Everything About Research Methods

8/2/2019 Everything About Research Methods

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Research Methods

Methods and Techniques

Investigation DesignData Analysis and Interpretation


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Experimental Methods

An Experimentis a research method in which anindependent variable is manipulated and the effect it hason a dependent variable is measured.

Extraneous variables are other factors that can have an

effect on the DV and therefore are controlled so that aclear cause and effect relationship occurs between theIV and DV. An extraneous variable that exerts an effecton a DV is called a Confounding Variable.

These are bad hmmmkay and we want to design an

experiment that avoids them! A simple experiment compares a control group with an

experimental group. In the experimental group, theparticipants are exposed to the IV but in the controlgroup, the participants are not.


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Types of Experiments

Experiments vary depending upon how much control there is overthe IV and the setting in which the data is collected.

Laboratory experiment(examples: all nature of memory research) IVAND environment is controlled by the experimenter+ High level of control over extraneous variables make the findings morecredible and trustworthy lending towards a clear cause and effectrelationship- Findings may be too specific to the laboratory environment andtherefore lack ecological validity so the results cannot be generalised.

Field experiment(example: weapon focus study) IV is manipulated by the experimenter BUT the environment in which

the experiment takes place is not controlled+ Avoids participant effects because participants are not aware of thestudy as its conducted in a natural environment thus increasing internalvalidity- The natural environment makes it hard to control extraneous variablesthat might have an effect on the DV


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Types of Experiments cont

Natural experiment(example: effects of anxiety on EWT) IV occurs naturally AND the environment is not controlled+ allows us to conduct research on the effect of an IV that wewouldnt be able to normally do due to ethical reasons- Participants may be aware they are being studied causing

participant effects or demand characteristics

Quasi-experiment(example: age and capacity of memory) IV occurs naturally BUT the environment is controlled+ allows us to conduct research on the effect of an IV that wewouldnt be able to normally do due to ethical reasons

- Lack of control over the IV means we cannot claim a causalrelationship due to potential EVs

Pg. 83 Research Method ?s 3.9 (1-8)

Pg. 85 Research Method ?s 3.12 (1a-e)


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Extraneous Variables There are many different types of extraneous variables. If EVs arenot controlled they can have an effect on the DV that is not

directly related to the IV, thus confounding our results.

Participant Variables A characteristic of the individual that can effect the results, such as

age, intelligence, motivation, previous experience and gender. The useof random allocation and a repeated measures design can help

control participant variables. Situational Variables

Features of a research situation or environment can effect the results,such as order effects, time of day, temperature and noise. Through theuse ofstandardised procedures in a lab environment can help controlsituational variables.

Experimenter Variables An experimenters expectations or biosocial/psychosocial

characteristics can influence participants behaviour. Investigatoreffects are a source of bias introduced by the researcher which canlead to a self-fulfilling prophecy that confirms their original beliefs.

A demand characteristic could also exist. Its a flaw in the procedureswhich serves as a trigger for participants to act in a certain way.

A double-blind design is used to control experimenter effects.


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Extraneous Variables cont

Participant Reactivity Participants may actively seek clues as to how to behave

instead of behaving naturally.

Social desirability bias occurs when participants wish to presentthemselves in the best possible way and as a consequencemay act according to what is socially acceptable instead of

being honest and acting on their own personal preference. Hawthorne Effectdescribes how participants performance on

tasks may change not due to the IV but by simply knowingthey are being observed.

Participant Effects can be controlled through the use ofsingle-blind or double-blind research designs.

One effective way of exposing potential extraneous variablesis by first conducting apilot study, which is a small scaledummy run of the experiment. If it goes well, participants similarto those in the pilot study will be invited to take part in the finalstudy. If extraneous variables are exposed, adjustments can bemade to the standardised procedures to help control them.

Pg. 79 Research Method ?s 3.7 (2a-b)


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Validity

Validity refers to how legitimate or dependable a claim is. An investigation has good internal validity if the procedures

are well designed to achieve the research aim. It measureshow much the observed effect (DV) was due to the IV orother variables.

External validity refers to how well we can generalize thefindings in the following ways... Ecological validityfindings can be generalized to other

settings

Historical validityfindings can endure over time

Population validityfindings can be generalized to peopleother than those in the original research

Mundane realism refers to how an experiment mirrors the realworld. If an experiment is too artificial or contrived, people willnot act naturally.

In summary, validity can be effected due to lack of control(internal validity), realism and generalisability (external validity)


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Hypothesis A hypothesis states what you believe to be true. It is a

testable statement of the relationship between twovariables. A directional hypothesis states a direction of your results. Example People will remembermore if they study in short

bursts. A non-directional hypothesis states there will be no

direction between two variables and effect is unknown. Example Recall is different between people who study in

short bursts compared to longer bursts.

Operationalised hypothesis specifies a set of behaviours

and makes them measurable. Example People get more questions right on a test of recall

when they study in short ten minute bursts than whenstudying for longer30 minute session.

Research Method ?s Pg 75 1a-f


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How will I run my experiment?


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Most simple experiments involve 2

conditions these are 2 versions of the

independent variable. e.g. Using words

or pictures to learn a list of items.

Condition 1

Words

Condition 2

Pictures


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There are 3 different ways to carry

out the experiment withparticipants. These are known as

Experimental Designs

Independent groups design

Repeated measures design

Matched pairs design

Hmmm

...


