes above the
material world, or reality that cannot be reached by mere human sensory
experiences.
Metaphysics addresses itself with questions like “What is the mind?” “What
is existence?” “What is living?” “What is the purpose of living?”
Metaphysics has four sub-branches including: (a) Cosmology, which is the
study of the nature of the universe; (b) Theology, which is the study of
religious beliefs; (c) Ontology, which is the study of existence and (d)
Anthropology, which is the study of man.
3.2 Epistemology Epistemology
The term “epistemology” is derived from two Greek words; i.e. “episteme”,
which means knowledge or truth; and “logia”, which means study of or
theory on. Thus “epistemology” is the study of knowledge. It is a branch of
philosophy that deals with questions on knowledge, including the nature
theory and sources of knowledge, as well as approaches, methods and
techniques by which knowledge is acquired. Epistemology asks questions
such as “What is knowledge?” “Where does knowledge come from?”
Epistemology has identified several sources of knowledge including the
following (i) empirical knowledge; (ii) idealistic knowledge; (iii) revealed
knowledge; (iv) rational knowledge; (v) authoritative knowledge and (vi)
intuitive knowledge.
3.3 Axiology AxiologyAxiology comes from the Greek word “axios”, which means of like value,
and the Greek word logos, which means theory on. Thus axiology means
“theory on value”. Value is the desired or perfect good. Axiology is
concerned with questions and theories on value, what is good, right, proper,
204
205
of the ideal or perfect appearance, taste artistic impression, just or fair and
morally perfect.
Axiology has two branches, namely (i) aesthetics or aesthetic values or
beauty and artistic, pleasant to listen to, touch, smell, see, or taste; or
arousing fine feelings or sentiments; (ii) ethics or moral values including
proper, or correct, conduct, upright behaviour and just dealings with fellow
human beings.
3.4 Logic LogicThis is a branch of philosophy that involves the study of the structures and
justifications of sound arguments. It uses two patterns of reasoning i.e.
deductive and inductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning begins with generalisations and proceeds to specifics.
Inductive reasoning begins with specifics and proceeds to probable general
rules or theory.
3.5 Applying Philosophy as Content in Education
There are philosophical theories that have direct bearing on education.
Empiricism, for example is a theory on knowledge. It is epistemological. It
proposes that the only source of genuine knowledge is sensory experience.
The mind is like a blank slate (tabula rasa) upon which experience makes its
marks. Without sensory experience we would not know specific features in
the world around us. We have no ability to conceive qualities such as
colours, odours, sounds or musical notes and tastes. Without taste buds we
cannot tell whether the food we are eating has too much salt or not. If one
has no taste buds one cannot conceive how bitter quinine is, or how sweet
honey is. Empiricism contends that reason is grounded on the solid rock of
sensory experience.
205
206
According to John Locke (1632 –1704), to test that every idea, concept or
term one has to trace it back to an original experience from which it was
derived. Supporting this idea, David Hume (1711-1776) said that
impressions or sensory data are what give our terms meaning. Sensory
experiences indicate the meanings of the words we use. To find out whether
a philosophical term or idea we are using has any meaning “we need but
enquire from what impression (sensory experience) that idea is derived. And
if it is impossible to assign any (sensory experience) this will serve to
confirm our suspicion (that it has no meaning). By bringing ideas into so
clear light we may reasonably hope to remove all dispute, which may arise
concerning the nature of reality”. All reality is based on sensory experience.
Thus both meaning and credibility of our beliefs must be subjected to
reality-based empirical tests.
In metaphysics there is philosophical theory of idealism, which maintains
that the basic essence of things, or fundamental reality, is the mind, or spirit,
not matter. Matter is either not wholly real, or at most, a subordinate and
dependent reality. Socrates and Plato held this conception of reality. They
maintained that material things are only imperfect ideas or principles.
Idealism contends that knowledge of the entire universe is in the mind of an
individual at birth. Reality is reducible to ideas. Ideas are eternal
representations of reality in the mind. Ideas are born in the mind rather than
being transferred to the mind through external means. The role of the teacher
is to help the learner in conceiving ideas, which are already present in the
learner’s mind.
206
207
Lecture Four
The Concept of Education and the Contexts
in which it Operates
4.1: The Concept of Education The Concept of Education
Etymologically education is derived from three Latin expressions, namely
educatum, which means the act of teaching or training, educere, which
means to lead out or draw out, educare, which means to bring up or to raise.
The three terms have the root educa, which means to draw from within. This
implies that each child is born with some innate or in-born tendencies,
capacities, talents or powers and other such qualities or attributes. Education
has to draw out these capabilities and talents so as to develop them‘.
Educare and educere also mean bring up or lead out and develop. In this
sense, education means developing the innate qualities of the child to the
full.
In the widest sense, education may be defined as the development of the
capabilities and capacities, including talents of an individual to their fullest
potentiality for the purpose of meeting his needs and interests as well as
those of the society he lives in. Generally education as a concept conveys
two complementary meanings.
The first one denote education as the extent, measure or level of cumulative
attainment of distinctive knowledge and understanding that an individual
accomplishes that places him clearly above the average person in his
community. In short education is an attainment of targeted knowledge and
207
208
competences to merit desired and recognised qualifications. The individual
with such an attainment is referred to as “a learned man”. He is recognised
as a scholar with educational qualifications. This is what parents send their
children to schools and colleges to fetch.
The second meaning of education, which is related to the first one, denotes
education as a dynamic on-going process in which an individual is involved.
It is a process where by the individual acquires and assimilates information
and understanding, processes and applies it in different situations to meet his
needs and those of others he is concerned with.
This process is a kind of transaction between the individual and his
environment where there is source or begetter of knowledge and the
individual as the receiver of such information. As a process education entails
aims, justifications or purposes, which point out what education is there for,
or what it is expected to achive. It also includes contents, that is, the subject
matter to run through the process. Moreover it includes methods by which
the process is carried out. Finally the process entails outcomes or its end
results. This last leads us back to the complementary concept of education.
That is education as an attainment or accomplishment.
4.2 The Contexts in Which Education Operates Contexts or Forms of
Education
As a process education is a lifelong engagement. It is an endless acquisition
of knowledge, competences attitudes. The individual is involved in
continuous learning as long as he lives because he goes on experiencing new
and continuous encounters with his environment. According to John Dewey,
a prominent educational philosopher: “every learning situation is new and
unique” (Dewey 1938). The environment keeps on presenting new and
208
209
unique situations to the individual, demanding his acquiring additional
knowledge, competences and attitudes to enable him deal effectively with
emerging new unique situations in his surroundings.
There are three contexts in which the process of education occurs: - That is
(i) Formal Education (ii) formal Education and (iii) Nonformal Education.
4.21 Formal Education
Formal education is an officially instituted and highly controlled education
set up. It is in most countries by law or parliamentary acts. For example in
Tanzania the Education Act No. 25 of 1978 is a statute that was enacted on
formal education in the country. Thus formal education is highly systematic
and orderly in terms of who is to enroll it, to teach, the objectives and
contents as well as methods of the curriculum and the awards to give the
learners that achieve and merit such educational rewards. Formal education
is systematically designed, organised and run according to precise
curriculum prescriptions.
The key features of formal education include:
(a) Normally education is designed to achieve a set of predetermined goals and
objectives through the teaching of syllabus contents and adherence to laid-
down pedagogical arrangements as prescribed in a curriculum.
(b) Formal education is confined in terms of when, during each calendar
year, and in terms of where, to conduct classes.
(c) Formal education provides awards to individuals who attain the set
standards in learning achievement through officially accredited and legally
recognised certification institutions that confer such awards. These awards
signify the learners’ attainment of officially recognised educational
qualifications.
209
210
(d) Formal education normally uses face-to-face instructions, rather than,
distance instructions and machine-based individualised instruction.Formal education is conducted in schools and other formal education
institutions, which are registered as legitimate providers of education. (e) Formal education is conducted in schools and other formal education
institutions, which are registered as legitimate providers of education.
Formal education normally uses face-to-face instructions, rather than, distance instructions and machine-based individualised instruction.
4.22 Informal Context of Education Informal Education
Informal education is a natural spontaneous process of acquiring knowledge,
skills and attitudes from day-to-day experiences as the individual interacts
with stimuli in his environment. According to B.F. Skinner (1960) the
organism learns by emitting spontaneous operant responses on its
environment. John Dewey (1938) proposed that because the world around us
keeps on changing we need to keep on learning how to deal with it at every
point in time. A human individual cannot stop learning. He must go on
learning in order to keep abreast with continuously changing conditions
around him. This in essence is informal learning, which happens
spontaneously all the time.
Basic Features of Informal Education
(a) Informal education is a natural spontaneous acquisition of knowledge,
competences and attitudes. It is an opportunity that arises incidentally in the
course of other pre-arranged activities of an individual. Thus informal
education is not deliberately planned or organised in advance.
210
211
(b) Informal education has no pre-determined goals, objectives, methods or
procedures, learning experiences, teachers and places or points in time where
and when learners are to engage in the learning endeavour.
(c) Agencies providing informal education are not social organisations
especially set up for that. They are incidental providers of education in the
course of their other engagements. They include the family members and
relations, neighbours, peer groups and acquaintances, religious leaders and
elders, supervisors and colleagues at work, and even well-wishers and friends
of the individual learner.
(d) Informal education merely provides indirect learning opportunities. It is
up to the learner to pay attention to such learning opportunities, if he feels he
needs to acquire the knowledge, competences, or attitudes offered by such
incidental learning opportunities.
(e) Informal education is therefore characterised by lack of formality in the
individual’s acquisition of knowledge, skills of attitudes that would lead to his
meriting recognised and standard qualifications on the discipline he is engaged
in. Feedback to the learner through his success or lack of success in meeting his
needs adequately is the only award he gets from this kind of education.
(f) Learning achievement in informal education is neither assessed nor graded
for any awards of certificates or diplomas. Its accomplishments are only
rewarded by feedback to the learner through his success or lack of success in
meeting his needs adequately.
(g) Informal education occurs continuously through the dissemination of
information in the form news or reports of events as well as campaigns and
publicity of current issues in society. (Publicity is the attention someone or
something gets through newspapers, radio, or television etc.) Campaigns are
211
212
series of publicity activities including demonstrations aimed at airing and
publicising a cause. The mass communication media are the chief
disseminators of such a feature of informal education. Campaigners of certain
causes such as women suffrage are the agencies of this form of informal
education. Suffrage is the right to vote in an election. Before the campaigns
for women suffrage, women were not allowed to vote in elections. It is
informal education in the form of campaigns that brought about the restitution
of women suffrage.
4.23 Nonformal Education
This is an organised set of educational activities provided outside the school or
the formal educational system. The concept of nonformal education arises from
the distinction made between education and schooling. In considering the right
of mankind to education, educationists realised that people who had had no
opportunity to enrol in the school system ought not be ignored or denied
organised education. Educational planners saw the chance of providing
education outside the school or formal official system. The provision of
nonformal education is conceived as a complementary provision of formal
education
Basic Features of Nonformal Education
(a) Nonformal education is based on the individual’s needs for and interests in
learning, rather than institutional needs and goals. The goals and objectives for
nonformal education are derived from the individual’s lack of knowledge,
competences or desirable attitudes.
(b) Nonformal Education tends to be provided to meet immediate needs of
learners in their day-to-day lives. Mothers with children suffering from severe
212
213
malnutrition require knowledge and skills for providing their babies with
balanced diet.
(c) Nonformal education is a continuous process; it allows learners to go
back to the formal education set up, time and again, for additional education.
(d) Nonformal education is a compensational and remedial provision of
education for those who did not have opportunity to go to school or those who
dropped out of school before completing. It thus caters for the needs of a wide
range of learners in society. The EFA goal 3 aimed at “ensuring that the
learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access
to appropriate learning and life skill programmes”.
Lecture FiveMeasuring the Outcomes of the Process of Education
5.1 Influence of Behaviourism in Measuring the Outcomes of the Process of
Education.
Measuring the outcomes of activities and operations in education has been
influenced over the last century by the philosophical theory of behaviourism.
Behaviourism is one of the philosophical theories, which is based on the
psychological school of thought that advances that the subject matter of
psychology is external behaviour. Psychology is the scientific study of overt
behaviour rather than covert behaviour or states of consciousness or mental
states.
Behaviourists, such as J.B. Watson, stated that psychology is the science of
behaviour dealing with externally observable and measurable phenomena,
213
214
rather than the processes and conditions of the mind. It avoids dealing with the
intangibles and unapproachables or mental processes because they are covert.
They cannot be seen heard, tasted, touched or smelled.
As a philosophy behaviourism is part of determinism. It seeks to determine the
causes of behaviour. According to B.F Skinner, who was a prominent
experimental psychologist and philosopher, all mental terms can be reduced to
scientific statements about behaviour. Beliefs, understanding, and intellectual
activities and even desires, can be reduced to externally observable and
measurable expressions. We cannot see what is going on in the learner’s mind;
for example we cannot tell whether he understands what we are teaching him.
We have to translate such internal processes occurring in the learner’s mind into
externally observable behaviour by asking him, say, the meaning of what we
are teaching him.
The behaviourists’ reduction of covert mental processes, in learning, into
tangible overt behaviour, has influenced educational systems all over the world.
Statements of educational objectives and the objectives of test or examination
questions to measure educational achievements are all expressed in terms of
externally observable students’ behaviour or responses.
Lesson objectives are expressed are expressed in terms of externally observable
and measurable learner’s behaviour. They state what the student will be able to
do at the end of the lesson. Test questions on the topics taught during the lesson
are also formulated in a manner that they demand the learner’s external
behaviour to demonstrate internal conditions in his mind.
They use action verbs like “describe”, “show”, “state”, “solve”, “define”,
“explain”, “distinguish” and so forth. It is only in that way that we can find out
214
215
about what went on in the minds of the learners during the lessons. It is thus the
only way of measuring the outcomes of learning or the process of education.
The problem at issue, in connection with testing, is that most tests cannot
measure every item that was covered by the lessons. They cover mere samples
of what was taught, leaving out large junks of the materials covered during the
lessons. Such samples may not always accurately represent what was taught.
When a learner fails a test, it does not necessarily mean that he did not master
the subject matter covered by the lessons.
5.20 The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
In the 1950s to the 1970s a way of classifying educational objectives in precise
behavioural terms was devised by Benjamin S. Bloom, D.R. Krathwoh, Anna
Harrow and others. The writers identified a set of categories of educational
objectives, which was termed ‘taxonomy of educational objectives’, i.e.
classification of educational objectives. They devised three domains in that
taxonomy, namely: the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the
psychomotor domain. Each of these domains was subdivided into precise
learners’ responses, such as recall of mastered specifics, methods or procedures
and abstractions.
The cognitive domain was the most influential category in curriculum
development, teaching and developing tests to measure precisely the outcomes
of learning.
