101
Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from Karen State about Land Disputes Lue Htar (Enlightened Myanmar Research Foundation) Introduction In 2016 Myanmar there were many land disputes, which took on different shapes and were resolved in various and often complicated ways. This happened against the background of a long history of military rule and armed conflict. Previously, the military government confiscated large tracts of land that had been occupied by civilians. Since the ceasefires with the Karen ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) in 2012 and the opening up of the country and the economy, land was also allocated to large businesses. In addition to these larger land issues numerous smaller land disputes arose due to population movement and lack of land documentation. Difficulties in resolving land prob- lems came up because local state officials and ordinary citizens lacked general knowledge of the new land laws, and because these laws were often inappropriate for the situation, confused with older laws and misused by higher-level officials. One core problem was that the 2012 land laws did not recognize custom-

Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

  • Upload
    others

  • View
    0

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from Karen State about Land Disputes

Lue Htar (Enlightened Myanmar Research Foundation)

Introduction In 2016 Myanmar there were many land disputes, which

took on different shapes and were resolved in various and often complicated ways. This happened against the background of a long history of military rule and armed conflict. Previously, the military government confiscated large tracts of land that had been occupied by civilians. Since the ceasefires with the Karen ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) in 2012 and the opening up of the country and the economy, land was also allocated to large businesses. In addition to these larger land issues numerous smaller land disputes arose due to population movement and lack of land documentation. Difficulties in resolving land prob-lems came up because local state officials and ordinary citizens lacked general knowledge of the new land laws, and because these laws were often inappropriate for the situation, confused with older laws and misused by higher-level officials. One core problem was that the 2012 land laws did not recognize custom-

Page 2: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

182 | Lue Htar

ary land use and ownership. The situation was very complex. Or-dinary citizens were not sure who was responsible for resolving the land issues. At the same time, there was an increase in land claims, because people were now more courageous in making land complaints, based on awareness raising by national and in-ternational non-governmental organizations (NGOs), civil soci-ety organizations (CSOs) and political parties. However, in prac-tice, many land confiscation issues remained unresolved or only partly resolved.

In this complex situation, how did ordinary citizens address the land disputes that they faced? Where did they go, and how were the cases dealt with and by whom? This article explores these questions, focusing on 1 rural village and 1 urban ward in Karen/Kayin State. Both areas were under Myanmar govern-ment control, but people also had links to the Karen EAOs. While there were differences between rural and urban areas, this arti-cle highlights the similar patterns of land dispute resolution that occur across these contexts.

The main argument of the article is that although the 2012 land law established land management committees from local to central levels to resolve land issues, ordinary people often used alternative pathways to the formal procedures, including cus-tomary rules. In smaller land disputes between villagers as well as in inheritance cases, it was usually the village and ward lead-ers who resolved the disputes. However, for large land confisca-tion cases, the land management committees and the local lead-ers were not strong enough to resolve the issues. People were unsure how and by whom such cases could be resolved. Conse-quently, they approached a mixture of actors who they believed may be knowledgeable and powerful enough to help them claim their land back. These included religious leaders, especially monks, members of EAOs, the military, judges, educated per-sons, local administrators and informal village leaders. People often used a plurality of authorities, linking up with different ones at the same time to resolve disputes informally as well as

Page 3: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 183 within the Myanmar state system. This gave rise to a hybridity of dispute resolution methods and actors. Hybridity in this arti-cle refers to the use of plural authorities and the use of a mixture of rules and laws in land dispute settlements. The notion of plu-ral authorities means that more than one authority exists in a given region or territorial space. In using these concepts of plu-rality and hybridity, the article theoretically draws on and con-tributes to a wider debate within legal anthropology (Griffith 1986; Merry 1988; Luckham and Kirk 2013) as well as within peace and conflict studies (Boege et al. 2009; Albrecht and Moe 2014). The concept of hybridity adds to the perspective on legal pluralism a focus on how elements from different legal systems — rules, norms and resolution practices — mix or even merge during dispute resolution processes (Merry 1988, 870). Boege et al. (2009, 18) define states coming out of conflict as ‘hybrid po-litical orders’, meaning that governance is carried out by more than one set of actors, including state and non-state. I find this concept of ‘hybrid political orders’ useful for understanding the current situation of plural authority in Karen State. As Boege et al. (2009, 16) argue for Pacific societies, chiefs or clan elders usu-ally order and apply customary and traditional ways because state law is weak, difficult to understand, and hard to access by local people. Simultaneously, I agree with Luckham and Kirk (2013, 9) that it is problematic to use hybridity as a pleasing the-ory of the traditional. Rather than substituting a critique of state law for a celebration of the traditional or informal, the hybridity concept should be used as an analytical lens that ‘explicitly chal-lenges reductionist positions by focusing on the interactions that make talking of, let alone reverting to, supposedly tradi-tional governance arrangements impossible’ (Ibid., 9). What I show for Karen State is that people simultaneously addressed state and non-state actors, but that they did so in informal ways. This article adds new empirical insights to the wider literature

Page 4: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

184 | Lue Htar

on hybridity by focusing on Karen State. For instance my empir-ical research shows how hybridity occured when the Buddhist monk organization Ma Ba Tha supported people to resolve land disputes by connecting the victim of land disputes to an upper-level authority or when they helped resolve the case through in-formal sources.

The insight of this article draws on ethnographic fieldwork between February and October 2016. I used qualitative inter-views, case tracing and participant observation to understand how ordinary citizens perceive and act when they face disputes and crimes. I also interviewed numerous actors engaged in re-solving land disputes, and observed how they resolved such dis-putes. These included ward administrators, elders, religious leaders, village leaders, EAO members, and police. The 2 field-work settings were chosen as part of the EverJust research pro-ject where the aim was to cover both rural and urban areas, as well as areas controlled by the Myanmar government, the EAOs and by a mixture of the 2. We did not systematically select the areas, but chose areas that were accessible and where the local leaders gave permission. For this article, I chose the 2 settings to compare urban and rural land issues in 2 predominantly gov-ernment-controlled areas, yet within a wider setting of previous armed conflict. These particular locations are not representa-tive of land dispute settlements in Myanmar, but they are fairly representative of what was happening in the central part of Ka-ren State where there was Myanmar government control.

In the article, I first provide a background to the land dis-putes in Karen State, giving an overview of the history and the current laws. I then present 2 extended case studies, 1 from each of the settings, which reflect how land confiscation cases were dealt with in hybrid ways. In the conclusion, I reflect on how the research can inform improvements of the land laws and their implementation in Myanmar. I argue that there is a need to amend the 2012 land law, to decentralize decision-making to the

Page 5: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 local level, and to specify the roles of the various authorities in handling land disputes.

The Karen State context and the land laws In Karen State, civil war from 1948 to 2012 contributed to a sit-uation of legal pluralism which complicates current land dis-putes. Over 20 years ago, the rural Karen people mainly stayed in KNU controlled areas or in areas where also the Burmese army, the Tatmadaw, intervened in the everyday life of rural vil-lagers. The Tatmadaw cheated villagers by forcing them to sell their farm products for low prices, and collected many taxes. These practices were related to the land law that was passed in 1978 under the General Ne Win regime. If people did not follow the government’s orders to give paddy, the government confis-cated their land and gave it to people who would. This was called Dar Won Kya Sapar, which in English means dutiful paddy (U Zaw Min 2016, 73). In the KNU land law from 2010 it is mentioned that during the Na Ah Pha (U Than Shwe government) period, Karen people moved to many different places because of the civil war. Consequently, they could not focus on farming as re-quired by the military government (KNU 2010, 10-11). Displace-ment due to the conflict also meant that Karen people were away from their land over very long periods. Traditionally, the land ownership system of the Karen people is based on inheritance from generation to generation, which means that many did not have any land certificate. When the Karen were displaced, the Tatmadaw confiscated their lands and gave them to the Burmese people who lived in neighboring villages. This was supported by the government land laws, which allow persons who have con-tinuously used the same farmland for 4 years to own that land. For this reason, many displaced Karen people lost a lot of their land to those who used it while they were displaced.

The land of Karen villagers was also lost during the 1990s when those Karen ethnic armed groups that split from the KNU,

Page 6: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

186 | Lue Htar

agreed on ceasefires with the military government. As part of these deals, the government confiscated many acres of land from Karen people and gave it to the ceasefire EAOs (Kyed and Gravers 2014). Because the Karen have not traditionally used land certificates, it was very difficult for them to prove land ownership of confiscated land.

This history of land confiscations has contributed signifi-cantly to the Karen people losing trust in the Myanmar govern-ment. In 2016, despite ceasefire and the change in government, it was hard for the state to gain the trust of local Karen and other ethnic groups. Local people in Karen State were not used to go to the state justice system due to the contested history.

In 2011, the U Thein Sein reform-friendly government em-barked on a wide-ranging transformation that also prioritized a national ceasefire with the EAOs. In 2012 the main Karen organ-ization, the KNU signed a bilateral ceasefire with the govern-ment. In 2015, the KNU was also among the eight EAOs that signed the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) (Kyed and Gravers 2015). This has stabilized Karen State, but many issues remain unclear and unresolved, as a wider political settlement still depends on the outcomes of a political dialogue process. One of the existing contentious issues is that of land and land own-ership (Mark 2016). The land laws of the KNU, which is applied in some areas of Karen State, differs for instance from the land laws of the Myanmar government. The KNU already had their own land law for many years and it has been amended several times, including in 2010 (KNU 2010, 1). The latest English version is from 2015 (KNU 2015). The land laws recognize customary land and inherited land in line with Karen traditions.