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Pictures

Participants only take part in one condition of the

experiment (2 separate groups)

Words


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Pictures

Participants take part in both conditions of the experiment

(1 group)

Words


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Participants are matched in each condition for characteristics that may

have an effect on their performance. e.g. A memory test

1 1 1

112

2 2 2

2


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Experimental Design

Independent Groups Design+ Quick and efficient design as all that is required is to randomly allocateparticipants to two conditions.

- Requires a lot of participants so is more demanding in regards torecruitment and time compared to the repeated measures design.

Repeated Measures Design

+ Fewer participants are needed compared to either of the other twodesigns making it less time consuming.

- Depending on which condition a participant does first, order effects canoccur. This can lead to boredom or better performance. To overcomeorder effects, counterbalancing is used to ensure that both conditions aretested first or second in equal amounts.

Matched Pairs Design

+ Because participants only take part in one condition of the study, thepossibility of demand characteristics are reduced.

- Requires a lot of participants so is more demanding in regards torecruitment and time compared to the repeated measures design.

Pg. 76 Research Method ?s 3.6 (4-9)


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Selecting Participants: Sampling

There are three different types of samplingtechniques used to acquire participants forresearch:

Opportunity Samplingthe researcher will choose

people that are available or willing to participatebased on specific criteria that may or may not berequired for the research.

Volunteer Samplingparticipants elect themselves tovolunteer to participate in research, usually through

an advertisement. Random Samplingindividuals are assigned an

identifier and are than randomly allocated to aparticular experimental condition. All participantshave an equal chance to be chosen.


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Sampling: Techniques

Opportunity Sample+ easy and quick means to locate a group of participantscompared to other techniques.- Inevitably biased because your sample is drawn from asmall part of the target population and may risk excluding

others. Volunteer Sample

+ you have access to a variety of participants which makesthe sample size more representative.- Biased sample because they are likely to be moremotivated to complete tasks

Random Sample+ Unbiased as all members of the target population have anequal chance of being selected- If sample is too small, you may end up with a biased sample(more boys than girls)


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Case Studies

In depth study of an individual, but can be a family unit,a school or neighborhood.

Methods of data collecting can be questionnaires,interviews, cognitive tests, observations and clinical

assessments.

+ Provide rich and detailed accounts that give us adeeper level of understanding that can lead to newresearch.

- Specific to an individual and cannot be generalized towider populations

- The large amounts of data collected can lead tosubjective interpretation depending upon the researchersaims.


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Ethical Issues

Deceptionparticipants should never be misled without verystrong scientific or medical justification. Intentional deceptionover the purpose or nature of research should be avoidedwhenever possible. Participants require INFORMED CONSENTso they can decide whether they want to participate or not.

Protection from harminvestigators have a responsibility toprotect the participants from physical, emotional or mentalharm. The risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinarylife.

Confidentialityparticipants data should be treated asconfidential and not be shared with anyone outside of the

experiment. Within, the study, numbers should be allocatedinstead of names.

Right to withdrawparticipants should be given the right towithdraw from a study at any time, especially if it involvesdeception or lack of informed consent.


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Ethical Issues: How to deal with them

Deceptiona cost benefit analysis can be done to determine ifthe cost of deception is worth the benefits of potential findings.Also, debriefing can be done. This is when a researcher informs theparticipants the true nature of the study. Participants should leavethe study feeling the same or better about themselves.

You can overcome a lack of informed consent by obtaining Presumptive consentif other people from a similar background state

that they would be willing to participate, it is unlikely that you will upsetthe actual participants.

Prior general consentparticipants agree before the study begins thatthey are aware deception exists.

Protection from harm - Before any research is conducted,psychologists must seek guidance and approval from ethicalcommittees and follow the BPS or APA ethical guidelines andcode of conduct.

Confidentialitydo not record the names or personal details andassign numbers to the participants.

Right to withdrawsimply tell the participants that they have theright to withdraw at any time.

pg. 71 RMQs 3.2 identify ethical issue and suggest way of dealing with it


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Self-Reporting Techniques: Questionnaires

A set of questions, in written form, designed to collect informationabout a topic(s).

A good questionnaire follows three guiding principles: Clarityreader needs to understand what is being asked. There should

be no ambiguity Non-biasany bias (leading question) could lead the respondent to a

particular answer or be influenced by social desirability bias. Easy to analysequestions should be written so data can becollected easily. Open ended questions (What do you like most aboutyour job?) makes this more difficult, whereas, closed questions(provide a list of possible answers) limit the range of possible answersmaking analysing the data faster and easier.

Strengths/Weaknesses

+ Once the questionnare is designed, you can collect a lot ofinformation from a large number of people easily

+ Respondents may feel more willing to reveal personal informationcompared to an interview

- Answers may not be truthful due to boredom or SDB- Biased sample due to only certain types of people completing it


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Self-Reporting Techniques: Interviews

A set of questions given face to face, designed to collectinformation about a topic(s).

Structured interviewthe questions are decided in advance,whereas, an Unstructured interview starts out with somegeneral questions but allows the interviewees answers guide

further questioning. Strengths/Weaknesses Unstructured Interview

+ Can access information that may not be revealed bypredetermined questions, therefore, more detailed information canbe obtained- To increase objectivity, interviewers need to be well trained to avoidinterviewer bias, this is makes it more expensive to produce reliableinterviews

Structured Interview+ Can easily be repeated because questions are standardised and asa result are easier to analyse.-Interviewees expectations may influence the answers, therefore.

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Everything About Research Methods