5.21 Taxonomy of Educational Objective: The Cognitive Domain
This domain was written by Benjamin Bloom and published in 1956. It
comprises six cognitive or knowledge levels. Cognition is a process of acquiring
knowledge through reasoning, intuition or the senses. These cognitive levels are
215
216
(i) retention or memorisation of knowledge, or cognition, (ii) comprehension or
understanding, (iii) application (iv) analysis, (v) synthesis and (vi) evaluation.
Retention of Knowledge Decreasing
Comprehension of specifics andKnowledge IncreasingApplication of abstractsKnowledgeAnalysisOf KnowledgeSynthesis of
Knowledge
Evaluation of
knowledge
(i) Retention of Knowledge or Cognition
The learners manifest cognition or the process of acquiring knowledge and
retaining knowledge by recalling, remembering or recognising specific elements
in the subject area they were exposed to. The elements they recall or recognise
are (a) specifics, (i.e. facts, terms, conventions, and trends) (b) ways and means
of dealing with specifics (i.e. conventions, trends, sequences, classifications,
categories, criteria and universals) and (c) abstractions (i.e. principles,
generalisations, theories and structures).
(ii) Comprehension or Understanding
The learners manifest comprehension by translating known concepts or
messages into different expressions or changing the known materials from one
form of symbols to another form. The learners also manifest comprehension by
interpreting the known materials into their implicit meanings indicating
interrelations among the parts of known materials. Moreover the learners
manifest comprehension by extrapolating the known materials, i.e. by going
216
217
beyond the literal meanings of such materials, making inferences about
consequences or perspectives extended in time dimensions, or in logical
sequences. To extrapolate is to calculate or extend from known information to
reach new information. For example the learner may be asked to complete the
following statement: “Hat is to head as --- --- to foot.” It would be wrong if he
gave the answer that “Hat is to head as shoes are to foot”, because he would be
producing the inferred new information in plural whereas the stem is in singular.
He would be failing to extrapolate that stem in its singular form. The correct
extrapolated answer to this logical sequence is “Hat is to head as shoe is to foot”.
(iii) Application
The learners manifest application by applying known abstractions to particular
and concrete situations. The abstractions can be general ideas, rules, or
procedures and generalised methods. They could also be technical principles,
ideas and theories, which must be accurately remembered in the first place and
then applied faithfully in the concrete or particular situations.
(iv) Analysis
The learners manifest this level of the cognitive domain by breaking down the
known materials into their constituent parts whereby revealing their relative
hierarchy to clarify them or determine their relationships. Analysis can be done
on elements, or on their relationships or on their underlying principles. The
outcome of analysis is a clear conception of the known materials.
(v) Synthesis
The learners manifest synthesis by putting together elements or parts of the
known materials to form wholes or patterns and structures that were not clearly
discernable before. Synthesis eliminates blurring details while depicting the
217
218
most important parts of the known materials to obtain holistic perspectives of
knowledge.
(vi) Evaluation
The learners manifest evaluation by making judgements about the value of the
ideas or known materials on the basis of evidence or criteria such as comparison
with prescribed standards. In evaluating the known materials the learners seek to
determine the value or usefulness of the knowledge they are engaged in
acquiring in respect of such learners’ needs.
The cognitive domain of education objectives assesses or appraises students’
mastery of knowledge by means of achievement tests. These are tests
constructed for learners to answer using paper and pencil, i.e. writing down their
responses on paper to externalise the processes going on in their minds through
overt responses.
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Affective Domain
According to Benjamin Bloom the affective domain includes objectives, which
describe changes in interests, attitudes and values as well as the development of
appreciations and adequate or appropriate adjustments to new conditions in the
environmental situation.
Something “affective” is something related or having an effect on the emotions
or feelings. The affective domain of educational objectives deals with changes
in emotions or what the individual feels, desires likes or values etc.
David R. Krathwoh and others published taxonomies of educational
objectives in the affective domain. The classification of educational
objectives in the cognitive domain used the principle of proceeding from the
simple to the complex, and from the concrete to the abstract. This principle,
218
219
however, could not be used in the classification of educational objectives in
the affective domain because it was concerned with interests and
appreciations.
In 1964 several authors including David R. Krathwoh, Benjamin S. Bloom,
and B.B. Masia wrote the following taxonomy. The classifiers of the
affective domain realised that at the bottom of the classification the process
of “internalisation” was needed. Internalisation was defined as a process
whereby the new idea gradually dominated the learner’s thinking and
motives. He began acting in the new value orientation.
The Taxonomy of Educational Objective in the Affective Domain as written
by Krathwoh and others can be summarized as follows
(i) Receiving or Absorbing the New Idea.
At this stage the learner becomes merely sensitive to the stimulus. He shows
willingness to pay attention to the communication. The stage starts with (a)
the individual’s becoming aware of the new idea and goes on to (b) his being
willing to receive the communication and (c) selecting some aspects of the
new communication.
(ii) Responding.
This stage follows up the new idea by doing something with it. The stage
starts by (a) acquiescence in responding, followed by (b) willingness to
respond and finally by (c) satisfaction in response.
(iii) Valuing.
This stage involves receiving the new idea as worthwhile having; this is
shown by the learner’s behaviour that is consistent to or in harmony with the
new idea or the values contained in it. Valuing starts with (a) acceptance of
219
220
the value in the idea, followed by (b) preference for the value, and by (c)
commitment to the new idea.
(iv) Organisation
There are, at this stage, several values involved. It therefore necessary to
organise these values into a system, determine the interrelationships among
them, and establish the dominant and pervasive values (that is those that are
present everywhere). Thus organisation starts with (a) conceptualisation of
values, followed by (b) organisation of a value system.
(v) Characterisation by Values or Value Complex
The new values are already placed in the individual’s value hierarchy. They
are organised into an internally consistent system. The individual in his
behaviour has adopted them whereby he acts according to their prescriptions.
He is characterised by these values. a or value system. Characterisation by
value starts with (a) establishing a generalised set of behaviour that is in
accordance with the new values, followed by (b) characterisation or
formation of habits that are in accordance with the new values.
Krathwoh’s taxonomy has been criticised, as too abstract, that is not specific
enough, for curriculum development purposes where particular objectives to
be attained by learners must be specified in behavioural expressions. The
taxonomy has not provided the methodological and theoretical framework for
evaluating and measuring the affective or emotional outcomes of processes in
education. This is unlike the case of the cognitive domain where the
educational objectives are converted easily into observable expressions of the
students’ cognitive states. A reform or refinement of the taxonomy is needed.
Such a reform should examine the possibilities of reducing desires,
220
221
aspirations and so forth, to externally observable behaviour. Plays and drama
including films tend to portray a great deal of such sentiments and beliefs
overtly. They include expressions of emotions such as deep grief through
acting.
The affective domain is not assessed directly as a separate outcome of the
process of education. The acquisition of new values, attitudes or
appreciations is often measured indirectly through the achievement tests used
in assessing learning achievement in the cognitive domain or and through
performance tests.
5.23 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Psychomotor Domain
This domain is concerned with locomotion or ability to move and agility, or
ability to move quickly, nimbly and with ease. Its effective executions
involve dexterity or physical skills combined with accurate mental
coordination. A pool or snooker player for example uses accurate visual
acuity to estimate the angle between two lines. That is the line from the cue-
ball to target-ball line, and the line from target-ball to the hole.
He also uses accurate muscular movement to strike the cue-ball at that
estimated angle between those two lines.
Hole
Target-ball
221
222
Estimated Angle Cue-ball Cue
A number of psychomotor domains on the taxonomy of educational objective
have been developed on the. Among the most comprehensive one is that of Anna
J. Harrow (1972). It was published as under the title “A Taxonomy of the
Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for Developing Behavioural Objectives”,
published by McKay, in New York.
Anna J. Harrow defined “psychomotor” as “any human voluntary observable
movement that belongs to the domain of learning.” The taxonomy is divided in
six stages as follows:
-
(1) Reflex Movements.
These are involuntary actions of the body made instinctively in response to
stimulus. They are subdivided into (i) Segmental reflexes, or movements of
merely certain parts of the body. (ii) Inter-segmental reflexes or movements
certain interconnected part of the body. (iii) Supra-segmental reflexes. These are
movements of the whole body.
(2) Basic Fundamental MovementsThese are sets of locomotion that are divided into: (i) locomotor or muscular
movements; (ii) nonlocomotor or sensory movements involving mainly the
222
223
nerves; (iii) manipulative movements which combine both muscular and sensory
movements.
(3) Perceptual AbilitiesThese are mental and sensory processes involving the intake of messages
through the senses and discerning their meanings. They are subdivided into: (i)
kinesthetic discrimination, whereby an internal sensory feeling receives and
discriminates in-coming messages; (ii) body awareness, which is an awareness
and control of the pause or position of the body in relation to its surroundings. It
includes awareness and control of body balance. (iii) Visual discrimination, i.e.
visual acuity, visual tracking, visual memory and figure-ground discrimination.
(iv) Coordinated abilities such as eye-hand coordination.
(4) Physical Abilities
These are muscular abilities such as muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility. They are also coordinated muscular reaction in, say, reaction-response time and stopping and starting activities.(5) Skilled Movements
These are subdivided into: (i) Simple and adoptive skills ranging from beginner,
intermediate, and advanced levels. (ii) Compound adoptive skills that also range
from beginner, intermediate to advanced levels. (iii) Complex adoptive skills
that also range from beginner, intermediate and advanced levels.
(6) Non-discursive or Coherent CommunicationThese are non-verbal expressive movements. They include postures, gestures
and facial expressions. They also involve artistic or aesthetic movements like in
dancing. The mastery of these skills is ordered starting from simple initial
223
224
beginner levels and proceeding steadily to higher levels, which are normally
unattainable without the initial mastery of the lower-level skills in the hierarchy.
Lecture Five
Lecture Six
Thoughts on the Purposes of Education
6.0 Introduction Introduction
Different philosophers and thinkers have written on the purposes of
education. They have generally proposed three kinds of purposes of
education (i) education for attaining the good or survival of the society, (ii)
education for attaining the good of the individual and (iii) education for the
pursuit of excellence in the subject or matter of education.
6.1 The Pre-eminency of Society as Contrasted with the Pre-eminency of
the Individual in Determining the Purpose of Education
The pre-eminency of society as contrasted with the pre-eminency of the
individual in determining the purposes of education is an issue based around
the question of individual liberty and rights and extent of the powers of
224
225
government over its citizens. It is a question of concern in political and
moral philosophy. What makes the government legitimate? What is the
purpose of government? What are its limits?
6.2 Socrates and Plato The Necessity of Government
Socrates and Plato were the first philosophers to consider these questions on
the necessity of government to exist and to have powers over the individual
citizens under it. Socrates supported the idea that the citizen has a duty to
obey the government in pursuit of the common good. The government was
responsible for the common good, or the well being of all the citizens in the
state.
Plato, in his Republic, proposed that every individual’s capacities should be
usefully deployed for the good of society. The character of any state depends
on the quality of its people and their rulers.
The state needed to have a sound political system, which was only possible
if it had a sound education system. Education was therefore instituted to
promote the welfare and survival of the state. In the Republic the young
generation was categorised according to their mental abilities into golden
boys, silver boys and iron boys. The brightest golden boys were to be
educated to occupy the highest offices as philosopher kings in the Republic.
The silver boys who were second in mental capacities were to be trained as
defenders of the Republic. The lowest level in mental capacities the iron
boys were to be prepared for physical work and to produce food and other
commodities for the Republic.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) in his book “Leviathan”, which was
published in 1654, attempted to show the importance of a government. He
imagined what human life would be like without a government. He
225
226
concluded that without a government to maintain order and control human
interactions, a situation of war of all against all would arise. Each person
would do whatever he or she could get away with. “Human life would be
solitary, poor, nasty, brutal and short”. A government is a practical
necessity.
This view is opposed to anarchism. Anarchism is the position that there is no
conceivable justification for government to exist. There are two forms of
anarchism, naïve anarchism and theoretical anarchism. Naïve anarchism is
characterised by the belief that in the absence of governmental control
people would still exist in peace and harmony. Government is an
unnecessary evil that restricts human freedom and prosperity. Naïve
anarchism assumes that human nature is naturally good, and that it is society
that corrupts people and leads them to evil.
Theoretical anarchism has the position that government has no legitimate
authority; even though, we may have to tolerate its existence as a matter of
practical necessity.
It should not, however, have absolute power. According to Thomas Jefferson
(1743 –1826), who was the 3rd president of the United States of America,
“that government governs best that governs least”. What justifies a
government is a central philosophical issue.
6.3 Social Contract Theory The Social Contract Theory
This is a theory that proposes that a government is just and legitimate if its
exercise of power is based on an explicit t or implicit agreement made
between the citizens and the government itself. The government has
authority to control the lives of its citizens only because each citizen has
given that government such authority.
226
227
John Locke (1632- 1704), the founder of the social contract theory
contributed a lot to political thought. He is the key source of government by
consent, majority rule, natural rights, separation of power. He together with
others influenced the move to circumscribe or restrict the powers of the
British monarchy. He stated that although we delegate our powers and
freedom to the government through the social contract, we do not surrender
them. We retain the ultimate control. The government is always our creation
and servant. The individual citizen has ultimate control over his life. Locke
advocated liberal democracy by social contract and rule through the will of
the majority of individuals in the state.
6.4 The Philosophy of Utilitarianism and Liberalism
A philosophy of utilitarianism, which proposes that the right action is the
one that produces the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number
of people – applies in political theory as well as in determining the purposes
of education. Utilitarianism claims that the function of the government is to
promote the well being of its citizens by creating society that achieves the
greatest goods for the greatest number of people. Thus society should be
ruled by the will of the majority. John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1872), one of the
founders of utilitarianism, argued that maximising individual liberty is the
only essential means for creating the best society for all. A restriction on
individual liberty, such as barring him from determining the purpose of
education, which cannot be shown to promote the general good, is
illegitimate.
227
228
John Stuart Mill was also the founder of what has come to be called
“classical liberalism” to distinguish it from the liberalism of left wing
politics of to day. John Stuart Mill followed through John Locke’s political
philosophy. Liberalism comes from the Latin word ‘libertas’, which means
liberty or freedom. Classical liberalism emphasises the freedom of the
individual. It includes the freedom of the individual from inappropriate
government control and individual freedom to pursue his individual
interests. Mill sought for principles that would limit the power of
government over individual lives. Mill wrote a historically very influential
(even to day) essay entitled “On Liberty” in 1859 in which he argued for the
necessity to establish the proper balance between governmental control and
individual freedom.
The ‘one principle’ that determines when a society is allowed to impose its
will on an individual is that ‘the sole end for which mankind are warranted
individually or collectively in interfering with the liberty of action of their
numbers is self protection.’