After the KNU signed the NCA, their territorial jurisdictions became more complicated. To firmly secure one’s land owner-ship in government controlled or mixed controlled areas people need a government land certificate. However, according to my research local people were not familiar with and lacked knowledge of the Myanmar government’s land law. Moreover,

Page 7: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 187 these land laws are not in tune with local realities and customs regarding inherited land.

In 2012 the Myanmar government passed two new land laws: the Farmland Law, and the Vacant, Virgin and Fallow Land Law. According to the Farmland Law, farmers can get land use rights and apply for the Form 7 land certificate, which is like a farmland work permit. These land certificates give the right to pawn and sell land. It can also give access to Myanmar Agricul-ture Bank credit. However, the land law does not recognize shifting cultivation land or ownership based on inheritance, both of which are common in rural Karen areas. The land law’s Article 9, states that one needs to work the land for 3 years to get a land certificate. U Zaw Min (2016, 80) argues that the 2012 land law is like a private bill, because it was passed without lis-tening to public voices. Advice was not solicited from land schol-ars, advocates or local community leaders. Consequently, the new land law has many aspects which are not suitable for local communities.

In addition, local people’s lack of knowledge of the new land laws was exploited. I found instances where government staff and military personnel coordinated with business people to take over and encroach on communal land. The system for land dis-pute resolution that the 2012 land law provides for is also not functioning well in practice. The law establishes land manage-ment committees down to the ward and village tract levels, chaired by the ward or village tract administrators. A township-level Land Records Department staff (TLRD) must be a secretary. Two elder people, 2 farmer representatives and 1 or 2 business people must also be involved in the land committee. The chair-man, the secretary and at least 2 committee members must be involved in solving a land disupute. However, according to my research findings, the local land management committee very rarely resolved land cases. One of the reasons was that Land Rec-ords Department staff were based in the township office and in

Page 8: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

188 | Lue Htar

many instances did not appear when cases were heard in the ward or the village. Other members also found it difficult to at-tend, as they the villages where they lived were dispersed within the village tract. In addition, these members were not paid, working for the committees as volunteers. When there was a case in a neighboring village, members had to pay for transpor-tation themselves, which they not afford this for every case res-olution. These factors meant that the formal land dispute reso-lution procedure was less used in reality, as I address in the next section.

Simultaneously, the political transformation meant that Ka-ren people became more aware that they could claim back their unfairly occupied land. This was partly facilitated by the aware-ness raising that INGOs, NGOs and local civil society actors gave on land ownership rights. According to my research, when peo-ple knew about their rights, some mobilized to reclaim their land. This led to various kinds of land cases. Because the land law grants the right of land ownership to farmers who are using the land, many disputes between current and former landown-ers were between different ethnic and religious groups. This is apparent in my rural as well as urban research areas.

The urban ward that I cover in this article is in Hpa-An, the capital of Karen State. The majority of ward residents were Bud-dhist Phlong Karen; there were a few Christian Karen, Bamar and Hindu households. The ward has always been fully under Myanmar government control, but prior to 1992 it was a farm-land area. In 1992, the government changed the land use to res-idential, and gave a large group of people smaller household plots. The farmers who had owned the farmland were deprived of their ownership, fully or partly. In the research period, this history was giving rise to various land claims by the old farm-land owners. Lack of proper land certificates made these cases particularly complicated, and the owners from the 1992 reloca-tions also felt they had ownership rights.

Page 9: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 189 In the rural village Kone Tan, in a neighboring township to

Hpa-An, about an hour’s drive away, the villagers are also Bud-dhist Phlong Karen. They mainly depended on agriculture, so land was vital, though farming earnings were supplemented with income from labor migration to Thailand. Earlier, several battles between the KNU and the Tatmadaw were fought close to the village. Though the village was officially under Myanmar government control, villagers had to pay taxes and extortion money to both sides until the 2015 ceasefire. A number of the villagers were deprived of their farmland in 1997 when the gov-ernment gave 500 acres of land to an armed splinter group of the KNU when this group concluded a ceasefire agreement. This led to many land problems and every season, the villagers had to contribute with labor on the confiscated land for the armed splinter group. Now they are trying to get the land back, as I dis-cuss in the next section.

Resolving and addressing land issues in practice When I asked rural and urban respondents what they would do if they faced a land dispute, they typically replied that they would use the ‘step by step’ procedure, as officially required. This procedure means that people follow the steps in the admin-istrative system, from ward or village tract level to the central state level in Nay Pyi Taw. However, when I observed and spoke to people about actual land disputes it was clear that resolutions of disputes seldom followed the official procedure in any straightforward manner. In fact, people preferred to get resolu-tion at village or ward level and they tried to avoid the formal justice system. First people tried to resolve the dispute them-selves, and only if this was unsuccessful did they go to the village or ward leaders. It was rare to find that the land management committees resolved the cases. Even though the law does not give authority to the ward (urban) and the village leader (rural) to resolve land disputes, they still do it in informal ways by using

Page 10: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

190 | Lue Htar

negotiation and mediation between the contending parties. They also consider customary notions of land and dispute reso-lution, which they combine with references to some articles in the land law. If the case has a criminal element, like trespassing on other people’s land, the leaders sometimes forward the case to the formal system. In general, however, when land disputes cannot be resolved at village or ward level, people used a net-work of contact persons or justice facilitators, rather than fol-lowing the formal procedure. Below I first address how this takes place in the urban ward and then in the rural village.

Urban land dispute resolutions The ward administrator in the Hpa-An ward of my study dealt with land cases in inherently hybrid ways. Although he mainly used mediation and negotiation in an informal way, he also fre-quently referred to the land law, as well as relying on official land registers and demarcations made by the Land Records De-partments. The land law is not used in a literal sense to deter-mine decisions, but applied more as a kind of threat and re-source to enforce informal decisions. For instance, in a divorce case that I observed at the ward office, the couple could not agree on the sharing of the property (house and household plot). During the resolution the ward administrator said to the wife, ‘According to the land law you have no right to win this case because your husband has been living there for 15 years. This reason alone is enough for him to win.’ The land law does not address inheritance, but it holds that if someone has lived in a place over 3 years, that person automatically owns the land plot. The ward administrator threatened the wife with this article in order to get the couple to agree on sharing the property. How-ever, when it came to actually deciding the case, the ward ad-ministrator did not use the land law, but decided that the man would only get one-fourth of the property, because according to the inheritance norms in the ward the children and the wife must each get an equal part.

Page 11: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 191 The majority of land disputes, including over inheritance

and household plots, are resolved in this informal way, where the law is not literally applied, but is used as a resource to get the parties to agree. This results in a mixture of informal and formal procedures.

Besides going to the ward administration, some people in the ward also address spiritual actors, like astrologers, for-tunetellers and monks when they face land disputes. Here they pay for yadayar, which is a kind of spiritual protection that can impede misfortune and help to fulfill wishes, such as winning a land case or getting a good land sale. Monks are also addressed in larger land disputes, including confiscation cases. In Hpa-An we particularly found that the influential monk organization Ma Ba Tha was increasingly engaged in resolving land disputes. The organization even had a particular monk who specialized in land. Sometimes he helped people in court cases, but this was not formalized.

In the following case study I will illustrate how people in larger land confiscation cases draw on monks as well as a range of other actors to resolve the dispute, rather than following for-mal procedures. These include political party members, state-level ministers, monks, and educated persons. Along with the involvement of multiple actors, the case illustrates the difficul-ties of resolving land disputes due to confusion around land doc-umentation and laws, which especially has implications for illit-erate persons like the old woman, Daw Ni Ni, who is the victim in this case.

Urban Case: land confiscation and monks When Ward A was changed from farmland to household plots in 1992, the government confiscated a lot of farmland. Daw Ni Ni had 4 out of 5 acres confiscated. She was compensated with a household plot measuring 50 by 75 square feet. When I met her, Daw Ni Ni was living on 1 house plot with her grandson. Her 4 children are married and work in Thailand. She was an illiterate,

Page 12: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

192 | Lue Htar

older person. Before her husband passed away, they lived at the Ma Har monastery, and they had a good relationship with the abbot. When the U Thein Sein government came into power, some people in Ward A began to make complaints to claim back their confiscated land.

In 2012, Daw Ni Ni and her husband got help from the Ma Har abbot to ask the then Karen Chief minister to get some acres of land back. The minister often went to the monastery, and fi-nally he gave Daw Ni Ni 1 acre of land. However, this was only verbally, and Daw Ni Ni got no land certificate. The problem was that there were now 8 families living on the land plot. So when Daw Ni Ni’s husband died, and she wanted to use the land, she faced a land case with the new owners. First they negotiated at the ward office. Daw Ni Ni wanted 5,000,000 kyat (US$4,000) in compensation from each of the new owners. A businessman wanted to give only 1,500,000, because he had built a house on the land. The remaining 7 families did not agree to give any com-pensation, because, the ward administrator explained, they al-ready had a land certificate which they had been given by the former ward administrator (who we heard from other respond-ents had been accused of illegally selling land).