6.5 Marxism Marxism
Marxism claimed that the fundamental principle of a just society is that the
goods of society be distributed equally. In the ideal society private
ownership of property would be abolished. The community would hold the
ownership of property. In that ideal society there would be no extreme
wealth and no extreme poverty. Society would be ruled by the maxim “from
each according to his ability and to each according to his needs.” This is
communism. It means that society should demand the best output from the
individual. In exchange, the community would give each individual a share
228
229
in accordance to his needs, rather than giving him a share in proportion to
level of his contribution.
In Marxist theory, economics rules everything. Those who have economic
power control society. The individual has no right except what society
deems as his fair share of wealth and hence his proportional share of power.
In communism the ultimate power over the life of the individual is placed on
the state, not in the individual. Thus the individual has no say in determining
the purpose of education.
6.6 John Dewey Pragmatic Philosophy of Education
John Dewey (1859-1952) proposed a pragmatic philosophy of education
whereby he advanced the idea that education was a process of reconstructing
and reinstituting experience to promote the individual’s efficiency and good
citizenship. The purpose of educating the individual therefore was primarily
to improve his rendering service to the society. Education goes all the way
from the birth of the individual to his demise. Education was not a
preparation for life. It was life itself, and part of the macro-processes in
society. It is a dynamic process towards higher levels of development of
society.
There are no absolute truths what have been discovered as true to day may
be found false in future because situations are bound to change. In our
everyday discovery of new knowledge and experimentations with ideas and
testing what we assume true, we may discover that the old truths are in fact
falsehoods. Truth is temporary.
The curriculum content should not be burdened with dead wood, i.e. subjects
that are unrelated to the pupils’ lives and every-day experiences.
229
230
6.7 James Aggrey James Aggrey
James Aggrey was a Ghanaian preacher who emphasised on a curriculum
reform in Africa to counteract racial segregation and colonial servitude of
black Africans. He advocated that education should address itself to the
immediate problems of the black African society. People were contracting
infectious and contagious diseases due to poor hygiene. His
recommendations caused the colonial authorities, in many parts of Africa, to
introduce health science and hygiene in schools along with agriculture,
handcrafts, besides some vocational education and training subjects or trade
skills.
6.8 Julius Nyerere Julius Nyerere
Julius Nyerere was the founder and the first president of Tanzania who
introduced a policy of education, the Education for Self Reliance, which was
a means of inducing socialism in the country. “An education must inculcate
a sense of commitment to the total community and help pupils to accept
values appropriate to our kind of future, not appropriate to our colonial
past”, he argued. “ Schools must become communities, which practice self-
reliance.”
Most of the above citations have been presented to show the extent to which
they support the pre-eminency of society at the expense of supporting the
pre-eminence of the individual in deciding on the purpose of education in a
given society. Education should serve as a tool with which to achieve the
good of society or the collective good, rather than serving as a tool with
which to achieve the good of the individual.
We now turn to citations that support the pre-eminency of the individual in
deciding on the purpose of education.
230
231
6.80 Theory of Justice and Liberalism
This is a contemporary theory on moral and political philosophy. John
Rawls (1921-), a professor of Philosophy at Harvard University, has
published a number of influential writings on the subject, such as “A Theory
of Justice” in which he tries to strike a balance between individual liberty
and rights and the society’s duties and interests in maintaining an equitable
distribution of goods. Rawls advances a blue print of a society in which the
individuals are encouraged to achieve the highest attainments and improve
their positions to reach the highest levels and yet they are guaranteed no one
will be hopelessly left behind. A theory of justice must be acceptable to
every one. People will accept a theory of justice if they think it is fair.
John Rawls suggests a compromise between individual liberty and social
equality. The just government is the one that allows the greatest basic liberty
while ensuring that any social and economic inequalities would produce the
greatest benefits for the least advantaged and would afford anyone equality
of opportunity. Such a society would be just and fair because it would be
agreeable to every one. According to Kelley Ross, the contract to be struck
should maximise freedom and should be consistence with highest equality
that can be achieved. Rawls’s theory takes the social contract and abstracts
it from any previous situations. Rawls’s principle is that the contract should
maximise individual liberty and equal opportunity in attaining economic and
social accomplishments. John Rawls’ theory found ready application in the
welfare state situation from the1950’s onwards. (Kelly L. Ross; The State of
Nature and Other Political Thought Experiments; Friesian Journal of
231
232
Philosophy, online, 2008). The role of government is to protect its citizens
from threats to their basic rights. In education for example it is the right of
the individual to decide on the purpose of education for him or his children,
not the government.
6.90: Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712 -1778 Jean Jacques Rousseau
(1712- 1778)
Jean Jacques Rousseau contended that the child should be brought up alone
and away from society, which was the source of evil in every child. The
child was born naturally good. All the evil one finds in a child cannot have
come from within him. It must have come from society. “Everything is
good as it leaves the hands of the Author of things; everything degenerates
in the hands of man” (Emile Book One)
God made the child. God is good. The child is good by nature. Whatever we
find wrong in the child, he learnt it from his interactions with evil people.
The teacher should guide the child according to his nature. “ Let him know
nothing because you have told him, but because he has learnt it on his own.
Let him not be taught science, let him discovery it” The purpose of
education was to foster the good nature of the child and to protect him from
being contaminated with evil. The child was to learn naturally by following
his natural dispositions. “The child is not a miniature adult.” (Jean Jacques
Rousseau: Emile)
6.91Johann Pestalizzi Johann Pestalozzi
232
233
Johnn Pestalozzi was Swiss educator who established a school at Burgdoff
in 1799 to put Rousseau’s ideas and methods into practice. He conducted a
number of pedagogical experiments, from which he concluded as working
“splendidly”. He used a method of instruction that he called “intuitive
practice” to encourage the child to discover knowledge under the guidance
and close supervision of his teacher. He also encouraged the pupils to learn
through a series of activities that their teachers had carefully arranged, a
procedure called learning by doing.
6.92 Friedrich Froebel Friedrich Froebel’s Principles
Friedrich Froebel also took up the ideas of Jean J. Rousseau and Johann
Pestalozzi and expanded them by theorising further. He actually
complemented them with greater insights and theoretical bases.
Froebel proposed as follows:
(i) All creation existed in a unit, therefore all the properties making up
the world are internally connected to one another. (ii) A constituent of any
thing reflects the structure and organisation of the whole. (Each entity in the
universe reflects the structure and organisation of the universe). (iii)
Whatever an entity is to become is generally present at the moment of its
birth. (iv) Latent characteristics of an entity including, powers, knowledge
and so forth, unfold with progressive exposure to physical materials and
experiences which make “the inner become the out”- i.e. realisation of
talents. (v) Mathematics is the language of the universal laws that stem
from the creator and govern all creation.
These five propositions formulated by Froebel came to known as “Froebel’s
first principles”. They were reflected in the nature of the child. They were
natural tendencies of children. In the raising of children one should
233
234
encourage them to observe, imitate, reconstruct examples of the universal
laws through direct use and manipulation of materials found in nature.
“Man contains within himself the potential for perfection of body and mind
and spirit. Excises of the children’s emerging capacities could lead the
children to progressively higher levels of physical, intellectual and moral
development” (Down 1978).
If Froebel’s first principles are applied in properly designing materials, they
could serve as vehicles for promoting children’s initiatives and
understanding of laws in nature.
6.93 Existentialism Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophy which contends that the individual person is
free and is not to be culturally marshalled or coerced by society. He has
basic rights, which should not be infringed upon by social machinations.
Society has no right to determine the essence of an individual person. That
is his prerogative. The individual has the basic right to choose what to
become. We are what we are because we chose to be so. Human beings are
not already predetermined personalities. For human beings existence
precedes essence. The essence of an individual is his personality. The
individual first exists, and then he becomes a personality, i.e. his essence. It
is he who chooses what to be or what his essence should be.
The ultimate goal or purpose of education is to cultivate the authentic
person. An authentic person is one who determines for himself what to be.
Contemporary education systems impede and violate the development of
the authentic person. Schools are nothing but means of manipulating and
controlling the individual. They structure instructions to make the
234
235
individual attain learning objectives which they pre-determine and prescribe
or set for him to achieve. They choose what he should be like, without his
consent. He is never consulted on whether or not he wishes to achieve those
set objectives.
In existentialist education it is the individual who chooses the purposes and
contents of education, and not society. The students should create their own
destinies in life, rather than being slotted into predetermined positions or
roles for the advancement of the common social good.
Lecture Seven
Education for Democratisation
7.0 Nature of Political Authority Political Philosophy
Political authority is the power of government to control and order human
interactions among people under it. Political authority has always been there
as part of human existence throughout history. There has always been some
form of social organisation with leadership among them wherever people
have come to live together. In ancient societies the legitimacy of government
authority was based on the divine right theory, which stated that the chief,
king, pharaoh, or emperor or who ever such leader, received their authority
to rule from God, or gods. The ruler was expected to follow moral codes and
235
236
standards of justice to make his rule pleasing to the divine powers to which
he owed his rule.
Another approach to governmental legitimacy is the justice theory that
states that the legitimacy of a government depends entirely on the issue of
whether such a government is serving the cause of justice. The ancient
Greek philosophers, for example Plato and Aristotle seemed to justify the
authority of government on this basis.
The most appropriate people to hold the highest political offices in Plato’s
Republic were philosopher kings because the best at philosophy were
considered best able to act justly and realise the common good. Aristotle
saw humans as political animals i.e. social animals living in organised
communities for the pursuit of the highest common good. The state or polis
was the highest form of an organised community. Political power was the
result of inequalities in skills and virtues. No individual member of the
community was self-sufficient in all qualities. To be complete a person
needed to live in an organised community where his inadequacies would
find qualities complementary to his own. Justice is a necessary virtue in
civic life. The ideal ruler embodies the moral virtue of justice, treating every
one fairly.
In 15th century Nicolas Cusa who also promoted democracy in Medieval
Europe rekindled Platonic and Aristotelian thoughts on political authority.
Authority was viewed as the right to command and correlatively the right to
be obeyed. He wrote a book on the organisation of the Council of Florence.
Cusa saw men as equal and divine. All men were equal in respect of sharing
political authority. They all were divine in the sense that they had within
them an image of God. A democracy was to give them all equal share of
236
237
political authority. Such a political authority would be a perfect application
of the justice theory require the government to serve the cause of justice.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) contested the notion of a virtuous or divine
nature as contained within human beings. For Hobbes, human nature is
essentially egoistic. To him a human being was naturally inclined to seeking
self-gratification with no regard of others’ rights. Thus people are
continuously defenseless against the greed and selfishness of their fellow
human beings.
Hobbes concluded that the state arises from common agreement to raise the
community out of its natural egoistic tendency. Establishing a government,
which is to be vested with complete control over the community and is in
position to control human interactions and administer justice, is the only way
of rescuing the community out of its natural egoistic tendency. Left to follow
their natural impulses people would act brutally, towards one another.
Without a government a situation of war of all against all would arise. A
government is a practical necessity.
The other approach to governmental legitimacy is John Locke’s social
contract theory. John Locke (1632-1704) wrote extensively on political
philosophy. He first wrote on natural law which claims that there is an
objective moral law that transcends human conventions and decisions, and
which governs individuals and the conduct of society and can be known
through reason and experience on the basis of the natural order of the world
and the built-in tendency of human nature. The natural law guaranteed us
basic natural inherent rights by virtue of the fact that we are human. A right
is a justified claim to something that others have certain duties with respect
to the possessor of the right. John Locke insisted that human rights are
237
238
natural prerogatives to human beings and that the government cannot take
them away. They are indefeasible or inalienable. (i.e. the cannot be made
void; they cannot be nullified). We possess these rights in the ‘state of
nature’. The state of nature is an image of a situation where human beings
live without any government. The original organised society under a
government was conceived as an original agreement, or social contract,
negotiated among people before government comes into power.
Among the natural moral rights are the preservation of our own life, health,
liberty and possessions. In other words natural rights to life, liberty and
property. The government can never justifiably violate these natural rights.
John Locke’s social contract theory is based on his perspectives on these
natural human rights. According to him we create the government with the
social contract, but we do not surrender our right to the government. We
bring the government into being to protect our natural right. It rules through
our consent. The government is our creation, therefore our servant, not an
absolute power over us. The social contract theory influenced Glorious,
French and American revolutions. Thomas Jefferson wrote in 1776 to
replicate John Locke’s ideas: “That to secure these rights, governments are
instituted among men, and whenever any form of government becomes
destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it.”
If a government has been imposed on the people without their consent or if it
is not fulfilling its contract say by violating the people’s rights the that
government has no longer any legitimacy.
Thus during the era of enlightenment many philosophers were unsatisfied
with the existing doctrines in political philosophy, which marginalised and
neglected the possibility of a democratic state.
238
239
7.1 Democracy
Democracy is a political theory. Like all political theories democracy is tied
to implicit or explicit philosophical views on human nature and morality, or
political and moral philosophy. Among the ideals of a democratic political
system are: (i) The powers of government should be limited and confined to
the bare duties of protecting the people’s rights and liberties; (ii) The
government owes its existence to the people’s consent (iii) The government
exercises power on behalf of the majority of the people i.e. it governs
through majority will and (iv) There is a separation of powers.
Democracy literary means rule by the people or majority rule. It was coined
from the Greek terms ‘demos’, which means people and ‘kratos’ which
means rule.
In the middle of the 5th century B.C. ‘democracy’ among the ancient Greek
city-states denoted a political system that was run and dictated to by the
whole population of citizens in the city.
To day democracy is used to refer to liberal democracy. Liberal means a
society’s respect of individual liberty and property. As a political system
liberal democracy means a system of government by representatives of the
people. The representative aspects of liberal democracy is necessitated by
the large number of citizens where by groups of them need to choose one of
them to represent their will.
The principles of democracy are liberty, equality, justice and fraternity.
These are basic values held in a democracy. They also pervade in other
social institutions within the democratic political system. Such social
239
240
institutions include industrial and business as well as professional
institutions.
Liberty is a key principle in a democracy. It is the individual’s right to
govern himself independent of any, social and political institutions;
(Schneewind, J.B., 1988, The Invention of Autonomy, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press). To have liberty is to be autonomous as one’s
person and to be directed by considerations, desires, conditions and
characteristics that are not imposed externally upon one, but are part of one’s
authentic self. Liberty gives rise to absence of political control of citizens in
a state. Liberalism refers to the approach in political power and social justice
that determines the rights of all citizens to control their own lives. (Rawls,
John: 1993 Political Liberalism; New York Columbia University Press).
John Stuart Mill in his book “On Liberty” argued most convincingly in
support of individual liberty and that society had no right to interfere in the
affairs of the individual beyond what is required for protection of others.
Liberty is directed against the tyranny of rulers over their subjects.
Democracy arose in the wake of defending liberty, equality and justice as
basic rights among the citizens in a state.
Democracy is either direct or representative i.e. liberal.