In March 2015 Daw Ni Ni brought up the case again. This time the hearing took place at the Ma Har monastery where our research team observed it. The ward administrator did not want to resolve the case at the ward office again because the parties were very upset with Daw Ni Ni. He felt that hearing the case at the monastery would calm the parties because people respected the monk. The abbot just listened as the ward administrator and two elders mediated between the parties. All the parties agreed to pay Daw Ni Ni compensation, but they did not accept the amount of 5,000,000. After some negotiations, Daw Ni Ni reluc-tantly accepted the 100,000 per household. The ward adminis-trator said to her that she should accept this amount, because if she went the legal or formal way it would take a long time and she may not get anything at all. Daw Ni Ni was not satisfied after

Page 13: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 193 the hearing and she again complained to the ward administrator who gave her a new piece of land near a stream. However, she also wanted compensation for the remaining 4 acres taken by government.

After she got the land at the stream, the case took another turn. Her neighbor advised her to block more land around the new plot, perhaps because the neighbor’s boss wanted to buy the land. Daw Ni Ni subsequently made a fence around a piece of land that was not hers, as a way to give herself more land. She felt she deserved this and told us that the Land Records Depart-ment had given her permission because the land had no owner. This was strongly disputed by the ward administrator, who told her that the land had an owner, a military person who lived in Yangon. He told Daw Ni Ni that what she was doing was a crime of trespassing, and he warned her, saying, ‘Stop Grandma. If you do this you may go to jail. This [land] has an owner and they can make complaint.’ Daw Ni Ni cried and cried.

By October 2016, Daw Ni Ni had still not removed the fence. She felt that the ward administrator was cheating her. She did not know what to do and she did not want to go to court. She said that it was very confusing. Daw Ni Ni had lost her NRC, which she would need to make a polic report. She could not read a map. I got copies of many of Daw Ni Ni’s documents, also of what looked like certificates for land. It was confusing, because in Myanmar there are no clear certificates for land from before 2012. Daw Ni Ni also said that in 2015, the township level land department told her that she should not go to the chief minister to tell him that she had been given the land by the stream in the ward. The officials at lower levels did not like that Daw Ni Ni had a good connection with the minister through the monk and they did not like that higher levels get involved. They wanted to just resolve the matters locally.

Daw Ni Ni continued to get help from the Ma Har monastery abbot regarding the confiscated land after the hearing in March

Page 14: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

194 | Lue Htar

2015. This abbot did not want to get directly involved himself, but contacted a monk who is a land specialist in the Ma Ba Tha organization. This monk was helping Daw Ni Ni with her case. The monk took action only after the NLD government took of-fice, because he wanted to wait for the political transition. He contacted the new NLD Chief Minister on behalf of Daw Ni Ni,and advised her how to help Daw Ni Ni with her case. The new min-ister told the monk to present the Daw Ni Ni land case in a writ-ten letter to the Land Records Department. The monk instructed someone at the Ma Har monastery to help Daw Ni Ni write a let-ter and to send it to him. However, the Ma Ba Tha Monk worried about the case because he did not believe that the Chief Minister and the NLD officials knew much about the land law. They had the experience to check and give the right decision if the Land Records Department office implemented certain activities. The monk thought that the Land Record Department officer was very dirty, because he did not want the Ma Ba Tha to support Daw Ni Ni.

In October 2016 a Land Records Department officer meas-ured Daw Ni Ni’s land, and gave her a certificate for the acre by the stream, but not for all the land that she claimed as hers. She told me that in the past, she had told the Land Records Depart-ment that she wanted to resolve her land case according to the formal procedure. However, the ward administrator had told her she could but that the legal procedure could take a long time, and she may get no result. The administrator assured her that they were doing the best for her. This was the advice that Daw Ni Ni had been given ever since the case was heard at the monastery in March 2015. Ma Ba Tha does not know how the case will end, and Daw Ni Ni does not know how to proceed.

In this case, legal hybridity is evident in how the actor tried to solve the case by going to different persons and institutions. Even the government staff did not want the client to solve the case according to the formal procedure. They used the govern-ment land law but use it according to their own perception of

Page 15: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 195 the situation on the ground. Also, the way that land cases are resolved is influenced by the fact that many urban residents, like Daw Ni Ni, do not understand the current land law and they do not know clearly how and where they can make complaints. Peo-ple instead approach a network of persons that they have con-nections to like the monk and the former chief minister in the above case.

The case also shows that less-advantaged and illiterate peo-ple are even worse off when it comes to navigating this field of land dispute resolutions. Daw Ni Ni clearly felt that she was be-ing cheated by the ward and township authorities, so she relied on powerful monks, and state-level people to assist her case. In the beginning of the case, Daw Ni Ni preferred to resolve the case in locally but when the case proved difficult to resolve at the lo-cal level, she wanted to use high-level authorities.

Rural area land disputes As in the urban ward, the villagers in Kone Tan also preferred to have land disputes resolved at the village level, and here there was even less use of Land Records Departments and committees. The villagers lacked knowledge of the land law and were not fa-miliar with the formal procedure. They felt that the formal sys-tem was very complex and associated it with costs, time con-sumption, and language barriers. According to my empirical findings, even the village leader did not understand the land law. Only the village-tract level administrator had knowledge of government law, but even he rarely used the formal procedures. Like the village leader, he mainly used negotiation and custom-ary ways. Previously, village leaders and villagers frequently consulted the ethnic armed actors if they could not resolve the cases within the village. This had decreased, but still happened in larger and more complicated cases.

Villagers told me that in the past they approached the eth-nic armed actors because they made quicker decisions and were

Page 16: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

196 | Lue Htar

less costly than the Myanmar government system. Sometimes it was also because villagers had relatives in the ethnic armed groups. They also felt the armed actors gave fairer resolutions. After the 2012 ceasefire agreement, the roles of ethnic armed groups decreased and villagers went less to them. One of my re-spondents said, ‘Now armed groups have less authority and case solving is not their concern.’ The village leader has become the main responsible person in dispute resolution. However, some respondents felt that the ethnic armed groups are still more ef-ficient than the formal state institutions, despite the decreasing authority. Regarding this issue, I encountered the following case, which was explained by U Ne Kyaw.

I bought one land plot from my brother-in-law’s mother-in-law. Three years ago, my brother-in-law passed away and his mother-in-law wanted to take back the land. We had a local contract letter. It is not official, just local. So I went to my village leader (100 HH leader). The village leader negotiated between us and said that if the mother-in-law wanted to get back the land she had to pay the current land price. But she did not listen and she tried to get land again. So the village leader and I went to the tract leader. The tract leader said the same as the village leader. But the mother-in-law did not listen to him and the tract leader had no idea what he should do. So he went to an armed actor who stayed in the neighboring vil-lage. The armed actor (a splinter group of the KNU) went with him to the Village Tract Administrator’s house, and explained about the case. The armed ac-tor phoned the tract police and the village tract ad-ministrator. He did not resolve the case himself, but advised on how they should resolve it. Finally the tract leader decided that the woman should pay twice the price of the ordinary price, namely 800,000 Kyat [US$580]. The tract leader used the armed ac-tor’s power when he made the decision.

Page 17: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 197 In cases that are too large and complicated to resolve by the

village leaders various actors also get involved, like in the urban areas. However in the village, ethnic armed actors get more in-volved. This especially regards cases related to land confisca-tions. The following case illustrates this. It also emphasizes how the current transformation complicates land resolutions.

Rural case: land confiscation and armed actors In and around Kone Tan village, 500 acres of farmland were con-fiscated by the military government in 1997. The government gave that land to a smaller splinter group of the KNU led by P’Dho Aung Khine, who signed a ceasefire with the military gov-ernment. The village landowners were 135 people from 9 vil-lages. Ten of them were from Kone Tan village. At that time the farmers did not dare to make a complaint anywhere. They were even compelled to contribute free labor to Aung Khine’s farming activities on the confiscated land. After the U Thein Sein gov-ernment came into power, people’s bargaining power increased and they wanted to try to get back their land. As a first step, in 2013, they did not go to the formal land committee or Land Rec-ords Department, but raised their complaint to a former village schoolteacher, Saw Win. He was the most educated person in Kone Tan, and later worked as a translator for the Myanmar Mir-ror News. He was 45 years old and a Buddhist Phlong Karen like the other villagers.

In 2013 Saw Win took up the case to get back the farmland, but the farmers were afraid to follow his instructions to demon-strate and give complaint letters to the armed group. They were afraid of Aung Khine and his armed group. Saw Win called some brave farmers and they demonstrated on the confiscated land with banners that said that Aung Khine should give them back their land. When they first demonstrated, Aung Khine’s group was waiting on the land, holding guns. So, the farmers left the site. The second time they went to the field to demonstrate, Saw

Page 18: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

198 | Lue Htar

Win went to shake hands with Aung Khine’s soldiers. He negoti-ated with them in a calm way, and told them that they should give the land back to the farmers. He also promised that if they gave back the land to the farmers, they would share the harvest with the armed group.

After the Saw Win and Aung Khine groups met, P’Doh Aung Khine made a complaint at the township court because his group got the land legally when they signed the ceasefire. He hired a lawyer from Yangon as well as a famous local Karen lawyer, Mahn Lay Myat Kyaw. According to my respondents, Aung Khine bribed both lawyers with cars. They did not call it bribes, but a service fee. However, Saw Win made a secret connection to Mahn Lay, as they already had a close relationship. Saw Win ex-plained everything to Mahn Lay, and then Mahn Lay shifted sides, now supporting the farmers. The case never went to court. According to Saw Win the court did not take any action because land confiscation cases are related to politics and there-fore too dangerous and difficult to resolve for the court. When he heard this, Saw Win secretly approached the previous state-level military officer from the Tatmadaw and asked him how to make a complaint to the Nay Pyi Taw level. The officer gave him some suggestions, and Saw Win sent a complaint letter to the President’s Office. He got a response that the President’s Office would consider how to resolve the case, but nothing happened.

Consequently, in 2014 Saw Win decided to go to the Tatmadaw Battalion 202, under Brigade 22 to request some help with the case. He told me that he approached the army officers in a very clever way, using wisdom and diplomacy. He explained about the case very peacefully, saying, “This is the farmers’ land and if they do not have the land they have no food, so we want to negotiate with the Aung Khine group.’ Two battalion com-manders came to the farmers’ fields and all sides met: 2 Tatmadaw commanders, the village tract leader, the village leaders and elders, some farmers, Saw Win, and Aung Khine’s people. A military court was set up in the open field. This was in

Page 19: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 199 2014. Firstly, 1 Tatmadaw commander listened to the story of the farmers. He decided that the farmers should be given back 250 acres, but Saw Win, the village leader and the farmers did not agree. Saw Win said, ‘You have to give back all acres of land otherwise we will not accept.’ So the commander decided ver-bally that the Aung Khine group would give back the land. How-ever, the Aung Khine group did not move from the land and no one dared to cultivate the 250 acres, neither the Aung Khine group nor the villagers. In the beginning Saw Win informed the Tamataw that the Aung Khine group still did not give back the land to the villagers.

According to Saw Win, they sent a complaint letter to the NLD land resolving group in the beginning of 2015, but the NLD said they could not resolve the problem before they took over the government. They did not get any other response from the NLD. Then Saw Win and the farmers went back to Tatmadaw Bat-talion 202. In July 2015 the battalion commander again ordered the Aung Khine group to give all the land back to the farmers, but the farmers still did not get it back. In 2015, the Tatmadaw commander promised that the problem would be resolved dur-ing the new NLD government. When the NLD took office in April 2016, it announced in the newspapers that the NLD would re-solve the land problems in Myanmar, and said they would visit all the villages. When Saw Win read this, he again a complaint letter to NLD. The farmers believed that they would get the land back because of the political transition.

Saw Win said to me that to resolve a land case like this one, you must be very brave and go to different institutions. He also said:

We need to know how to approach and who we can approach. And you need to have knowledge of the village and people’s mindsets in the village. You need to have negotiation skills. And you also need to

Page 20: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

200 | Lue Htar

know the lawyer who represents the other side. And then you need to have knowledge of the different or-ganizations like the army, the ethnic armed groups, the government and other organizations.

In October 2016, Saw Win told me that the NLD government had not solved any land issues yet. The NLD party members came only to collect data about the confiscated land, but there had been no action. Saw Win was contemplating which newspa-per he should write an article about the land confiscation case for. He did not want to resolve it in a violent way, so he thought about what else he should do. He did not want to allow the case to end without the farmers getting back their land. He said that he and the farmers had hoped that when NLD got into power, a lot of land confiscation cases would be resolved, but he has still not heard of this happening. In the area around Kone Tan there were 5 large land confiscation cases related to the Tatmadaw, the previous military government, and the ethnic armed groups, but none of them had been resolved.

Saw Win thought that the land confiscation cases would only be resolved after the Second Panglong Peace Conference, which is the name that Aung San Suu Kyi has given the peace negotiation and political dialogue meetings that involve the EAOs which have signed the NCA, the government, and the Tatmadaw. He therefore saw the land confiscation as a political problem that could best be resolved as part of the peace negoti-ations. He was very skeptical toward those in power. He told me that he though that the people who were governing were very clever and knew how to protect themselves. The leaders feared that if they could not resolve a land case they would lose face and it would harm their reputation. This was one of the reasons why the leaders were reluctant to handle land confiscation cases. Saw Win believed that the leaders know about all the land confiscation cases and they already have lists of them. However, land confiscation cases are very complex, because most of them

Page 21: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 201 include the involvement of people in high positions, like minis-ters, generals and armed groups. Saw Win experienced the com-plexity of land issues at a meeting in 2015, held at a Hpa-An mon-astery. The topic was the peace process. In the meeting he told the participants about his land confiscation case and shared a written copy of the case document with both the different armed groups, including the Tatmadaw, the KNU, DKBA and other groups. However, none of these groups wanted to deal with the land case. He doubted whether there was anyone at all who would take responsibility for land cases in Karen State.

In this case we see how the villagers went to an educated person in the village, Saw Win, when they faced a major and complicated land case. They do not approach the land commit-tees or the formal court system. Even the educated person did not engage with the land law or the formal procedures, but tried to negotiate first with the ethnic armed group, which owned the land. When that failed he went to the Tatmadaw officer, who also did not use the formal procedure, but instead set up a ‘court’ in the open field. The actors involved did not think with the land law in mind, but tried to make a negotiation with the involved actors. Simultaneously, we saw that the ethnic armed group tried to make use of lawyers, and thus engaged with the formal system to negotiate the case, but the official court did not want to deal with the case. The case was seen as a political case, and thus Saw Win tried to also engage the NLD party and the differ-ent parties to the peace process. Here we see clearly a legally hybrid way of trying to resolve the case. In reality, people be-lieve that the hybrid way is the most useful and thus they prefer it when they resolve cases. However, the cases I have shown here are very complicated and political so they are hard to resolve.

Even the judge in the official court has no idea how he should solve the case. This points to weaknesses in the land laws. It also illustrates that when higher-level people are implicated in a case, the judge is reluctant to get involved. In the case above

Page 22: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

202 | Lue Htar

we can also see that the majority of the actors involved in trying to resolve the case are not formal justice actors. In the percep-tion of the villagers, it may be anyone who has de facto authority who can make a resolution.

Discussion The case studies clearly show that formal procedures and insti-tutions for resolving disputes were not used in practice. Either people tried to resolve the cases at the village or ward level in informal ways, or if the case was complicated they drew on a range of actors, many of whomdid not have formal authority to deal with land cases. Instead, they were persons who people be-lieved to have power and authority to ensure that land disputes are resolved, including monks, educated persons and armed ac-tors. What is apparent is that case resolutions become especially hybrid, when cases are complicated and big. Overall this reflects that the formal system was not operating to the advantage of the ordinary people, so instead they seek plural authorities to help their case. In this section I want to discuss why people did not use the formal procedure, not even actors who are local ad-ministrators, like the ward and village administrators.

According to my empirical research, most of the ward and village residents did not know that there are land management committees in Myanmar. If we asked about the formal system, they just understood that we are referring to the courts at town-ship, district and central level. In addition, people had other rea-sons for not wanting to use the formal procedures. These in-cluded: expense, loss of time, language barrier, mistrust, inade-quacy of the law, formality-phobia — people fear authority and formality — and the use of powerful people outside the system is seen as more effective.

Most frequently, my respondents expressed that the formal justice system was too time consuming and expensive. One woman from Ward A in Hpa-An who is facing a land case said about this issue:

Page 23: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 203 For 3 years I have faced a land case. I want to finish this case very quickly. I cannot do the other work freely. I never expected it would take this long. Once every 15 days I have the court hearing day and there is no quick decision. Now I know that I will lose the case, because the judge says that at the Nay Pyi Taw level the other party already won, so the judge here [township level] does not dare to let me win the case. The lawyer advised me to bribe the judge at every court level. The lawyer told me, ‘If you do not bribe, you will lose.’ But I cannot afford it and I already sold half of my land for this case with 11,000,000 (US$7,500) spent over 3 years to pay the judge.

Language barriers, low knowledge of the law and mistrust in the formal system are other core reasons why people do not want to go to the formal way. One of my respondents in Kone Tan village, who is facing a land dispute said:

I do not know the government procedure and I can-not speak Burmese. We are not used to go to the gov-ernment office so if the other party will appeal to the township level, we will give up on the case. We will not leave the village level. We do not have connec-tion with other ethnic groups so we just want to solve in the village level or tract administrator level.

A fourth reason is the inadequacy of the law for lived reali-ties. I already discussed how this related to the current land law. On the one hand the law did not fit with the real situation, and on the other hand people did not understand the law. In addi-tion, the criminal code is outdated. For instance if you trespass on someone’s land you can chose to pay a 500 kyat (US$0.36) fine or go to prison for 1 month. Because of the low amount everyone choses to give money as compensation. This is only one example.

Page 24: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

204 | Lue Htar

Many articles are inappropriate in the current situation, for ex-ample, as mentioned, the 2012 land law does not recognize shift-ing cultivation, which is practiced by many ethnic people. Also, people do not get equal rights in the land registration processes. The registration process was not systematic, not well prepared and not explicit about how to resolve complaints. Therefore people do not follow the formal procedure. In my study this even included the local administrators.

A fifth reason for not using the formal system is phobia in relation to formality. Especially the ethnic people fear authority and formality. If someone faces the formal system, they feel shamed. So they do everything that they can to avoid resolving their cases in the formal system.