7.2 Direct Democracy
Direct democracy is a political system whereby the citizens vote on all major
political decisions. There are no intermediaries or representatives. Relatively
small communities such as the city-states in Ancient Greec have applied
direct democracy. To day however it is applied even in states or countries
with large populations in the form of referenda. In Switzerland the Swiss
Cantons use direct democracy. Small civic organisations in many countries
240
241
also utilise direct democracy such as small towns, industrial and professional
societies, colleges and university faculties and so forth.
The first communities to use direct democracy were the Athenians during
the 5th century BC. During those early days democracy had two distinct
features.
(i) It had an allotment or selection by lot (i.e. random or chance selection) of
citizens to occupy government offices and courts. This gave all the citizens
equal opportunities of being selected to occupy government senior offices.
(ii) It had an assembly of all the citizens. All the Athenian citizens were
eligible to contribute in discussions on public affairs and vote in the
assembly, which set law of the city-state. Women and slaves however were
denied of both of political rights of allotment and inclusion in the assembly.
The Athens had a population of 250,000 inhabitants, but only 30,000 of
them were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, and could be selected
by the assembly to occupy senior government offices. Most of the officers of
the government were allotted. The assembly also elected the generals and a
few other army officers.
7.3 Indirect or Liberal Democracy
This is a political system where majority rule is set up through
representation of elected persons to act and exercise power on behalf of the
people. It adheres to John Locke’s theory that although we delegate our
rights of freedom and control to the government, we do not surrender them;
the government is our creation and servant. We retain the ultimate control
over our lives.
241
242
Indirect democracy rule is rule by majority will. Each and every individual
citizen in society has a share in political authority as well as in the economic
prosperity and well being of the state. This political system owes its
inception in Europe to the Era of Enlightenment, where new theories about
human nature and reality, along with scientific discoveries became
influential in society. It changed thought and orientations in favour of liberal
democracy, leading thinkers political thinkers like John Locke, Jean Jacques
Rousseau and Friedrich Froebel to new insights. These political theorists
were driven to two basic questions concerning a conceptual distinction
between state and government. “State referred to a set of lasting institutions
through which power is distributed and its use justified. These institutions
include an assembly to make laws, an executive to implement such laws and
a judiciary to supervise their just application. Government refers to specific
group of people who occupy positions in these institutions and exercise
political powers vested in such institutions.
In economic terms indirect democracy signifies that every individual in
society shares the economic prosperity and well being of the whole nation.
Each individual participates in contributing to the production of goods and
services as well as in their distribution.
In social terms indirect democracy signifies the application of four principles
in society. These include liberty, equality, justice and fraternity as, were
pointed out earlier. Liberty implies freedom to each citizen to control his
own life. It is freedom from being controlled or ruled by others. Equality
implies that, in a democracy, all individuals have equal rights in sharing
political power. Justice implies that all citizens in a democracy are treated
fairly or justly. Fraternity implies mutual respectful, friendly, harmonious
242
243
and tolerant relations among all citizens in the democracy, following their
equal political rights. Social democracy should guarantee equal opportunities
to all members in society regardless of the creed, ethnic grouping or political
allegiance. It should also provide maximum freedom to every citizen letting
him develop and exploit his capacities and talents in all sphere of human
occupation.
Indirect democracy presupposes a diversity of individual talents,
resourcefulness and abilities being deployed together. A situation like this
means that all individuals’ judgements, decisions and actions are taken into
account on all matters under consideration. This maintains a positive attitude
to and valuing the democratic principle of rule by majority will. In a
democracy all concerns are shared and harmonised through a consensus or
common agreement in the interest of fairness or just treatment and respect of
equality. Democratic principles permeate all social institutions in the state.
These institutions’ operations are governed by democratic attitudes of
equality, mutual respect and tolerance.
7.4 Democracy and Education
The concept of democracy in education is seen from the perspective of
democratic principles. Education is a means by which man raises his
capabilities or talents, which he uses to secure his own well being. Human
well-being is human good. Such well-being includes fair, harmonious,
friendly and peaceful interactions with his fellow human beings. This can
only be achieved if every member in society accepts, adopts, and practices
the democratic principles. Such democratic principles are acquired through
education in all its three contexts, formal informal and nonformal education
contexts. At school the individual learns the theoretical aspects of
243
244
democracy. In his occupational engagement after completing school the
individual participates in creating the government of the people the practical
aspects of democracy. This is practical part. It is also a context of education,
enlightening the individual about the extent to which democracy actually
works in practice.
Thus education is a means of inducing the acceptance, adoption and
practices of democracy.
Thus the process of education involves the development of the individual in
the pursuit of his own good and the good of his community. Education is a
means to secure the democratic principles as part of an individual’s and his
society’s well being or good.
According to John Dewey (1938) in a democratic society education should
be planned to make every member of society capable of shouldering social
responsibilities and discharging them effectively. Education should instill in
the individual a sense of accommodating the necessary changes in the social
structure and enable him orientate his behaviour smoothly towards such
changes and the challenges they pose.
Lecture Eight
Education for Liberation and the Process of Conscientisation
8.1Education for Liberation
The concept of liberation presupposes a social situation where the
democratic principle of equality is violated. John Locke (1632-1704), as we
244
245
saw earlier, stated that every human being has the natural rights to life, to
liberty and to property. The violation of individuals’ rights to liberty and to
property tends to occur in the contexts where the more powerful members in
a community infringe upon the rights of the weaker or less powerful
members in that community.
Liberation in such a context is an act of restitution to redress the injustices
suffered under the violation of natural human rights. It is a process of setting
the aggrieved individuals free from injustices - restoring their natural rights.
Definitions
To liberate some one is to set him free from the control of someone else, so
that the liberated person is in control of his own life. It is a restoration of the
natural right of liberty. Thus liberation from colonial rule or foreign
occupation of political authority in a territory results in empowering people
in that territory to rule themselves- restoring their right to control their own
lives. It is then an act of restitution to redress grievances against natural
justice.
Education for Liberation
Paul Freire (1921-1997), an influential thinker about education in the late
twentieth century was the first philosopher to concern himself with
oppressed people whose natural rights to liberty and property were violated.
In his book “Pedagogy of the Oppressed” he viewed education an instrument
for liberating oppressed people from oppressors’ unjust dealings with such
oppressed people. He proposed to do this through a process of education
whereby their awareness of the oppressive situation they lived in would be
245
246
raised to a new awareness of that plight they were in. Their new awareness
would be one of discontentment with the oppressive situation, changing their
being resigned to such an unjust situation. This new awareness would also
make them realise that they could change or transform the oppressive
situation. Paul Freire called this process of raising the oppressed people’s
awareness about the plight they were in ‘conscientisation’.
Paul Freire insisted that educational activities should be conducted under
‘lived experiences’ of the participants. Educators should discuss with the
“educatees” and help them in re-labelling or generating new ideas and ways
of renaming the world around them during their reflections to reach the new
realisation about their oppressive conditions.
In essence this is Paul Freire’s pedagogy or methods of conducting teaching
lessons in education for liberation. Paul Freire thus weave together thinking
about educational policy and educational practices and related them to
eudaimonia or ultimate human good, (Mark K. Smith 20002).
Education for liberation should use dialogue methods whereby the educators
would discuss with the oppressed people about their living conditions. The
methods involve people discussing together or conversing, rather than using
written books and syllabuses in a curriculum of study. This is what Paul
Freire called banking education whereby the educator deposits knowledge to
the ‘educatees’ or learners. The dialogue methods also involve “praxis” a
Greek expression, which means actions of putting into practice the ideas
realised in the process of reflection. It is informed action linked to certain
value or human good. Dialogue is to be thus used to in changing attitudes
about the participants’ living conditions. Dialogue was seen as a cooperative
activity involving mutual respect between the educator and the participants
246
247
and amidst themselves. Praxis should be a follow activity to implement the
decisions reached in the dialogue.
The acts of liberation were reflected in praxis involving the participants’
taking “transformative actions” against their oppressors.
8.2 The Nature of Conscientisation
Conscientisation comes from the Portuguese expression “concientizacao”
which means consciousness raising. Consciousness in English means the
state of being conscious or knowing what is going on around one through
the use of bodily senses and mental powers. It is a state of being awake,
rather than being asleep or unconscious. When one is conscious of
something, one is aware or knows about such a thing.
Conscientisation is not an English expression it coined from its Portuguese
source, which may simply be defined as a process of raising an awareness of
some one to reach a new level of perception of reality. It entails making
some one conscious of the reality one is in.
It was Paul Freire (1970) in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed who
coined term ‘conscientisation’ from Portuguese, his native tongue. Freire
defined it to denote two intertwined concepts.
(i) “Making people conscious of the reality about themselves and their
circumstances” including the fact that they are human beings, (or what
Freire termed “their humanity”) as well as their ability to control and
transform their environment and even overpower oppressive elements in the
process of their own development. It should be noted that under this
meaning Freire assumed that the people who were to undergo
consientisation were in an oppressive situation and that they were either not
aware of that fact or they were resigned to, or contented with it.
247
248
(ii) Conscientisation means a removal of the mystery, or to use Freire’s
expression, ‘demystication’ of the perception of reality about the world
around. It is a removal of a hither-to misconception that has prevailed among
people. It is a removal of a perception of their oppressive plight, about which
their oppressors have kept them in the dark, and against which they were
incapable to fight and overcome. They had thus no alternative except to
resign to the oppressive plight they were in – believing that it was their fate.
Paul Freire asserted that conscientisation is a process involving
“transformative series of actions” which include the following:
(i) An awakening of consciousness that entails a change of attitudes and
which enhances realistic critical awareness of one’s position in society and a
drive to analyse critically the causes and outcomes of such a situation,
comparing it with other situations and possibilities.
(ii) A decision and commitment to take action aimed at transforming the
unhappy socioeconomic conditions associated with the oppressive plight.
Conscientisation involves learning to perceive the contradictions existing in
one’s environment, including socio-economic and political contradictions,
hence taking actions against such contradictions. It should be noted that by
“contradictions” Friere refers to the unfair dealings or ill treatments of
people by their oppressors or the exploitation of workers by their employers
in Marxist expression.
8.3 Types of Consciousness or Awareness
Paul Freire distinguishes three types of states of consciousness as follows
(1) Magic Consciousness
248
249
This is a state of consciousness whereby the individual is aware of existing
problems around him but cannot explain them in terms of natural
phenomena, and attributes them to some supernatural or nonmaterial
explanations such as fate. Paul Freire maintained that this state of
consciousness produces responses, which are characterized by fatalism.
Fatalism is a belief that events are decided by fate, leading to acceptance that
all that happens as inevitable. Some supernatural being is believed to have
pre-determined all occurrences. A kind of god is supposed to have ordained
all events in one’s life. Fatalism produces an attitude of resignation to the
unpleasant situations one encounters in life.
(2) Naive Consciousness
This is a state of consciousness that seeks rational explanations of the
problems one encounters in life. Such explanations are however merely
academic and idealist, characterised unrealistic and naïve solutions to the
problems at hand. They are abstract and detached from the material reality
around. They make however one tolerate one’s plight and accept it
philosophically that life is in that manner.
These rational naïve explanations therefore induce in one a2 contentment
with the situation one finds oneself in.
(3) Critical consciousness
This is a state of consciousness whereby the individual tries to judge the
situation realistically, leading to concrete responses of overcoming the
unpleasant situation. According to Freire critical consciousness involves
reflection followed by ‘praxis’. He used the term praxis to mean a follow up
249
250
action to thought and decision. – Or linking thought with actual actions; that
is putting thoughts into practice.
The oppressed individuals are assumed to be too immersed in false
contentment with the oppressive reality around them. They do not perceive
themselves capable of reacting against the world around and the possibility
of actually transforming it. It is only when they are involved in combined
reflection and action, i.e. praxis that they emerge into realising that they can
transform or change the reality, in which they are. Praxis combines theory
with action or practices in a penetrating process of knowing and doing,
according to O’German (1983) “Knowing and transforming are two
fundamental attributes of the conscientisation process.”
Paul Freire asserted that: “The process of men’s orientation in the world
involves not just the association of sense images as for animals. It involves
above all thought and language, which is the possibility of the act of
knowing through man’s praxis by which he transforms reality. Orientation in
the world, so understood, places the question of purpose of action at the
level of critical perception of reality” (A quotation from Paul Freire article
on ‘Cultural Action for Freedom:’ Harvard Educational Review Monograph
Series No. 1, Cambridge Massachusetts; 1970).
8.4 Social and Political Background of Conscientisation
The of Freire’s conceptions and propositions on conscientisation are rooted
in political and socio-economic situation that existed in South America at
the time he wrote his “Pedagogy of the Oppressed”. Brazil and other South
and Central America countries had economies based mainly on plantation
estates, such coffee and sugar plantation. They grew commercial crops on
250
251
large scales and employed large numbers of labourers. It was a common
practice among plantation owners to pay meagre wages to their workers, and
provided little or no social amenities to their employees. The majority of
them worked under very poor and miserable conditions with hardly enough
income to meet most of their basic needs. Hunger and diseases were
rampant. (Darylos, L.K.T. “A Philosophical Sketch of Functional Literacy:
The Freirean Way”, in Adult Education and Development, 39, 1999. pp143-
149).
The main concern of conscientisation was transformation of the people from
status of being regarded merely as objects by their employers, the plantation
owners, to being subjects whose basic right are restored and justice
redressed. Such a situation can only occur through educational experiences,
where the teacher and the learners discuss together and uncover the gravity
of an oppressive plight and take actions to redress it. Conscientisation is that
kind of education. It is aimed at making the individual use the unjust
situation to his advantages. He becomes an actor to reform such an
oppressive situation. As an educational process conscientisation has a
liberating potential. It can set the individual free of the oppressive plight in
which he has hither-to been.
Lecture Nine
Principles behind Education for All
9.0 Nature of Education for All
251
252
“Education for All” is a global policy on education that was proclaimed
initially at the World Conference on Education that was held in Jomtien,
Thailand, from 5th to 9th March 1990. The conference was attended 155
delegates from member countries of the United Nations, and by 150
representatives of international organisations.
A policy is a statement of ideals proposed or adopted by a government, a
political party or a business enterprise. The global policy on education for all
was expressed in precise terms in a document entitled ‘World Declaration of
Education for All’ as the main outcome of that Jomtien conference.
It was argued in that document that whereas the nations of the world had, in
1948, proclaimed through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that
“every human being has a right to education”, and in spite of great efforts
made by many countries in the world to provide education to all their
nationals, nonetheless, there were more than 100 million children, 60 percent
of whom were girls, who had no access to primary education. There were
also 960 million adults who were illiterate, two thirds of whom were
women. In accordance with data on the total world human population of
1990, there were 4,800,000 people in the world; assuming that 2/3 of them
were adults, the total adult population was then 3,200,000,000 people. Since
960,000,000 of them were illiterate, this means that 3 adults were illiterate in
every group of 10 adults.
There were more than 100 million and countless adults who failed to
complete basic education programmes and several millions who merely
satisfied the attendance requirements in basic education programmes, but
acquired no knowledge or any skills at all.
252
253
The World Declaration of Education for All was therefore proclaimed to
match these challenges to the right of all mankind to education. The
declaration contained ten articles. They presented an expanded vision in the
provision of education with increased resources and other supporting
facilities that would result in broadening and universalising access to basic
education throughout the world. The learning environment was to be
strengthened and enhanced through education policy reforms in every
member country, and through increased partnerships as well as mobilisation
of the necessary fiscal and human resources to support the provision of basic
education even and especially among the poorest countries, for improvement
of the lives of their citizens and for the transformation of their societies.
In essence therefore ‘education for all’ is a worldwide-declared policy that
upholds and is committed to the principle that education is a fundamental
right to every human being. Every society in the world has the obligation of
providing education to all their nationals.
9.1 The Concept of Human Rights
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2007) human rights
are norms accepted and practised all over the world to protect people from
severe political, legal and social abuses. Examples of such human rights are
the right to freedom of religion, the right to fair a trial when charged with a
crime, the right not to be tortured and the right to engage in political
activities. They are essentially moral standards of conduct in dispensation of
justice that are internationally accepted and practised. They are primarily
addressed to governments requiring compliance and enforcement.
The contemporary conception of human rights is rooted in the United
Nations’ document entitled “Universal Declarations of Human Rights”,
253
254
(UN1948), and the many human rights documents and treaties that followed
that UN declaration of 1948.
The philosophical basis of human rights is concerned with the existence,
nature and justification of human rights. Philosophical inquiries pose
questions such as: “Do human beings have rights?” “And what are they
rights to?” “Are such rights universal and independent of legal enactment?
Or they inalienable?”
9.2 The General Contemporary Concept of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) sets out a list of specific
human rights that countries should respect and protect.
“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in
a spirit of brotherhood; (Article 1 of the United Nations Declaration of
Human Rights; Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the
general Assembly resolution 217A(III) of 10 December 1948).
These UN human rights can be divided into six categories as follows: (i)
Security Rights: These are rights to set up to protect people’s lives against
any assaults and crimes such as murder, massacre and torture including rape.
(ii) Due Process Rights: These are right to protect people against abuses of
legal systems such as imprisonment without trial, secret trials and excessive
punishment, including capital punishment and summary execution.
Summary executions are those carried out summarily i.e. immediately,
without following the normal process. (iii) Liberty Rights: These are rights
to protect human freedoms in such areas as belief, expression, association,
assembly and movement; they protect people from undue restrictions on
254
255
what to think, what to say and in ways to act. (iv) Political Rights: These are
rights that protect the liberty of people to participate in politics through
actions such as communicating, assembling, protesting, voting and serving
public offices. They are based on the presuppositions entailed in democratic
principles of liberty, equality and justice in the sharing of political power
among citizens in a democratic state. (v) Equality Rights: These are rights,
which guarantee equal citizenship, equality before the law and
nondiscrimination. (vi) Social or Welfare Rights: These are rights that
require provision of services such as education to every citizen without any
discrimination. They also require the protection of all citizens from severe
poverty and starvation as well any other extreme hardships in life such as
contagious diseases and epidemics. Among these Social or Welfare right is
the human right to education/ It is expressed in the United Nations:
Universal Declamation on Human Rights, article No. 26; 1948). The article
reads as follows:
“(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at
least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall
be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made
generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all
on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human
personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
255
256
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall
be given to their children.”
Thus the best and most fundamental social amenity a government is
expected to provide to the people under it is education. Education offers
unlimited opportunity to all citizens in a state to develop their capacities
and talents to the highest levels of excellence. It is an opportunity that
matches the aspirations and ideals of every individual in the state to pursue
the development of his or her own natural endowments to their highest
potentialities.
(vii) Group Rights: The United Nations’ Universal Declaration on Human
Rights did not include these group rights. They were however discerned by
subsequent international treaties. They include protection of minority ethnic
groups against genocide and deprivation of territories including resources in
countries where such minority groups live.
9.2 Essential Features of Human Rights
(i) Essentially, human rights are basic entitlements and freedoms of human
beings. There are three forms of human rights that are commonly considered
as embodying the rest of them; namely civil, political and legal rights. Civil
rights are related to private affairs of citizens and their properties. Political
rights are related to citizens’ participation in public affairs; and legal rights
are related to people’s involvement in legal matters. The civil and political
256
257
rights are enshrined in articles 3 to 21 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, and in some other UN treaties.
(ii) Human rights are political norms dealing mainly with how people should
be treated by their governments and other public institutions. Governments
are directed to protect the rights of their citizens against both forms of
private and public discrimination and insecurity for such citizens’ lives and
properties.
(iii) Human rights exist as moral and legal rights. They are shared norms in
morality or proper and just conduct of those in authority in dealing with the
citizens under their charge. They also exist as legal rights at the national
level such as constitutional or civil rights of citizens. At the international
level such rights exist as international conventions and treaties.
(iv) They are numerous human rights to day. The Universal Declaration of
Human right limited their number to just 30. In 1669, John Locke stated
merely three natural human rights, i.e. every human being has a right to life,
a right to liberty and a right to property. These three protect people against
abuses of human dignity and basic interests in their lives.
(v) Human rights are minimal standards concerned with avoiding the
excessive abuse of power, rather than achieving the best for mankind,
(Nickel, J. Making Sense of Human Rights, Oxford Blackwell Publishing,
2006).
(iv) Human rights are international norms covering all countries and all
people. International law plays a crucial role in this respect. It gives human
rights global reach, and universality, based on international treaties and
conventions.
257
258
(v) Human rights have right holders. A person or agency having a particular
right is said to be a right holder. Human rights impose obligations on the
government of a country in which the right holder resides.
the criminal.
Citizens establish a government and delegate to it the authority to protect
their rights. Government must exercise political authority solely for the end
of protecting their citizens.
9.3 Political and Moral Philosophical Background to Human Rights
Human rights are based on John Locke’s theory of natural law. According
to him, there is ‘a law of nature’ which is a universally binding moral law
based on reason that obliges every human being to comply with in view of
preserving his life.
This ‘law of nature, confers upon every human being rights or entitlements
to life, liberty, and property. Life is most precious possession each of us has.
Life transcends all other possession of the individual. It enables him to
acquire and accumulate all other possessions. Liberty is the first defense we
have in preserving our lives. It places in our hands the power to control our
own lives. Properties are means of livelihood. The term property is derived
from the Latin word proprius, which means “one’s own”.
Should any one threaten your rights by seeking to murder you, to enslave
you, or to steal from you or forcefully appropriate your possessions i.e. what
ever means of livelihood you possess - you are authorised by this “law of
nature” to protect your rights by resisting, punishing and taking reparation or
restitution.
Human rights are also based John Stuart Mill’s utilitarian theory. The
legitimate government was the one that promoted the happiness of its
individual citizens. The most appropriate form of government to exercise
258
259
political power in compliance with majority will is the one that seeks to
produce the greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people.
9.4 Principles behind the World Declaration of Education for All
There were a number of principles that underlie the proclamation of the
Jomtien World Declaration of Education for All. These principles are
presuppositions the conference delegates adopted during their deliberations.
They are as follows: (1) Education is a fundamental right to all people,
women and men of all ages throughout the world. This principle is rooted in
article 26 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. That article
reads as follows:
“Everyone has the right to education. …” The article stipulates the provision
of formal education at all levels including elementary, technical and
professional as well as higher education. Human beings’ right to education is
based on their natural right to property or means of livelihood. To acquire
property one needs to acquire the proper knowledge and technology of
properly producing such property or means of livelihood. This can only be
achieved through education and training.
(2) Education can help in ensuring a safer, healthier, more prosperous and
environmentally sound world, while simultaneously contributing to global
social, economic and cultural progress, tolerance and international
cooperation. Education is a means to the ends of human well being and
prosperity. This principle is based on utilitarian philosophical contention that
what is morally proper to do for any society is to ensure the provision of the
greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people.
259
260
(3) Education is an indispensable key to, though not sufficient condition for,
personal and social improvement. Education is a key factor in raising the
qualities of people and their achieving excellence in their capacities.
(4) Traditional knowledge and indigenous cultural heritage have a value and
validity in their own right. Moreover they have a capacity to both define and
promote development. They however need to be linked with modern
educational advances for their greater contribution to human welfare.
(5) The current provision of education is seriously deficient and it must be
made more relevant, qualitatively improved and made universally available.
The provision of education globally is deficient in terms of its coverage,
which is not universal; only a portion of the world population has full access
to formal education. The provision is, besides, of poor quality. Its quality
needs to be raised for it to be effective.
(6) Sound basic education is fundamental to the strengthening of higher
levels of education and scientific and technological literacy and capacity and
thus self-reliant development in each country.
(7) The present and coming generations must be given an expanded vision
of, and a renewed commitment to basic education, to address the scale and
complexity of the challenges that such generations have to face in future.
Philosophers of education such as Peter Hirst (2005) interpret the World
Declaration of Education for All as a global policy proclamation of the
social practices of education, which are value laden, the execution of which
achieves desired human good. Education is a means to an end, which
is the eudemonia or ultimate human well being.
9.5 Developments in Implementing the Jomtien World Declaration of
Education for All
260
261
During the decade 1990-2000 several ventures were launched in all member
countries all over the world. There were reports monitoring students’
achievements that enabled countries to share experiences and to encourage
one other in forging ahead with putting into actions the global policy they
had themselves proclaimed.
Many countries introduced educational reforms to accommodate the
dimensions agreed upon in Jomtien. Countries replaced their national
education policies with the global policy.
The monitoring reports on the implementation of the Jomtien declaration
were made available to all member states at a follow up world summit on
education. This follow up summit was called the World Education Forum . It
was held at Dakar, Senegal in April 2000. It was aimed at reviewing the
progress made in the implementing the global policy and to redesign and
streamline actions for achieving better results. The reports from every
member country were analysed and new resolutions on what to do were
passed. The Dakar summit summarised its 21 resolutions in a document
called Framework for Action on Education for All.
The resolutions reaffirmed the commitments made at Jomtien. The
framework also set targets for the complete achievement of education for all
by 2015. Among the clauses in the framework is clause number 5 which
deplored the fact that: “But it is unacceptable in the year 2000 that more than
113 million children have no access to primary education and 880 million
adults are illiterate, gender discrimination continues to permeate education
systems and the quality of learning and acquisition of human values and
skills fall short of aspirations and needs of individuals and society.”
The framework set up six goals to be achieved by 2015 as follows:
261
262
(1) Early childhood care and education; (2) Universal access to complete,
free and compulsory primary education of good quality; (3) Meeting
learning needs for all young people and adults; (4) Reducing illiteracy by
50% ; (5) elimination of gender disparity in the provision of education; (6)
improving the quality of education and ensuring excellence of every one.
9.6 Theoretical Presuppositions of the Six EFA Goals
The first two goals are concerned with the provision of education to children
along with “child care” or up bringing during their early years in life. The
provision of basic education from pre-school education up to secondary
education is also envisaged. Goals 3 and 4 are on lifelong learning. This is
the provision of continuing and nonformal education context. Goal 5 is
concerned with lack of gender parity in access to education. The goal is
pitched against deep-rooted traditional beliefs and attitudes on gender parity.
For ages in the history of mankind, most traditional societies held the notion
that women were inferior to men. Goal 6 was concerned with the provision
high quality education. It aims at getting rid of mediocrity in the quality of
education provided to learners.
The six goals by the Dakar Framework for Action were underpinned by four
theoretical assumptions as follows:
(i) Education is a human right. Education has intrinsic value that is based on
moral and legal foundations. It is also an indispensable means of unlocking
and protecting other human rights. It provides scaffolding for human
requirements such as good health, liberty and political participation on equal
bases. Where citizen’s right to education is guaranteed, people‘s access to all
other human rights, such as equality in sharing political power are enhanced.
Promoting human-right based education is an obligation to governments for
their proper meeting the moral duties and responsibilities of securing the
262
263
well being and prosperity of their nationals. The policy requires
governments to translate their commitments to the international resolutions
made at Jomtien and Dakar into legislation, against which their citizens have
legal recourse.
(ii) Human development is nowadays measured not as income per capita, but
rather it is measure by the extent to which people’s capacities have been
enhanced and developed along with their choices widened enabling them to
benefit from a number of freedoms. These freedoms encompass the rights of
access to resources that allow people to avoid illnesses, to have self-respect,
to be well nourished, to sustain livelihood and live in peaceful relationships.
Generally, they free people from hardships and miseries.
In the Dakar Framework of Action, education is viewed important because:
(a) All the skills provided by basic education such as reading and writing are
valuable fundamental outcomes of development of human capacities. (b)
Education can help in displacing the negative features of life; for example
compulsory primary education can help in reducing child labour. Education
will empower those who suffer from multiple disadvantages, for example
women who receive education sustain better and longer lives than otherwise.
Thus when defined in this manner, education is universal, i.e. it is to be
attained by all regardless of their classes or gender. Education has a
powerful impact in addressing social and economic barriers within society
and is central in attaining human freedom.
(iii) Since all people have a right to education, and since it has impact upon
people’s capacities, then the provision of basic level of education for all
must be made universal if development is to become universal.
Understanding the relationship between educational goals and other
development goals is helpful if education is to be defined as productive.
263
264
There is empirical internationally derived evidence supporting the
assumption that schooling improves productivity in rural areas and increases
employment in urban areas. These benefits stem from literacy, which
requires minimum of six years of fulltime education of good quality.
Good primary education has also a positive impact on production,
population low fertility rates, better diets and early and more effective
diagnosis of illnesses. There is a high positive correlation between literacy
and life expectancy. Parents with high level of schooling particularly
women, tend to have healthier longer living children than other wise. New
economic growth models have emphasised human resources development as
a central factor in development returns.
(iv) Human rights, human freedom and human development constitute a
triumvirate of arguments to support education for all. They demonstrate that
there is a fundamental identity between EFA and development, and that each
brings separate opportunities for securing the gains.
Governments of the world are challenged to recognise the validity of this
triumvirate of arguments. Each of the world governments is also challenged
to define its own policy priorities and design its own routes for achieving the
EFA six goals.
Lecture Ten
Education For All in Tanzania
264
265
10. 0 Tanzanian Implementation of EFA
Activities to implement both the Jomtien World Declaration on Education
for All and the Dakar Framework for Action in Tanzania are reflected in
three proclamations of the Tanzanian government via its Ministry of
Education and Training. The first one is the Education and training Policy of
1995. The second is the Sector Development Programme of 1996. And the
third is the Tanzanian Development Vision for 2025 Vision.
10.1Tanzanian Education and Training Policy (ETP)
Among the member countries that committed themselves to the global
policy on education for all was Tanzania. The country reformed its socialist
policy on education to adopt and incorporate the aspirations outlined in the
Jomtien World Declaration of Education for All.