A final reason for not using the formal procedure, according to my research, is that people believed that they had a better chance to resolve a case by using networks or contacts of pow-erful people outside the formal system. These are people who do not have the formal authority to resolve land disputes and who operate informally. People thought these powerful people could give authority to the lower level. At a very general level, the po-litical transformation in Myanmar created an environment of insecurity about who is in power and who can make decisions in land disputes, and this contributed to informality and hybridity. People also felt more insecure when they did not have certifi-cates, because they were not sure who would be in power and govern. This reflects how there are plural authorities in Myan-mar.

In order to describe this situation analytically, I find the concept of ‘hybrid political orders’ useful (Boege et al. 2009, 13-21). This concept describes post-conflict and transitional situa-tions where there are plural authorities and many power hold-ers, rather than 1 law and 1 clear authority. Boege et al. (2009, 13-21) use hybridity to describe how there are different laws, rules and ways of resolving cases. Even when people like Daw Ni

Page 25: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 205 Ni want to go the formal way, in the process there is a lot of in-formality and different actors involved. These case studies moreover show how informal procedures are used as part of ac-cessing formal certificates or getting back confiscated land. Therefore, informality also becomes a means to access the for-mal. In this way the formal and the informal are not separated, but part of hybrid practices.

Conclusion This article explored legal hybridity in land disputes in Karen State. Four key steps were proposed: 1) understand the history of the research areas and the land law; 2) understand the justice actors who resolve land disputes; 3) explore empirically how land disputes are actually resolved in practice in different ways and; 4) analyse the hybridity of land dispute resolution pro-cesses. In order to understand the resolution of land disputes in the urban ward and the rural village, I first discussed in general how smaller land disputes are resolved. It was clear that those cases were resolved at the village and ward level using informal procedures, with some reference to the land law, but not with the use of the formal mechanisms. Secondly, I showed what hap-pens when land disputes are so large and complicated that they cannot be resolved at the local level. Here it was clear that peo-ple did not go straight to the formal system, instead drawing on a network of people seen as powerful in getting resolutions.

My study shows that there is a clear need to amend the 2012 land law and to make the laws and the procedures easier to un-derstand for the people who face land disputes and for the local leaders who resolve msot of them. Until now, the Myanmar gov-ernment tried to control all the land issues with official land procedures, without consulting the people on the ground. Be-cause the law is not appropriate in practice, people resolve dis-putes on their own and usually in hybrid ways. Therefore, the government should include the local ways and views when they

Page 26: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

206 | Lue Htar

amend the land laws. Inclusion of customary and ethnic land use and resolution procedures can also support peace building. Boege et al. (2009) argue that in fragile states, if only state law is used, it is not possible to build peace. They suggest to use con-flict resolution in hybrid ways. Similarly, Hussain (2011), argues that in countries with different people and cultures, it is not suf-ficient and effective to use only one law, but rather it is im-portant to recognize legal pluralism. Against this background, the Myanmar government should think about ethnic people’s customary land practices and recognize these when they amend the land law. In addition, the Myanmar government should dis-cuss with KNU leaders, local leaders and land scholars about land issues and try to find appropriate ways of dealing with land on the ground. The KNU already has a land law which includes land ownership and transfer rights, agriculture policy, and land rights. KNU law also recognizes shifting cultivation and consid-ers land types in hilly regions. The Myanmar government may consider these forms of recognition of ethnic land use.

Finally, the Myanmar government should provide land rights awareness training to the local people. According to our research findings, there are barriers to understanding complex texts, so it is necessary to write the laws and procedures in easy language. Managing land issues should be described very clearly, because as of 2016, land management procedure is not appropriate for the local people on the ground. For this reason it takes a lot of time to resolve the cases.

However, it is not enough to change the law and create legal awareness. Political changes at the higher level is also necessary. I showed this with the 2 land confiscation cases in this article. Although the dispossessed landowners had the courage to claim back their land after the political transition, their cases re-mained unresolved, because they were seen as political. The vic-tims tried their best to get help from powerful people like monks, Chief Ministers and armed actors, but they still did not get all their land back. A core problem was that the higher-level

Page 27: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 207 officials from the previous military government were still very much in power, despite the change of government. This meant that large land confiscation cases from the past were very dan-gerous to resolve by the new government officials.

Page 28: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

208 | Lue Htar

References Albrecht, Peter and Louise Wiuff Moe. 2014. “The simultaneity of

authority in hybrid orders”. Peacebuilding 3, No. 1: 1-16. Boege, Volker, Anne Brown and Kevin P. Clements. 2009. “Hybrid

Political Orders, Not Fragile States”. Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice 21, no. 1: 13-21.

Griffiths, John. 1986. “What is Legal Pluralism?” Journal of Legal Pluralism 24: 1-50.

Hlaing, Kyaw Soe. 2015. “Peace and Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement” September, 2015.

Hussain, Jamila. 2011. “More Than One Law for All: Legal pluralism in Southeast Asia”. Journal of Democracy and Security 7, No. 4: 374-389.

Karen National Union (KNU). 2010. KNU land policy (in Burmese), Amended and published by the department of Agriculture of Karen National Union, October 2010.

Karen National Union (KNU). 2015. KNU Land Policy. December 2015. www.tni.org/files/article-downloads/knu_land_policy_eng.pdf

Kyed, Helene Maria and Mikael Gravers. 2014 “Non-State Armed Groups in the Myanmar Peace Process: What are the Future Options?” DIIS Working Paper 7, 2014.

Kyed, Helene Maria and Mikael Gravers.2015. “Integration and Power-Sharing: What are the Future Options for Armed Non-State Actors in the Myanmar Peace Process?” Stability 4, no. 1: 1-20.

Luckham, Robin and Tom Kirk. 2013. “The Two Faces of Security in Hybrid Political Orders: A Framework for Analysis and Research”. Stability 2, no. 2: 1- 30.

Mark, Siusue. 2016 “Fragmented Sovereignty over Property Institutions: Developmental Impacts on the Chin Hills Communities”. Independent Journal of Burmese Scholarship 1, no. 1: 131-160.

Page 29: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 209 Merry, Sally Engle. 1988. “Legal Pluralism”. Law and Society Review

22, No.5: 869-96. Min, Zaw. Ancestor land and land law problem. October 2016. The Union Government of Myanmar. 2012 farmland Law, March

30, 2012. The Union Government of Myanmar. Fallow, Virgin and Vacant

land law March 30, 2012.

Page 30: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

210 | Lue Htar

ေနစဉတရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး �င ဩဇာအာဏာ�သည

လပဂ�လ၊ အဖ�အစညးအမျးမျး -- ကရငြပညနယမ

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�များ�င ပတသကသည

အြမငသေဘာထားများ

Lue Htar (Enlightened Myanmar Research Foundation)

နဒါနး

ြမနမာ�ငငတင ၂၀၁၆ ခ�စအတငး ေြမယာဆငရာ

အြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာေပါငး ေြမာကများစာ ပစမျးစ ြဖစပားခ�ပး

ယငးြပဿနာများက အများအားြဖင �ငးလငးမ�မ�ေသာ

နညးလမးအမျမျး သး၍ ေြဖ�ငးခ�ကသည။ ြမနမာ�ငငတင

�ညလျားလသည စစအပချပေရးကာလများ�င လကနကကင

ပဋပက�များ �ေနခသည �ကားမ ဤကသေသာ ေြမယာြပဿနာများ

ြဖစပားေနြခငးြဖစသည။ ယခငက အရပသားြပညသများ

ပငဆငသည ေြမဧက အေြမာကအများက တပမေတာအစးရက

သမးယခသည။ ၂၀၁၂ ခ�စတင ကရငတငးရငးသားလကနကကင

အဖ�များ (ethnic armed organizations – EAOs) �င

အပစအခတရပစေရးြပလပခ�ပး �ငငေရး�င

စးပားေရးတခါးဖငလက�ပးသည အချနမစ၍လညး

စးပားေရးလပငနး�ကးများအတက ေြမေနရာများက

ချမတေပးခသည။ ဤကသ �ကးမားကျယြပနသည

ြပဿနာများအြပင လအများ ေ���ေြပာငးသားလာေနထငမ��င

Page 31: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 211 ေြမယာ�င ပတသကသည အေထာကအထားစာရကများ တတကျကျ

မ��ကြခငးတေ�ကာင ေြမာကများလစာေသာ

ေြမယာြပဿနာငယများလညး ေပါေပါကလာခသည။ ယငးကသ

ေပါေပါကလာသည ေြမယာဆငရာ အြငငးပားမ� ြပဿနာများက

ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးရာတင အခကအခများစာ�င �ကေတ�ေန�ကရ�ပး