The Education and Training Policy of 1995 was proclaimed to guide the
provision of education and training in the country. It avowed to increase
enrolments, improve quality and effect equitable access and expansion as
well as optimise utilisation of available resources for education. Every
policy normally has a visions of mental picture of the desired image the
policy makers aspire their county to be like. It is a picture good image of
what society wishes to attain. In addition the policy has a mission or basic
aim or purpose to guide and direct its implementation and point out what the
policy is expected to achieve
(i) The Tanzanian Education and Training Policy has the following declared
vision:-
“ Be nation with high level of education at all levels; a nation which
produces the quality of educated people sufficiently equipped with requisite
knowledge to solve the society’s problems in order to meet the challenges of
development and attain competitiveness at regional and global levels.”
265
266
(ii) The policy has also the following declared mission:-
“Realisation of Universal Primary Education (UPE), eradication of illiteracy
and attainment of a level of tertiary education and training commensurate
with critical high quality human resources required to effectively respond to
development challenges at all levels.”
(iii) In addition the policy has the following stated functions:
“1. Improving the minimum standard of education from primary education
to secondary education. 2. Systematising school syllabi and overseeing the
implementation of such systematisation. 3. Arranging the format of
examinations or primary and secondary schools. 3. Setting up an even
distribution of necessary school-requirements.
The agencies charged with the responsibilities of implementing the policy
include among others the following: the Tanzania Institute of Education and
the Tanzania Institute of Adult Education. Moreover the National
Examinations Council, which was established by Act of Parliament No. 26
of 1973, is responsible for the administration of all national examinations
and awards of official diplomas and certificates in primary, secondary and
post secondary education excluding universities.
10. 2 The ETP provides for the creation of a true partnership between the
state and other providers of education, by encouraging them to establish and
manage schools and training institutions.
Summary of the Tanzanian Education and Training Policy
For more than three decades, Tanzania did not have a comprehensive
education and training policy. In the past programmes and practices of
education were based on development plans to meet the needs for providing
formal education and vocational education.
266
267
The ETP of 1995 encompasses the entire sector of education and training.
The policy was conceived and developed after a shift of emphases from the
socialist policies of the 1960s to the 1980s. During this period national
development plans placed firm reliance on government control of the
economy, which also shaped the direction of educational initiatives in the
country.
After the late 1980s saw the on set of political and economic changes which
removed of government control on the economy and brought the inception
of multi-party political system. These changes also brought competition in
the demand for and supply of good and services, which in turn influenced
the provision of formal education and training in the country.
The broad features of the 1995 Education and Training Policy are as
follows:
(1) Enhancement of partnership in the provision of education and
training through efforts to encourage private agencies to participate in the
provision of education and to establish and manage schools and other
educational institutions at all levels.
(2) Identification of critical priority areas to concentrate on. For the
purpose of creating an enabling environment for private agencies to
participate in the provision of education, such as the training of more and
better teachers.
(3) Broadening of the financial base for education and training
through more effective control of government spending, cost sharing and
liberalisation strategies.
(4) Streamlining the management structure of education by placing
more authority and responsibility on schools, local communities, districts
and regions.
267
268
(5) Emphasising the provision of quality education through
curriculum review, improved teacher management and introduction and use
of appropriate performance and assessment strategies.
(6) Strengthening the integration of formal and nonformal education
relationship by instituting comparability and inter-mobility of knowledge
within the two sub-sectors of education.
(7) Increasing access to education by focusing on equity issues with
respect to women, disadvantaged groups and areas in the country.
(8) Facilitating the growth of the culture of education for job-creation
and self-employment through increased availability of opportunities for
vocational education and training.
By cross-referencing these features with the articles of the Jomtien
declaration one notices that the Tanzanian ETP closely adopted such articles
in formulating these features.
10.2 Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP)
This is a sector-wide plan aimed at operationalising the Education and
Training Policy of 1995. It covers the entire education sector including
higher education and vocational education. The programme was launched in
1996 to help in achieving government’s long-term development and poverty
eradication targets and at the same time address the problem brought about
by fragmented projects. It establishes new relationship between in the
provision of education and training, promoting partnership, coordination and
ownership among all groups with vested interests in education and training.
268
269
10.4 The Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP) is a sub-branch
of the Education Sector Development Programme. It is a plan for expanding
and universalising the provision of primary education primary in the
country. It focuses on expanding enrolment in primary schools and in quality
improvement, capacity building and optimum utilisation of human and
material resources available for primary education.
10.5 There is also the Public Service and Local Government Reform
Programme (PSLGRP) which focuses on performance improvement in the
delivery of services. It incorporates a reform of local governments through
decentralisation and devolution of powers to local levels.
10.6 The Poverty-Reduction Strategy is medium-term plan that benefits
from international donor’s arrangement for “Highly Indebted Poor
Countries” to obtain debt relief. It is based on the assumption that
sustainable development will only take place if there is increased
improvement in the provision of education. Lack of basic education
undermines all efforts to improve health and nutrition and impedes efforts to
address the causes of diseases. Poverty reduction strategy focuses on
reducing income poverty to improve human capacity, survival and social
well-being. It also contains extreme vulnerability among the poor. Because
of the fact that only 67 percent of primary scholars complete their primary
schooling, a significant number of the school going age children is out of
school. It is therefore assumed that poverty reduction cannot be achieved if
education for all is not attained.
10.3Tanzania Development Vision for 2025
This is a vision of the country the Tanzanian Government envisaged for
2025. The vision depicts a high quality standard of livelihood, or living, for
269
270
all the citizens in the country. This will have been achieved through the
attainment of universal education, eradication of illiteracy and an
accomplishment of a high level of tertiary education and training. Such a
high level of tertiary education and training will be commensurate with the
high-quality human resources required to effectively respond to the
developmental challenges at all levels in the county. In that vision of
Tanzania in 2025 education is visualised as a means for transforming and
creating of a well-educated nation that is sufficiently equipped with the
knowledge and skills needed to competitively solve the developmental
challenges facing the nation and to match the stiff regional and international
competition in supplying high quality products on the international markets.
The vision insists on qualitatively transforming the educational system with
focus on promoting a science and technology – based culture at its lowest
levels to raise the qualities of children and adults in the country to high
levels of educational and learning achievements. The vision emphasises on
the need to ensure that science and technology and their applications in
promoting and enhancing productivity as well as in reducing vulnerability to
poverty among the people across the country..
10.4 Tanzanian Government Commitment to International Targets
The Dakar Framework for Action passed 21 resolutions. Resolution number
7 set targets for the United Nations member countries to achieve by 2015.
The resolution reads as follows:
“We hereby collectively commit ourselves to the attainment of the following
goals:
(1) Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and
education especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.
270
271
(2) Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in
difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities have access
to complete, free, and compulsory primary education of good quality.
(3) Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are
met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skill
programme.
(4) Ensuring 50 percent improvement in levels if adult literacy by 2915,
especially for women and equitable access to achievement in basic and
continuing education for all adults. Eliminating gender disparities in primary
and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality by 2015
with focus on ensuring girls’ full equal access to achievement in basic
education of good quality.
Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of
all, so that recognised and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all
especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.” The EFA goal 3
aimed at “ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are
met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skill
programmes”.
There are UNESCO monitoring reports on the progress the United Nations
members countries all over the world have made towards the achievement of
these six EFA goals.
Tanzania’s progress towards achieving these six EFA goals has been
reported by these UNESCO monitoring reports.
(1) In respect of goal one, on early childhood care and education, two
indices are used in monitoring progress towards the achievement of this
goal. The first one measures progress towards achieving early childhood
care. The UNESCO surveyors did not get directly suitable indicators on this
271
272
childcare factor as such. They compiled data, which merely measured lack
or deficiency in childcare. The index was on mortality rates in absolute
figure per 1000 children of the same age. These are actually number of
children who die in a population of 1000 children at the ages below 5 year.
In the period between 2000 and 2004 the mortality rate for under-five infants
in Tanzania stood at 164 deaths per 1000. During the same period, the
average under-five mortality rate for Sub-Saharan Africa stood at 176 deaths
per 1000, while the world average under-five mortality rate during the same
period stood at 86 deaths per 1000. This indicates that Tanzania was one of
the countries in the world that ranked highest in severity of under-five
mortality rate during the period 2000 to 2004.
In regards to early childhood education the UNESCO monitoring reports
showed data on the gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary education during
the period 1999 to 2004. The ratio was reported in percentages of the total
population of children of the given age that had enrolled in pre-primary
education institutions.
In Tanzania 29 percent of the children in the age range of 4 to 6 had enrolled
in pre-primary schools during the year 2004. In Sub-Saharan Africa that
gross enrolment ratio stood, on average, at 10 percent in 1999 and at 12
percent in 2004. The world averages of that ratio stood at 33 percent in 1999
and at 37 percent in 2004. Thus Tanzania’s progress in this respect was
below that of the world average, although it was greater than the average of
Su-Saharan Africa.
A recent local government regulation in the country has been introduced
which provides that every child who enrolls in Standard I must first pass
through a pre-school. Each primary schools in the country, whether privately
owned or state owned, must have a pre-school attached to it. The
272
273
implementation of this regulation will go a long way towards the country’s
achieving the FEA goal on early childhood education.
(2) In respect of EFA goal two making primary education more accessible,
UNESCO’s USI Table 4 for the period between 1999 and 2004 shows that
during this period, Tanzania ranked second in Sub-Saharan Africa, for
achieving significant expansion in the provision of primary education. n
1999 Tanzania had enrolled 713,000 new entrants into primary schools. In
2004 it enrolled 1,415,000 new entrants into primary schools. This was an
increase of 98 percent in the expanding of the provision of primary
education. Tanzania came second only to Ethiopia, which had an expansion
rate of 104.4 percent during the same period. The average or Sub-Saharan
Africa stood at 30.9 percent in he expansion of such a provision of primary
education during the said period. The world figure in this respect stood 3.9
percent.
(3) In respect of EFA goal three, on meeting the learning need of youth and
adults outside school, and EFA goal four, on reducing illiteracy by 50
percent, the 2003 UNESCO monitoring report on the progress made in these
respects, combined the third and fourth EFA goals because the two goals are
mutually inclusive and intimately related. It was argued that programmes on
acquisition of literacy skills and competences including attitudes among
youth and adults outside the formal educational settings are carried out using
work-oriented learning activities. They often involve life skills and
knowledge that meet the learning needs of the participants. USI Table 2 for
the year 1990,2004 and 2006, depicts changes in adult illiteracy using
percentages of total population and absolute figures over the 16-year period.
These changes in adult literacy rate and in the number of illiterate adults
during the 16-year period the figures in respect of Tanzania are as follows:
273
274
An Excerpt of UIS Table 2
Country Adult Literacy Rate Adult Illiterates
Percentage of Population Absolute Number
(In 000)
1990 2004 2006 1999 2004 2006
Tanzania 62.9 75.5 76.5 5,128 4,556 6,154
Senegal 28.4 38.2 51.1 2,822 3,387 3,672
The figures show that there was only a small improvement in the literacy
rates form 62.9 to 76.5 during the whole period of 1990 to 2006. And there
was an actual a decline in improvement as far as the total number of
illiterates in the country, which rose from 5,128,000 to 6,154,000 illiterate
over the period of 16 years. On the whole therefore Tanzania is unlikely to
reduce illiteracy by 50 percent in 2015. There as been little progress made in
Tanzania towards the achievement of both EFA goals 3 and 4.
(4) In respect of EFA goal five on eliminating gender disparity in the
provision of primary and secondary education.
It is argued in the UNESCO monitoring report for 2005 that apart from
being an infringement of human rights, gender inequality in education
entails serious losses for society because removal of such an infringement
tends to increase farms outputs and incomes of the poorest, to give better
nourishment to the community and to enhance the well being of children.
The report stated that 53 out of 128 countries, which reported progress in
respect of this goal, achieved the gender goal for 2005, i.e. elimination of
274
275
gender disparity in primary and secondary education. The goal was missed
by nearly half of these countries, two thirds of which are in Sub-Saharan
Africa, including sixteen countries out of the total number of 40 countries in
the region.
The UIS Table 4 gave data on access to primary education fro 1999 and
2004 in terms of total number of both male and females of new entrants into
primary schools. In addition, it showed the gender disparity indices (GPI
F/M) in those two respective years. These indices showed the magnitudes of
the gap there was between female and male enrolments into the primary
schools in each country.
In regards to Tanzania the new entrants into primary schools the absolute
figure stood at 714,000 children in 1999 with a GPI F/M of 0.99. In 2004,
the figure stood at 1,342,000 children, with a GPI F/M of 0.99. Thus
although there was no change in the gender parity index between that of
1999 and that of 2004, there were significantly many more girls who
accessed to primary education in 2004, when compared with those that
accessed primary education in 1999.
Any progress in achieving riddance of discriminatory traditions in respect of
gender is an enormously remarkable achievement. It manages to induce
changes of views and beliefs on values that are deep rooted in traditions of
most communities all over the world. Most communities worldwide regard
women as inferior to men and thus denying them access to education. Girls’
education is given a low priority in preference of boys’ education. Even
Plato talked only of golden boys, silver boys and iron boys being educated in
order to raise the quality of his ideal state.
(5) In respect of goal six was on providing good quality education to all. The
goal is seen as pursuing the desired and ideal standards in education.
275
276
Something is said to be of good quality when it conforms with the
appropriate or desired level in its characteristics. One can not realise the
desired standard of any thing until one actually implements the actions
planned to reach such desired standard of performance. Good quality
education can only be realised and measured after the teaching and learning
activities have been implemented. Good quality literacy can only be
determined after the literacy learners have undergone literacy instructions
and sat for achievement tests on literacy.
It was unfortunate that the UNESCO monitoring reports failed to get any
worldwide coverage on tests and examinations. The closest available data on
the outcomes of learning is found in UIS Table 3e on repeaters by grades in
primary education for the years 1999 to 2005. This data is however
unsuitable in determining the progress made by any country towards
achieving providing good quality education. This is because repeating
merely means that the candidates who repeat have no reached the minimum
level of learning achievement to enable them proceed to the next grade.
UIS Table 9, which shows the percentages of repeaters in primary education
over the period between 1999 and 2004, provides a better picture in
determining the progress made toward achieving good quality education in
this respect. It is however a still weak indicator of such achievement.
For example, the figures in the UIS Table 9 on Tanzania reflect an erratic
situation in which fluctuations rather than progress is manifest. In the case of
Ethiopia a small trend of progress is reflected in the more recent years,
although the whole scenario looks fluctuating.
276
277
An Excerpt of UIS Table 9:
Average Percent of Repeaters in All Grades
Country: in Primary Schools
Years: 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Tanzania 3% 2% 5% 5% 4%
Ethiopia 14% 15% 15% 11% 7%
Generally one can state that the UNESCO monitoring reports are yet to find
a more suitable measure of the UN member countries’ progress towards
achieving quality education as envisaged in EFA goal six.
Lecture Ten
Lifelong Education
10.1 The Nature and Necessity of Lifelong Learning
We are living in a changing world. We need to go on learning in order to
keep abreast with the changes that keep on emerging around us. What we
learnt earlier tends to become obsolete. This is phenomenon that every one
of us encounters I life all the time.
Learning is however viewed in a different manner in traditional thinking.
Layman’s View and Traditional Thinking on Learning:
Traditional thinking on learning has basically three misconception on
learning:- (i) Learning is confined to school-going children alone. (ii)
Education is preparation for future life. (iii) Education is terminal.
277
278
(i) Traditional thinking has always regarded learning as confined to just
the school-going children in society. The layman holds the notion that “you
can’t teach an old dog new tricks”. His assumption is that ability to learn
declines with age; and that there is an age in one’s lifespan, which ranges
from 6 to 18 years, when one’s ability to learn is at its peak. It is commonly
called the “plastic age”. It is the age that is most suited for going to school
and pursue all the learning he will ever need in life. These notions of
confining learning in the life span of an individual only to his plastic age
when his learning ability are at its peak is questionable. There has been no
empirical evidence to support the existence of a “plastic age’ in the
individual’s lifespan. On the contrary there is plenty of empirical data to
support the proposition that substantial portion of ability to learn, or
intelligence, tends to increase with age. Baltes, P.B. and Reese, H.W.(1980),
Life-span Developmental Psychology” in Annual Review of Psychology)
for example discovered in a series of studies found that “crystallised
intelligence” tends to increase with age from the lowest level at the age of
six to the oldest age of over seventy. John L. Horn and Donaldson G. (1980),
“Cognitive Development II Adulthood Development of Human Abilities” in
O.G. Brim and J. Kagan; (eds.), Constancy and Change in Human
Development; Cambridge MASS; Harvard University Press.) too collected
data showing that “crystallised intelligence increased with age. Many studies
on lifespan development have found the same trends. In a series of
longitudinal studies McClusky, (1970) found those most outstanding
discoveries in chemistry and other natural sciences as well as in the creative
arts were invented or produced by people, whose ages ranged from fifty to
over seventy. Paul Baltes and Staudinger U.M. (2000) “Wisdom” in
American Psychologist. 55; 112 -136), conducted studies on wisdom as an
278
279
important aspect of intelligence. Wisdom was defined as expert knowledge
on the practical aspects of life, which permits excellent judgement, and
which involves exceptional insights and understanding in coping with
difficulties in life. Wisdom focuses on more than what standard conception
of intelligence deals with. Wisdom deals with life pragmatic concerns.
McClusky’s finding were confirmed in Paul Baltes and his colleagues’
studies, that wisdom tends to increase with age due to their of life
experiences.
(ii) Traditional thinking on learning tends to regard education as a
preparation for future life. Many laymen while considering issues in
education, moreover, assume that schooling is concerned with the mere
transmission of information and facts from the adults to their children. Such
information is passed on to the pupils in order to prepare them for meeting
their needs in future. They regard schooling as a mere preparation for
future life. They assign education the role traditional initiation ceremonies
fulfill in primitive societies, that of getting the youth ready to take up adult
responsibilities in future when such youth are of age. Pupils are expected to
receive knowledge and competences as well as adopt attitudes they will need
in future during their adult life. This assumption has tended to divorce the
school curricula from current day-to-day events and situation in the pupils’
lives. The laymen ignore the fact that science and technology are revolving
and coming up with new ideas and discoveries that tend change life, and
challenge every individual in society to relearn new ways of adjusting
himself to such changes.
(iii) Traditional thinking on learning tends to regard education as
terminal. This is the third misconception in traditional thinking on learning.
279
280
The layman tends to look on education as a mere stage of growing up,
similar to going through initiation ceremonies. In this manner education and
learning is considered to have reach the end of its being required by the
individual who over grows such a need. Education stops affecting the
individual since he is now beyond its sphere of influence.
According to G. Dohmen (1996). Any school system that strives to prepare
the youth for future life or for making them accomplished after going
through an education programme is attempting to accomplish a futile it task.
At the end of their programme of study the graduates will discover that they
have merely been preparing to learn more about life and the occupations
they are now taking up.
John Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy points out that we should be prepared
to consider false any thing we current regard as true. New discoveries are
likely to come up with evidence that our current notions are based on false
beliefs. Learning and inquiring into the truth is essentially endless, not
terminal because of the continual changes occurring around us. It goes on
throughout the lifespan of the individual. It can never be terminal or
confined to a small portion of our life. It not a mere preparation for future
living either.
Lifelong learning is defined as an endless process of acquiring knowledge,
skills and attitudes. It begins at the birth of the individual and it never
terminates until his demise.
10.2 The Purposes and Functions of Lifelong Learning
Lifelong Learning enables people of all ages to cope with, or adopt
themselves to ever changing environmental conditions in their lives. It
enables them to acquire new understanding and insights about the world
280
281
around and to apply such insights in meeting emerging needs and adequately
confront new problems in their lives.
Lifelong learning has the following functions: - (i) It remedies the defects or
inadequacies of schooling; (ii) It also compensate those who have not had a
chance of or those who missed the opportunities of entering any schools and
those who dropped out of the school system prematurely. (iii) It integrates
the process of educating learners holistically and it thus complements the
formal education system. (iv) It also promotes the democratic principle of
according all members in society access to education.
Societies all over the world are facing rapid changes under the influence of
science and technology quickening the pace of life in all social spheres
including most fields of human occupation. There is hardly a new innovation
that is not accompanied by a chain of other changes in the lives of people.
Every innovation tends to be accompanied by structural changes in
previously accumulated knowledge. What we learnt at school tends to
become obsolete in just a few years. We have to learn and accommodate
new innovations that keep on emerging from time to time.
10.3 Contexts in which Lifelong Learning Takes Place.
There are three contexts in which the process of education occurs: - That is
(i) Formal Education (ii) Informal Education and Lifelong learning like the
process of education, takes place in three contexts, a formal context, an
informal context and a nonformal context. In all these three contexts the
acquisition of knowledge, competences and attitudes or values occur among
learners of all ages through out their lifespan.
281
282
(i) The formal context involves full time scholars who follow formally
prescribed programmes of study, which have clearly defined learning
objectives, contents, methods as well as intended learning outcomes. On
attaining the intended learning outcomes the scholars are granted formally
recognised awards in the forms f certificates that society considers as
acceptable qualifications with which the scholar get tenure or appointment in
occupations demanding such academic qualifications. Thus the scholars who
participate in educational progammes under this context have clearly defined
aims for undertaking the learning endeavour. They aim at achieving
recognised academic qualifications that are demanded in occupational fields.
The knowledge, values and competences the scholars gain during the
learning events need not be closely related to the occupations in which they
seek employment. What matters is such knowledge, values and
competences’ being related to the demanded qualifications for securing the
jobs in question.
(ii) The informal context involves incidental learning whereby the scholars
spontaneously acquire new knowledge, attitudes, and even competences in
incidental encounters with situations that present learning opportunities
during the course of other planned activities. This context is not deliberately
arranged as and organised learning endeavour, It has no learning
objectives, contents, methods and intended learning outcomes. It merely
happens during the course of the individual’s preoccupations with other
engagements in life. It is nonetheless an opportunity for the individual to
learn. As he listens to conversations of, for example fellow passengers in a
bus he is traveling in, or while exchanging greetings with an acquaintance.
As a process education is a lifelong engagement. It is an endless acquisition
282
283
of knowledge, competences attitudes. The individual is involved in
continuous learning as long as he lives because he goes on experiencing new
and continuous encounters with his environment. According to John Dewey,
a prominent educational philosopher: “every learning situation is new and
unique” (Dewey 1938). The environment keeps on presenting new and
unique situations to the individual, demanding his acquiring additional
knowledge, competences and attitudes to enable him deal effectively with
emerging new unique situations in his surroundings.
Informal education is a natural spontaneous process of acquiring knowledge,
skills and attitudes from day-to-day experiences as the individual interacts
with stimuli in his environment. According to B.F. Skinner (1960) the
organism learns by emitting spontaneous operant responses on its
environment. John Dewey (1938) proposed that because the world around us
keeps on changing we need to keep on learning how to deal with it at every
point in time. A human individual cannot stop learning. He must go on
learning in order to keep abreast with continuously changing conditions
around him. This in essence is informal learning, which happens
spontaneously all the time.
Basic Features of Informal Education
(a) Informal education is a natural spontaneous acquisition of knowledge,
competences or attitudes. It is an opportunity that arises incidentally in the
course of other pre-arranged activities of an individual. Thus informal
education is not deliberately planned or organised in advance.
(b) Informal education has no pre-determined goals, objectives, methods
or procedures, learning experiences, teachers and places or points in time
where and when learners are to engage in the learning endeavour.
283
284
(c) Agencies providing informal education are not social organisations
especially set up for that. They are incidental providers of education in the
course of their other engagements. They include the family members and
relations, neighbours, peer groups and acquaintances, religious leaders and
elders, supervisors and colleagues at work, and even well-wishers and
friends of the individual learner.
(d) Informal education merely provides indirect learning opportunities. It
is up to the learner to pay attention to such learning opportunities, if he feels
he needs to acquire the knowledge, competences, or attitudes offered by
such incidental learning opportunities.
(f) Learning achievement in informal education is not assessed nor
graded for any awards of certificates or diplomas. Its accomplishments are
only rewarded by feedback to the learner through his success or lack of
success in meeting his needs adequately.
Informal education is therefore characterised by lack of formality in the
individual’s acquisition of knowledge, skills or attitudes that leads to his
meriting recognised and standard qualifications on the discipline he is
engaged in learning.
(g) Informal education occurs continuously through the dissemination of
information in the form news or reports of events as well as campaigns and
publicity of current issues in society. (Publicity is the attention someone or
something gets through newspapers, radio, or television etc.) Campaigns are
series of publicity activities including demonstrations aimed at airing and
publicising a cause. The mass communication media are the chief
disseminators of such a feature of informal education. Campaigners of
certain causes such as women suffrage are the agencies of this form of
284
285
informal education. Suffrage is the right to vote in an election. Before the
campaigns for women suffrage, women were not allowed to vote in
elections. It is informal education in the form of campaigns that brought
about the restitution of women suffrage.
(iii) Nonformal Education
This is an organised set of educational activities provided outside the school
or the formal educational system. The concept of nonformal education arises
from the distinction made between education and schooling. In considering
the right of mankind to education, educationists realised that people who had
had no opportunity to enrol in the school system ought not be ignored or
denied organised education. Educational planners saw the chance of
providing education outside the school or formal official system. The
provision of nonformal education is conceived as a complementary
provision of formal education
Basic Features of Nonformal Education
(a) Nonformal education is based on the individual’s needs for and
interests in learning, rather than institutional needs and goals. The goals and
objectives for nonformal education are derived from the individual’s lack of
knowledge, competences or desirable attitudes.
(b) Nonformal Education tends to be provided to meet immediate needs
of learners in their day-to-day lives. Mothers with children suffering from
severe malnutrition require knowledge and skills for providing their babies
with balanced diet.
(c) Nonformal education is a continuous process; it allows learners to go
back to the formal education set up, time and again, for additional education.
285
286
(d) Nonformal education is a compensational and remedial provision of
education for those who did not have opportunity to go to school or those
who dropped out of school before completing It thus caters for the needs of a
wide range of learners in society.
APPENDIX II
PROCEEDINGS OF WORLD CONFERENCE ON EDUCATION FOR ALL AT JOMTIEN.
“Therefore, we participants in the World Conference on education for all, assembled in Jomtien from 5 to 9 March, 1990:
Recalling that education is a fundamental right for all people, women and men, of all ages throughout the world;
Understanding that education can help ensure healthier, more prosperous and environmentally sound world…
Proclaim the following:
ARTICLE I MEETING BASIC LEARNING NEEDS
1. Every one- child, youth and adult shall be able to benefit from educational opportunities designed to meet their basic needs. These comprise essential learning tools, oral expression, numeracy and problem solving as well as basic learning contents such as knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, required for survival of mankind.
286
287
2. The satisfaction of these needs empower individuals in any society and confer a responsibility to respect and build upon their heritage, to promote education of others, to further the cause of social justice, to achieve environmental protection, to be tolerant towards social political and religious systems, which differ from their own and to work for international peace and solidarity.
3. Another and less fundamental aim of educational development is the transmission and enrichment of common cultural and moral values. It is in these values that individuals find their identity.
4. Basic education is more than an end in itself. It is the foundation for lifelong learning and human development on which countries may build systematically further levels and types of education and training.
ARTICLE II SHAPING THE VISION
To serve the basic learning needs of all requires more than a recommitment to basic education, as it now exists. What is needed is an expanded vision that surpasses present resource levels, institutional structures, curricula, and conventional delivery systems while building on the best in current practices.
ARTICLE III UNIVERSALISING ACCESS AND PROMOTING EQUITY
The expanded vision involves universalising access to education and promotes equal opportunities to education. It also broadens the scope of basic education and encourages partnership in the provision of education. In universalising access to education, Article III proclaims that basic education services of quality should be expanded to all children, youth and adults. The most urgent priority is to ensure access to and improve the quality of, education for girls and women. An active commitment must be made to removing educational disparities. Underserved groups including the poor, street and working children, rural and remote populations, nomads and migrant workers, indigenous peoples, ethic, racial and linguistic minorities, refuges, those displaced by war and people under occupation should not suffer any discrimination in access to learning opportunities. All disabled people should be provided with equal access to education as any other people in their communities.
ARTICLE IV:
The focus of basic education must be on actual learning acquisition and outcome, rather than exclusively upon enrolment, continued participation
287
288
and completion of certification requirements. Learning achievement in organised programmes must be geared at proper standards of attainment.
ARTICLLE V: BROADENING THE MEANS AND SCOPE OF BASIC EDUCATION
Learning begins at birth calling for early childhood care and initial education. Delivery system for basic education is mainly primary schooling, which should be made universal. Supplementary alternative programmes to help in meeting learning needs of those with limit access to schooling.
Literacy programmes are indispensable because literacy is a necessary skill and foundation of other life skills.
ARTICLE VI: Enhancing environment for learning. Knowledge and skills that will enhance the learning environment of children should be integrated into community learning programmes for adults.
ARTICLE VII: strengthening Partnerships:
National regional and local educational authorities have unique obligation to provide basic education for all, but they cannot be expected to supply every one financial or organizational requirement for this task. New partnerships at all levels will be necessary, among all sub-sectors and forms of education. Partnership fro example between government and non-government agencies for providing education such a s religious organisations are necessary.
ARTCLE VIII: Developing a Supportive Policy Context:
Policy commitment including political will attracts appropriate fiscal measures and reinforced educational reforms including institutional restructuring and backing.