ယငးမာ ေဒသခအစးရတာဝန�ပဂ�လများ�င

သာမနြပညသများအေနြဖင ေြမယာဥပေဒအသစ�င ပတသကသည

ဗဟသတ မ�ထားြခငး၊ ဥပေဒများသည အများအားြဖင

�ကေတ�ေနရသည ြပဿနာအေြခအေနများ�င ကကညမ�မ�ြခငး၊

ဥပေဒသစများက ယခင�ခဖးသည ဥပေဒေဟာငးများြဖင

အမတမားြခငး၊ အစးရဌာနပငးဆငရာ အထကအဆငတာဝန�

ဝနထမးများမ ဥပေဒများက တလအသးြပြခငးတေ�ကာင ြဖစသည။

ေြမယာြပဿနာတင အဓကကျသည အချကတစချကမာ ၂၀၁၂ ခ�စ၌

ြပ�ာနးခသည ေြမယာဥပေဒသည ဓေလထးတမးဆငရာ

ေြမယာသးစမ� �င ေြမယာပငဆငမ�တက အသအမတြပရန

ပျကကကခသည အချကြဖစသည။ သ�င ေြမယာြပဿနာသည

အလနတရာ��ပေထးလသည အေြခအေနသ ကျေရာကလျက�သည။

သာမနြပညသများအေနြဖင

ေြမယာဆငရာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက ေြဖ�ငးရန

မညသညပဂ�လ�င အဖ�အစညးများတင တာဝန�ေ�ကာငး

ေသေသချာချာ မသ�ကေပ။ တစချနတညးတင

ေြမယာပငဆငေ�ကာငး တငြပေြပာဆတငတနးမ�များ တစတစ

များြပားလာသည။ ယငးသည ထကသ ရရဝဝ တငြပေြပာဆ�ကရန

Page 32: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

212 | Lue Htar

ြပညသလထအား ြပညတငး�င ြပညပအစးရမဟတသည

အဖ�အစညးများ (NGOs)၊ အရပဘကလမ�အဖ�အစညးများ (CSOs)

�င �ငငေရးပါတများက အြမငဖငေပးခ�ကြခငး၏

အကျးဆကများြဖစသည။ သ�ငတင လကေတ�တင

ေြမယာသမးဆညးမ�ြပဿနာအချ�တစဝကက

ေြဖ�ငး�ငခေသာလညး ေြဖ�ငးရနကျနေနေသးသည

ေြမယာြပဿနာများစာလညး �ေလသည။

ဤကသ ခကခ��ပေထးသည အေြခအေနေအာကတင

သာမနြပညသများအေနြဖင ၎ငးတရငဆင�ကေတ�ရသည

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက မညကသ

ေြဖ�ငးမ�ြပ�ကပါသနညး? ၎ငးတအေနြဖင မညသညေနရာသ

သားေရာက�ပး ၎ငးတ၏ ြပဿနာများက မညသတက

မညသညနညးလမးများ သး၍ �ကးစားေြဖ�ငးမ� ြပ�ကပါသနညး?

ယခစာတမးတင ဤေမးခနးများအတက အေြဖများက

ေဖာထတတငြပသားပါမည။ ယငးသ ေဖာထတတငြပရာတင

ကရငြပညနယအတငး� ေကျးလကေတာရာ ၁ ရာ �င �မ � ြပရပကက

၁ ခ တမ အေြခအေနများက အထးြပ ထတ�တတငြပသားပါမည။

(စာေရးသေရးချယခသည) ေနရာ�စေနရာလးသည ြမနမာအစးရ၏

ထနးချပမ� ဧရယာအတငးတင တည�ေသာလညး

ယငးေဒသေနြပညသများမာ ကရင EAO များ�ငလညး

အဆကအသယ��ကသည။ ေကျးလက�င �မ � ြပေဒသ �စခ�ကားတင

အေြခအေန ကြပားချကများ �ေသာလညး ေဒသ�စခစလး၌

ေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေြဖ�ငးရာတင အသးြပသားသည

Page 33: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 213 နညးလမးများအ�ကား အလားသ�ာနတသည အချကများက

ဤေဆာငးပါးတင အထးြပေဖာြပသားပါမည။

ယခစာတမးအတငး အဓကတငြပလသည ေဆးေ�းတငြပချကမာ

၂၀၁၂ ေြမယာဥပေဒသစအရ ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက

ေြဖ�ငးရန ေဒသအဆငမ အထကဗဟအဆငအထ ေြမယာစမခနခမ�

ေကာမတအဆငဆင ဖ�စညးထား�ထားေသာလညး

သာမနြပညသများအေနြဖင တရားဝင

လပထးလပနညးများအတငးမဟတဘ

�းရာဓေလထးတမးနညးလမးများအပါအဝင

အြခားေသာနညးလမးများ အသးြပေြဖ�ငးေလ�သည ဟသည

အချကြဖစသည။ ရာသ/သားများအ�ကား ြဖစပားသည

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ� အေသးစားများ�င

အေမခေြမပငဆငမ�ြပဿနာများက များေသာအားြဖင ေကျးရာ�င

ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းများကသာ ဦးေဆာငေြဖ�ငးေလ�သည။

သေသာ ပမ�ကးမားသည ေြမသမးယာသမးြပဿနာများ

ေပါေပါကလာသညအခါ ေြမယာစမခနခမ�ေကာမတ�င ေဒသဆငရာ

အာဏာပငများက အဆပါကစ��ကးများက

ေြဖ�ငး�ငစမးမ��ကေတာေပ။ ယငးကသေသာ အမ�ကစ�များက

မညသ၊ မညသညအဖ�အစညးများက မညကသေြဖ�ငးမ�

ြပ�င�ကသညက လထက �ငး�ငးလငးလငး မသေတာေပ။

မမတပငေြမယာများက ြပနလညရယရန ေတာငးဆသညအခါ

အကအညေပး�ငမညဟ ယဆရသည ေြမယာပငဆငမ��င

ပတသက�ပး ဗဟသတ�သများ၊ ဩဇာအာဏာ�သများ စသြဖင

Page 34: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

214 | Lue Htar

လပဂ�လ�င အဖ�အစညးအမျးမျးထ ေဒသခြပညသများက

ချဉးကပအကအညေတာငးခေလ��ကသည။ ၎ငးတ

သားေရာကအကအညေတာငး�ကသညအထတင

ဘာသာေရးေခါငးေဆာငများ အထးသြဖင ဘနးေတာ�ကးများ၊ EAO

များ၏ အဖ�ဝငများ၊ တပမေတာ၊ တရားသ�ကးများ၊

ပညာတတပဂ�လများ၊ ေဒသအာဏာပငများ �င ရပရာအတငးမ

အရပဘကေခါငးေဆာငများ စသညတ ပါဝင�ကသည။

ြပညသများသည ဩဇာအာဏာ�သည ပဂ�လ၊ အဖ�အစညးအမျးမျး

(plurality of authorities) ထမ အကအညရယေလ�သည။

မမတ ြပဿနာများအား ေတာသငမနကနသလ

ကညေြဖ�ငးေပး�ငရန အမျးမျးေသာ လပဂ�လ သမဟတ

အဖ�အစညးများ�င ချဉးကပချတဆကလပေဆာင�ကသကသ

ြမနမာ�ငငေတာအစးရ၏ တရားဝငယ��ရားများထမာလညး

အကအညရယ�ကသည။ ဤလပေဆာငချကေ�ကာင

အြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများ ေြဖ�ငးသညနညးလမးများ၊ ယငးသ

ေြဖ�ငးမ�ြပရာတင ပါဝငသည ပဂ�လအဖ�အစညးများ

‘ေပါငးစပေရာေ�ာြခငး’ (hybridity) က ြဖစထနးေပါေပါကေစသည။

ဤစာတမးတင hybridity က ‘ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများ

ေြဖ�ငးမ� ြပရာ၌ ဩဇာအာဏာ�သည လပဂ�လအမျးမျး၊

အဖ�အစညးအဖဖတအားလညးေကာငး၊ ဥပေဒစညးမျဉးအမျးအစား

စစလငလငတအားလညးေကာငး တစ�ပငတညးတင

ယဉလျကေရာေ�ာ အသးြပြခငး’ က ဆလသည။

ဩဇာအာဏာ�သည ပဂ�လ၊ အဖ�အစညးအမျးမျး ဝါ

Page 35: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 215 အာဏာပငဗဟြဖစမ� (plurality of authorities) ဟ ဆရာတင

မညသညေဒသ သမဟတ နယေြမဧရယာေဘာင တစခအတငး

အာဏာပငစးသည ပဂ�လ၊ အဖ�အစညး တစခထကပ၍ တည�သည

အေြခအေနက ဆလသည။ Plurality (အာဏာပငဗဟြဖစမ�)၊

hybridity အယအဆတ�င ပတသက၍ ဤစာတမးသည

သအရသေဘာတရားအားြဖင တရားဥပေဒဆငရာ မ�ဿေဗဒ (legal

anthropology) ဘာသာရပဆငရာ ေလလာမ�နယပယ (Griffith

1986; Merry 1988; Luckham and Kirk 2013) အြပင

�ငမးချမးေရး�င ပဋပက�ေလလာမ�နယပယ (Boege et al. 2009;

Albrecht and Moe 2014) တအေပါ အေြခခလျက

ယငးသကဆငရာဘာသာရပများ၏ ကျယြပနသည ပညာရပဆငရာ

အေြခအတင ေဆးေ�းမ�များအတကလညး တစဖကတစလမးမ

ပါဝငအားြဖညေနပါသည။ Hybridity ြဖစမ�အယအဆသည

အြငငးပားစရာကစ�များက ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးရာတင

တရားစရငေရးစနစအမျးမျးမ စညးမျဉးဥပေဒအမျးမျး၊

စ��နးအမျးမျး၊ အမ�ြပဿနာေြဖ�ငးေရးြဖစစဉအမျးမျး စသြဖင

မတညသညအစတအပငးများက မညကသ ေရာေ�ာေပါငးစပ

သမဟတ တစေပါငးတစစညးတညး အသးြပ�ကသည အေြခအေန

ဝါ တရားေရးမ� ငဗဟဝါဒြဖစမ� (legal pluralism) အေပါ

��ြမင�ကသည အြမငသေဘာထား ��ေထာငအသစတစရပ ြဖစသည

(မယရ (Merry 1988, 870)။ ဘးဂါး �င အြခားပညာ�ငများ (Boege

et al. 2009, 18) က ပဋပက�လန �ငငများက အဂငလပဘာသာြဖင

‘hybrid political orders’ ဟ ေခါသည

Page 36: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

216 | Lue Htar

ပစအမျးမျးေရာေ�ာေနတတသည �ငငေရးစနစများ အြဖစ

သတမတ�က�ပး ယငးတင အစးရတစရပ၏ လပေဆာငချကများက

�ငငေတာ အစးရ (state) တစဖ�တညးက မဟတဘ

အစးရမဟတသည (non-state) အစအဖ�များကလညး

လပေဆာင�ကြခငးက ဆလသည။ ကရငြပညနယအတငး� လက�

အာဏာပငဗဟြဖစမ� (plural authority) အေြခအေနများက

နားလညသေဘာေပါကရန ဤ ‘hybrid political orders’

အယအဆက အသးဝငသညဟ စာေရးသြမငသည။ ဘးဂါး�င

မတဖကပညာ�ငများ (Boege et al. 2009, 16) အဆအရ

ပစဖတေဒသအတငး� လမ�အသငးအဝငးများတင

�ငငေတာအစးရြပ�ာနးထားသည ဥပေဒများမာ အားနညးေနြခငး၊

နားလညရနခကခြခငး�င ဥပေဒဆငရာဝနေဆာငမ�များက

ေဒသခြပညသများ ရယရန ခကခြခငးတေ�ကာင သကဆငရာ

ရပရာေခါငးေဆာငများ၊ လမ�အဖ�အစညးအတငး� လ�ကးသမများက

�းရာဓေလထးတမး အစဉအလာများအတငး

တရားစရငမ�ြပ�ကသည။ တစ�ပငတညးတင လကဟမ �င ကာက

(Luckham & Kirk 2013, 9) တ၏ ‘hybridity’ က

�းရာအစဉအလာအား ချးြမ�ငေြမာကစားသည

သအရသေဘာတရားတစခအြဖစ အသးြပြခငးသည

ြပဿနာ�သည’ ဟသည အဆ�င စာေရးသ

သေဘာထားတငဆငပါသည။ �ငငေတာ

တရားစရငေရးစနစအတငး� အားနညးချကများေ�ကာင

ဓေလထးတမး�င တရားဝငြပ�ာနးထားြခငးမ�သည

Page 37: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 217 စညးမျဉးစညးကမးစ��နးများက ြပ�ာနးဥပေဒများေနရာတင

အားတကသေရာ အစားထးြပစရနမဟတဘ

‘ယငး�းရာဓေလထးတမးများအေပါ အေြခခသည

အပချပေရးဆငရာ စမခနခလပေဆာငချကများက

အားေကာငးလာရန မဆထား�ငဦး ယငးက

အေကာငအထညေဖာေဆာငရကရန လးဝ မြဖစ�ငသည

အေြခအေနဘကေရာကေအာင တနးပေပး�ငမည

အစအမများေပါထနးလာေရး ရပတညေြပာဆသည

(အာဏာပငဗဟြဖစမ�) ေလ�ာချေရးအြမငများက သသသာသာ

စနေခါမ�ြပ�ငမည’ (Ibid., 9)

ခြခမးစတြဖာသးသပမ�ကရယာတစခအြဖစ hybridity

သေဘာတရားက အသးြပသငသည။ ကရငြပညနယအတငးမ

အေြခအေနများက တငြပရာတင ြပညသများသည

(ေြမယာြပဿနာများ ေြဖ�ငးရာတင) အစးရ�င အစးရမဟတသည

လပဂ�လ၊ အဖ�အစညး�စဖကစလး�င တစချနတညးတင

အကအညအေတာငးခ�ကေ�ကာငး၊ ယငးကသေတာငးခရာတင

အစးရမ သတမတထားသည နညးလမးများ မဟတဘ

အြခားေသာနညးလမးများက အသးြပ�ကေ�ကာငး

ေတ�ရမညြဖစသည။ ကရငြပညနယမ အေြခအေနများက

ေဖာထတတငြပထားသည ဤစာတမးသည ‘hybridity’ အေ�ကာငး

ပမကျယြပနသည စာေပနယပယအတငး

သေတသနေတ� �မ�အသစတစခအေနြဖင အားြဖညေပး�ငမည

ြဖစသည။ ဥပမာအားြဖင ဗဒ�ဘာသာဘနးေတာ�ကး

Page 38: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

218 | Lue Htar

အဖ�အစညးတစခြဖစသည မဘသ မ ေြမယာအသမးခခရသများက

အထကအာဏာပငအရာ�များ�င ဆကသယေပးြခငးအားြဖင

ြပညသများအား ေြမယာြပဿနာ ေြဖ�ငးရာတင

ကညေပးသညေနရာတငလညးေကာငး၊

ယငးေြမယာပငဆငမ�အြငငးပားေနခ�ကသညကစ�က အစးရ�း

ဌာနအဝနးအဝငး အြပငဘက� အရငးအြမစများအား အသးြပကာ

မဘသအဖ� မ ကညေြဖ�ငးရာတငလညးေကာငး ‘hybridity’

သေဘာြဖစထနးေပါေပါကခေ�ကာငး စာေရးသ၏

လကေတ�ေလလာေတ� �ချကများက သကေသြပလျက�သည။

ဤေဆာငးပါးအတငး� ေဆးေ�းတငြပချကများသည ၂၀၁၆ ခ�စ

ေဖေဖာဝါရလ�င ေအာကတဘာလများအတငး စာေရးသကယတင

ကငးဆငးေလလာခသည ေတ� �ချကများအေပါ အေြခခထားပါသည။

အရညအေသး (အသားေပး) အငတာဗျးအေမးအေြဖများ

(qualitative interviews)၊ ြဖစရပေြခရာခြခငးများ (case tracing) �င

အမ��င ပါဝငပတသကခသများအား ေစာင�ကညေလလာြခငး

(participant observation) နညးလမးများက အသးြပ�ပး

သာမနြပညသများအေနြဖင ၎ငးတ ရငဆင�ကေတ� �ကရသည

အြငငးပားစရာကစ�ရပများ၊ ရာဇဝတမ�များ�ငပတသက၍

မညကသသေဘာထားသည၊ ယငးကစ�များက မညကသကငတယ

ေြဖ�ငး�ကသညအေ�ကာငးက ေလလာေဖာထတထားပါသည။

ေြမယာြပဿနာေြဖ�ငးေရးတင ပါဝငပတသကေနခ�ကသ

အေတာများများကလညး ေတ�ဆေမးြမနးထား�ပး ၎ငးတ

ေြမယာဆငရာအြငငးပားမ�များ ေြဖ�ငးမ��ကသည

Page 39: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 219 ပစနညးလမးများကလညး ေစာင�ကညေလလာခပါသည။