ARTICLE IX: Mobilising resources: It will be necessary to new and existing mobilise financial and human resources from the public, private and voluntary sectors.
ARTICLE X: Strengthening international solidarity:
The world community including intergovernmental institutions will be needed to alleviate constraints that prevent some countries from achieving the goals of education all. Measures to augment the budgets of poorest countries will have to be taken.
We all participants in the Conference on Education for All, reaffirm the right of all people to education. This is the foundation of our determination, singly and together, to ensure education for all. We commit ourselves to act
288
289
cooperatively through our own spheres of responsibility, taking all necessary steps to achieve the goals of education for all.”
APPENDIX IIITHE DAKAR FRAMEWORK OF ACTION ON EFA
This was a set of resolutions that were passed and adopted by the World Education Forum held at Dakar in April 2000. The resolutions declared commitments to meet the targets of Education for All. They stated as follows:“1. Meeting in Dakar, Senegal in April 2000, we the participants in the World Education Forum, commit ourselves to the achievement of education for all (EFA) goals and targets for every citizen and for every society.2. The Dakar Framework is a collective commitment to action. Governments have an obligation to ensure that EFA goals and targets are reached and sustained. This is a responsibility that will be met through broad-based partnerships within countries, supported by cooperation with regional and international agencies and institutions.3. We re-affirm the vision of the World Declaration on Education for All (Jomtien 1990), supported by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on Rights of the Child, that all children, young people and the adults have the human right to benefit from an education that will meet their needs for learning in the best and fullest sense of the term, an education that includes learning to know, to do, to live together and to be. It is an education gear to tapping each individual’s talents and potential and developing learners` personalities, so that they improve their lives and transform their societies.4. We welcome the commitments made by the international community to basic education throughout the 1990s, notably the World Summit for Children (1990), the Conference on Environment and Development (1992), the World Conference on Human Rights, (1993), the World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality, (1994), the World Summit on Social Development, (1995) the International Conference on Women, (1995) the Mid-term Meeting of the International Consultative Forum on Education for All, (1996) the Fifth International Conference on Adult Education, (1997) and the International Conference on Child Labour, (1997). The challenge is now to deliver on these commitments.
289
290
5. The EFA 2000 Assessment demonstrates that there has been significant progress in many countries. But it is unacceptable in the year 2000 that more than 113 million children have no access to primary education, 880 million adults are illiterate, gender discrimination continues to permeate education systems and the quality of learning and the acquisition of human values and skills fall short of the aspirations and needs of individuals and society. Youth and adults are denied access to skills and knowledge necessary for gainful employment and full participation in their societies. Without accelerated progress towards education for all and internationally agreed targets for poverty reduction will be missed and inequalities between countries and within societies will widen.6. Education is a fundamental human right. It is the key to sustainable development and peace and stability within and among countries, and thus an indispensable for effective participation in the societies and economies of the twenty-first century, which are affected by rapid globalisation. Achieving EFA goals should be postponed no longer. The basic learning needs for all can and must be met as a matter of urgency.7. We hereby collectively commit ourselves to the attainment of the following goals:(i) expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children,(ii) ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities have access to complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality,(iii) ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skill programmes,(iv) ensuring 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults,(v) eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by the years 2005 and achieving gender equality by the year 2015 with a focus on ensuring girls` full and equal access to achievement in basic education of good quality,(vi) improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all, so that recognised and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all especially in literacy numeracy and essential life skills.8. To achieve these goals, we the governments, organisations, change agencies and, groups of associations represented at the World Education Forum pledge ourselves to:
290
291
(i) mobilise strong national, international policy commitment for education for all, develop national action plans and enhance significantly investment on basic education,(ii) promote EFA policies with in a sustainable and well integrated sector framework clearly linked to poverty elimination and development strategies,(iii) ensure the engagement and participation of civil society in the formulation, and monitoring of strategies for educational development,(iv) develop responsive participatory and accountable systems of educational governance and management,(v) meet the needs of educational systems affected by conflicts national calamities and instability and conduct educational programmes in ways that promote mutual understanding, peace and tolerance, and help prevent violence and conflict,(vi) implement integrated strategies for gender equality in education which recognise the need for changes in attitudes, values and practices,(vii) implement as a matter of urgency educational programmes and actions to combat the HIV/AIDS pandemic.(viii) create safe healthy inclusive and equitable resources and educational environments conducive to excellence in learning with clearly defined levels of achievement for all,(ix) enhance the status morale and professionalism of teachers;(x) harness new information and communication technologies to help achieve EFA goals,(xi) systematically monitor progress towards EFA goals and strategies at national regional and international levels, and(xii) build an existing mechanism to accelerate progress towards educational for all.9. Drawing on the evidence accumulated during the national and regional EFA assessments and building on existing national sector strategies, all states will be requested to develop or strengthen exiting national plans of action by 2002 at the latest. These plans should be integrated into a wider, poverty reduction and development framework and should be developed through more transparent and democratic processes, involving stakeholders, especially people’s representatives, community leaders, parents, learners, non-governmental organisations and civil society. The plans will address problems with chronic under financing budget of basic education by establishing priorities that reflect a commitment to achieving EFA goals and targets the earliest possible date no later than 2015. They will also set out strategies for overcoming the special problems facing those currently excluded from educational opportunities with a clear commitment to girls`
291
292
education and gender equality. The plans will give substance and form to the goals and strategies set out in the Framework and to the commitments made during a succession of international conferences in the 1990s. Regional activities to support national strategies will be based on strengthened regional and sub-regional organisations, networks and initiatives.10. Political will and stronger leadership are needed for the effective and successful implementation of national plans in each of the countries concerned. However resources must underpin political will. The international community acknowledges that many countries currently lack the means to achieve education for all within an acceptable time frame. New financial resources preferably in the form of grants and concessional assistance must therefore be mobilised by bilateral and multilateral funding agencies including the World Bank and regional development banks and the private sector. We affirm that no countries seriously committed to education for all will be thwarted in their achievement by lack of resources.11. The international community will deliver on this collective commitment by launching with immediate effect a global initiative aimed at developing the strategies and mobilising the resources needed to provide effective support to national efforts options to consider under this initiative will include:(i) Increasing external finance for education, in particular basic education,(ii) ensuring greater predictability in the flow of external assistance,(iii) facilitating more effective donor coordination,(iv) strengthening sector-wide approaches,(v) providing earlier, more extensive and broader debt relief and or debt cancellation or poverty reduction, with a strong commitment to basic education, and(vi) undertaking more effective and regular monitoring of progress towards EFA goals, targets including periodic assessment.12. There is already evidence from many countries of what can be achieved through strong regional strategies supported by effective development cooperation. Progress under these could and must be accelerated through increased international support. At the same time countries with less development strategies, including countries, countries in transition, countries affected by conflict and post-crisis countries - must be given the support they need to achieve more rapid progress towards education for all.13. We will strengthen accountable international and regional mechanism to give clear expression of these commitments and ensure that the Dakar Framework for Action is on the agenda of every international and regional, every national legislature and every local decision-making forum.
292
293
14. The EFA 2000 assessment highlights, that the challenges of education for all is greatest in Sub-Sahara Africa, in South Asia and in the least developed countries. Accordingly while no country in need should be denied international assistance, priority should be given to these regions and countries. Countries in conflict or undergoing reconstruction should also be given special attention in building up their education systems to meet the needs of all learners.15. Implementation of the preceding goals and strategies will require national regional and international mechanisms to be galvanised immediately. To be effective these mechanisms will be participatory and wherever possible built on what already exists. They include representatives of all stakeholders and partners and they will operate in transparent and accountable ways. They will respond comprehensively to the word and spirit of the Jomtien Declaration and the Dakar Framework for Action. The functions of these mechanisms will include, to varying degrees, advocacy resources mobilisation, monitoring an EFA knowledge generation and sharing.16. The heart of EFA activity lies at the country level. National EFA Forums will be strengthened or established to support the achievement of EFA. All relevant ministries and national civil society organisations will be systematically represented in these Forums. They should be transparent and democratic and should constitute a framework for implementation at sub-national levels. Countries will prepare comprehensive National EFA Plans by 2002 at the latest. For those countries with significant challenges, such as complex crises and national disasters, special technical support will be provided by the international community. Each National EFA Plan will(i) be developed by the government leadership in direct and systematic consultation with national civil society,(ii) attract coordinated support of all development partners,(iii) specify reforms addressing the six EFA goals,(iv) establish a sustainable financial framework,(v) be time-bound and action oriented,(vi) include mid-term performance indicators and(vii) achieve a synergy of all human development efforts, through its inclusion within the national development planning framework and processes. (A synergy is the sharing of benefits across system parts, resulting in a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts, (Bateman and Snell, 1999, pp-6)).17. Where these processes and a credible plan are in place partner members of the international community undertake to work in a consistent
293
294
coordinated and coherent manner each partner will contribute according to its comparative advantage in support of the National EFA Plans to ensure that resources gaps are filled.18. Regional activities to support national efforts will be based on the existing regional and sub-regional organisations, networks and initiatives, augmented where necessary. Regions and sub-regions will decide on a lead EFA network that will become the Regional or Sub-regional Forum with an explicit EFA mandate. Systematic involvement of, and coordinated with, all relevant civil society and other regional and sub-regional organisations are essential. These Regional and Sub-regional EFA Forums will be linked organically with, and be accountable to, National EFA Forums. Their functions will be coordinated with all relevant networks: setting and monitoring regional/sub-regional targets, advocacy, policy dialogue, the promotion of partnerships and technical cooperation, the sharing of best practices and lessons learned, monitoring and reporting for accountability, and promoting resources mobilisation. Regional and international support will be available to strengthen Regional and Sub-regional Forums and relevant EFA capacities especially within Africa and South Asia.19. UNESCO will continue its mandated role in coordinating EFA partners and maintaining their collaborative momentum. In line with this, UNESCO`s Director-General will convene annually a high-level, small and flexible group. It will serve as a lever for political commitment and technical and financial resource mobilisation. Informed by a monitoring report from the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (UEP), the UNESCO International Bureau of Education (IBE) and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, and the inputs from Regional and Sub-regional EFA Forums, it will also be an opportunity to hold the global community to account for commitments made in Dakar. It will be composed of highest-level leaders from governments and civil society of developing and developed countries, and from development agencies.20. UNESCO will serve as the Secretariat. It will refocus its education programme in order to place the outcomes and priorities of Dakar at the heart of its work. It will involve working groups on each of the six goals adopted at Dakar. The Secretariat will work closely with other organisations and may include staff seconded from them.21. Achieving Education for All will requires additional financial support by countries and increased development assistance and debt relief for education by bilateral and multilateral donors, estimated to cost in the order of 8 billion USA dollars a year. It is therefore essential that new concrete financial commitments be made by national governments and by bilateral and
294
295
multilateral donors including the World Bank and the regional development banks, by civil society and by foundations.”
ReferencesAkinpelu, J.A (1981) An Introduction to Philosophy of Education; Macmillan Education Oxford.Baltes, Paul, B. and Reese, H.W.(1980), “Life-span Developmental Psychology” in Annual Review of Psychology, 31.65-110.Baltes, Paul and Staudinger U.M. (2000) “Wisdom” in American Psychologist. 55; 112 -136.Darylos, L.K.T. (1999): “A Philosophical Sketch of Functional Literacy: The Freirean Way”, in Adult Education and Development, 39, pp143-149. Freire, Paul (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed; New York; Herder and Herder.Freire, Paul (1974) ‘Cultural Action for Freedom:’ Harvard Educational Review Monograph Series No. 1, Cambridge Massachusetts.
Horn, John L. and Donaldson G. (1980), “Cognitive Development II Adulthood Development of Human Abilities” in O.G. Brim and J. Kagan; (eds.), Constancy and Change in Human Development; Cambridge MASS; Harvard University Press.
295
296
Hume, David, (1748); An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Ed. by A.L. Selbi Bigge. Oxford; Clarendon Press.
Maganga, Cajetan, Kumbai; (1975)A Proposal of An Adult Learning Model and Its Application in A Comparison Between Programmed Learning and Face-to-Face Instruction Among Adult Students; A Master Degree Thesis University of Dar es Salaam.
Maganga, Cajetan, Kumbai; (2007) Philosophy and Education: Analysis and Clarification in Reference to Education for All. Doctoral Thesis; Belford University.
Maganga, Kumbai, Cajetan; (2009) Evolution of Philosophical Discourses on Education: A Clarification; Dar es Salaam; Tanzania Open School and Publishing House.McClusky, H.Y.; (1970) “An Approach to a Different Psychology of Adult Potential”; in Grewski, S.M. Adult Learning: An Introduction; Eric Clearing House on Adult Education, Syracuse.
Kelly L. Ross; (2008); The State of Nature and Other Political Thought
Experiments; Friesian Journal of Philosophy, Online.Nickel, J. (2006) Making Sense of Human Rights, Oxford Blackwell Publishing. Ndunguru, Severin (1976): Educational Essays for Teachers; Dar es Salaam East African Publishing Bureau.Nyerere, Julius (1968); Freedom and Socialism; Dar es Salaam Oxford University Press.Nyirenda, Suzgo, and Ishumi, Abel G.M. (eds.) (2000); Philosophy of Education: An Introduction to Concepts, Principles and Practices; Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam University Press.Oxenham, John, (2000); “Signals From Uganda: What an Evaluation Suggests for Adult Educators”; in Adult Education and Development No. 55, pp229-259
Rawls, John; (1971); Liberalism and the Limits of Justice; Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Rousseau, Jean, Jacques: Emile
Shalley, C.E. (1991); “Effects of Productivity Goals, Creative Goals and Personal Discretion on Individual Creativity”; in Journal of Applied Psychology, 75; pp. 179-89
Snyder, Margaret; (1970); The Role of the Institute of Adult Education in National Development of Tanzania; PhD. Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam.
296
297
Schneewind, J.B., (1980): The Invention of Autonomy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Tolman, Edward, (1959) “Principles of Purposive Behaviour”; in Koch, S.; Psychology: A Study of A Science, Volume 2; McGraw Hill Book Company; New York; pp. 92 - 157
UNESCO (2000); World Forum on Education for All, Framework for Action; Paris.UNESCO Document (2001) “World Declaration of Education for All”; Education Webmaster.UNESCO Document 2003/4) “Gender and Education for All”; EFA Global
Monitoring Report.
297
![Package ‘SWIM’ - R · Version 0.2.1 Author Silvana M. Pesenti [aut, cre], Alberto Bettini [aut], Pietro Millossovich [aut], Andreas Tsanakas [aut] Maintainer Silvana M. Pesenti](https://img.pdfslide.us/doc/110x75/605af9a7c3b4e33810078bcd/package-aswima-r-version-021-author-silvana-m-pesenti-aut-cre-alberto.jpg)