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာ ကညေြဖ�ငးရာ၌

ပါဝငပတသကေနခသများတင ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းများ၊

ရပရာအတငး�လ�ကးသမများ၊ ဘာသာေရးေခါငးေဆာငများ၊

ေကျးရာေခါငးေဆာငများ၊ EAO အဖ�ဝငများ �င ရဘကဆငရာတ

ပါဝင�ကသည။ ကငးဆငးေလလာမ�ြပသညေဒသ ၂ က EverJust

သေတသနစမကနး၏ အစတအပငးအြဖစ ေကျးလက�င �မ � ြပေဒသ

�စခစလး၊ ြမနမာအစးရထနးချပနယေြမ၊ EAO

အဖ�များထနးချပနယေြမ�င �စဖကစလးက

ထနးချပလ�မးမးထားသညေဒသတမ အေြခအေနများက

သ��ငရနဟသည ရညရယချကြဖင ေရးချယခြခငး ြဖစသည။

ကငးဆငးေလလာ�ကမည ေနရာေဒသများက စနစတကျြဖင

ေရးချယခြခငး မဟတေသာလညး

အချကအလကရယ�ငမ�အေြခအေန�င သေသတနြပေလလာရန

ေဒသခေခါငးေဆာငများမ ခငြပေပးသည အေြခအေနတအေပါ

အေြခခ၍ ေရးချယခ�ကြခငးြဖစသည။ ဤစာတမးအတက �မ� ြပ�င

ေကျးလကေဒသ ၂ ခအတငး ြဖစေပါလျက�ခသည

ေြမယာကစ�များက ��ငးယဉေလလာ�ငရန အစးရထနးချပမ�

ပကေသာလညး ယခငက လကနကကငပဋပက�များ ြဖစပားခ�ပး

ယငး၏ �ကခတမ� ယခတင �ေနေသးသည နယေြမ ၂ ခ က

ေရးချယခပါသည။ ဤနယေြမေဒသ�စခသည ြမနမာ�ငငအတငး

ြဖစေပါလျက�ခသည ေြမယာပငဆငမ�

အြငငးပားြပဿနာများအားလးက

Page 40: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

220 | Lue Htar

ကယစားြပ�ငမညမဟတေသာလညး

ြမနမာအစးရထနးချပမ�ေအာကတင �ေသာ

ကရငြပညနယအလယပငးေဒသများအတငး ြဖစေပါလျက�သည

ေြမယာြပဿနာများစာက အတနအတင ကယစားြပ�ငပါသည။

ဤေဆာငးပါးတင ပထမဦးစာ ကရငြပညနယအတငး�

ေြမယာဆငရာ အြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများ�င ပတသကသည

ေနာကခအေ�ကာငးအရာများ�ငအတ သမငးေ�ကာငး၊

လက�ေြမယာဥပေဒများအေ�ကာငး တငြပထားပါသည။ ထေနာက

�မ� ြပ�င ေကျးလကေဒသ ၁ ခစက ကယစားြပသည

ြဖစရပေလလာမ� ၂ ခ အေ�ကာငးက တငြပသားပါမည။

ယငးြဖစရပများတင ေြမယာသမးဆညးခရမ�ြပဿနာများက

အမျးမျးေသာနညးလမးများ၊ လပဂ�လ၊ အဖ�အစညးများ

ေပါငးစပေရာေ�ာ အသးြပေြဖ�ငး�ကသညက ေတ�ရသည။ နဂးတင

ဤသေတသနေတ� �ချကများအား

ြမနမာ�ငငေြမယာဥပေဒြပြပငေြပာငးလမ�များ�င

အေကာငအထညေဖာ လပေဆာငသည လပငနးစဉများအတငး

မညကသ အသးြပ�ငသည�င ပတသက၍

သးသပတငြပထားပါသည။ ၂၀၁၂ ေြမယာဥပေဒက ြပငဆငရန

လအပလျက��ပး ဥပေဒတင ေဒသအဆငအထ

ဆးြဖတချကချမတပငခငအာဏာများ ခေဝေပးရန�င

ေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေြဖ�ငးမ�ေပးေန�ကသည အာဏာပငပဂ�လ၊

အဖ�အစညးအသးသးတ၏ အခနးက��င တာဝနများက

Page 41: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 221 တတကျကျ သတမတေပးရန လအပေနေသးေ�ကာငး

စာေရးသအေနြဖင ေြပာလပါသည။

ကရငြပညနယေနာကခသမငးေ�ကာငး �င ေြမယာဥပေဒများ

ကရငြပညနယတင ၁၉၄၈ ခ�စမ ၂၀၁၂ ခ�စအထ ြဖစပားခသည

ြပညတငးစစက တရားေရးမ� ငဗဟြဖစမ� ()

အေြခအေနတစရပဆက တနးပခရာ လက�ြဖစေပါလျက�သည

ေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေြဖ�ငးရာတင ��ပေထးမ�များက

ြဖစေပါေစခသည။ လနခသည အ�စ ၂၀ ေကျာက ေကျးလကေန

ကရငြပညသများသည ေကအနယမ ထနးချပထားသည

ေနရာေဒသများ သမဟတ ြမနမာတပမေတာမလညး မမတ၏

ေနစဉလမ�ဘဝများအတငး ဝငေရာကစကဖက�ငသည

ေနရာေဒသများတင ေနထငလာခ�ကသည။ တပမေတာသည

ရာသ/သားများ၏ လယယာထကကနများက

မတနတဆေဈး�မဝယေလ��ပး၊ ၎ငးတအား �ကးေလးသည

အခနများကလညး ထမးေဆာငေစခသည။ ဤအမအကျငများသည

ဗလချပေနဝငး၏ အစးရလကထက သက� ရာဇ ၁၉၇၈ ခ�စအတငး

ြပ�ာနးခသည ေြမယာဥပေဒ�င ဆကစပမ��သည။ အစးရအား

စပါးသငးေပးရမညဟသည အမနက မလကနာသည

လယယာေြမပင�ငများမ လယယာေြမများက သမးကာ

အမနလကနာသည ြပညသများအား ယငးေြမများက

ြပနလညချထားေပးခသည။ ဤကသ အစးရအား ပမနသငးရသည

စပါးများက တာဝနကျစပါးဟ ေခါ ခ�ကသည (ဦးေဇာမငး (U Zaw

Page 42: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

222 | Lue Htar

Min 2016, 73)။ ၂၀၁၀ ြပည�စမ ေကအနယ ေြမယာဥပေဒတင

(ဦးသနးေရ� ဦးေဆာငသည) နအဖ အစးရလကထကများအတငး

ြပညတငးစစပများေ�ကာင ကရငြပညသများစာ ေနရာအ�အြပားသ

ေ���ေြပာငးအေြခချေနထငခရေ�ကာငး ေဖာြပထားသည။

အကျးဆကအားြဖင စစအစးရမ အေလးေပးလပေစလသည

လယယာစကပျးေရးလပငနးများက အာ�စက မလပ�ငခ�ကေပ

(KNU 2019, 10-11)။ ပဋပက�များေ�ကာင

ေ���ေြပာငးသားလာေနထင�ကရသညအတက

ကရငြပညသများစာတသည မမတပငေြမယာများမလညး

ကာလ�ကာ�ည ကကာေနခ�ကသည။ ကရငြပညသလထတ၏

�းရာေြမယာပငဆငမ�စနစမာ မျးဆကတစခမ

ေနာကမျးဆကတစခသ အေမဆကခေစသညအချကအေပါ

အေြခခထားသညအတက ကရငြပညသအများစတင

ေြမယာပငဆငမ� စာရကစာတမးအေထာကအထားများ မ��ကေပ။

(ပဋပက�ေ�ကာင) ေဒသခ ကရငြပညသများ ေြပာငးေ���သားသညအခါ

၎ငးတပင ေြမယာများက တပမေတာက အနးအနားရာများတင

ေနထင�ကသည ဗမာအမေထာငစများအား ေပးအပလက�ကသည။

ဤကသေသာ လပေဆာငချကမျးက အစးရ၏ ေြမယာဥပေဒက

ခငြပထားသည။ ယငးဥပေဒတင လယယာေြမတစခတညးက

အစဉတစက ၄ �စဆကတက လပလာခသြဖစပါက

ယငးေြမေနရာက ပငဆငခငြပထားသည။ ဤသ ြဖင

ကရငြပညသအေြမာကအများ ၎ငးတပင ေြမယာများစာက ၎ငးတ

Page 43: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 223 ေ���ေြပာငးသားလာေနစဉ ဝငေရာကလပကငေန�ကသများထ

လကလ�တဆး�� းလကရသည။

ေကအနယမ ခထကလာ�ကသည လကနကကငအဖ� (EAO) များမ

စစအစးရ�င အပစအခတရပစေရး သေဘာတညခ�ကသည ၁၉၉၀

ြပညလန�စများအတငးတငလညး ကရငေကျးလကြပညသတ

ေြမယာများ ဆး�� းခ�ကရသည။ သေဘာတညချက၏

အစတအပငးတစရပအေနြဖင ကရငအရပသားြပညသများ၏

ေြမဧက ေြမာကများစာက အစးရမ သမးဆညး�ပး အပစရပ EAO

အဖ�များအား ေပးအပခသည (Kyed & Gravers 2014)။

ကရငလမျးများတင ဓေလထးတမးအရ

ေြမယာပငဆငမ�အသအမတြပလကမတ မ��ကသညအတက

အသမးဆညးခရသည ေြမယာများမာ ၎ငးတအပငြဖစေ�ကာငး

သကေသြပရန အလနအလန ခကခခသည။

ဤကသ ၎ငးတပငေြမယာများက အစဉတစက

လကလ�တဆး�� းခရြခငးသည ြမနမာအစးရအား ကရငြပညသများ

ယ�ကညမ�ကငးမလာခြခငး အေ�ကာငးရငးတစရပ ြဖစလာသည။

သက� ရာဇ ၂၀၁၆ ခ�စသ ေရာက�လာ�ပး အပစအခတရပစေရးများ

ပမကျယကျယြပန ြပန ြဖစေပါလာ�ပး အစးရအေြပာငးအလများ

�လာသညတင �ငငေတာအေပါ ကရငြပညသများအပါအဝင

အြခားေသာတငရငးသားလမျးစများ၏ ယ�ကညမ�ကရ�ရန

ခယဉးေနဆပင ြဖစသည။ အတတက မ�စ�မ�စရာ

အေတ�အ�ကများေ�ကာင ကရငြပညနယမ

Page 44: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

224 | Lue Htar

ေဒသခြပညသလထများအတက �ငငေတာအစးရတရားေရးစနစ၏

အကအညများက ရယြခငးကစ�မာ စမးေနလျကပင �သည။

၂၀၁၁ ခ�စတင ဦးသနးစန ဦးေဆာငသည

ြပြပငေြပာငးလေရးအသားေပးအစးရမ EAO များ�င

တစ�ငငလးဆငရာ အပစအခတရပစေရးသေဘာတစာချပတစရပ

ချပဆ�ငေရးက အေလးေပးေဆာငရကြခငးအပါအဝင

�ကးမားကျယြပနခကခသည

ြပြပငေြပာငးလေရးလပေဆာငချကများစာက ြပလပခသည။ ၂၀၁၂

ခ�စေရာကသညအခါ အ�ကးမားဆး ကရငလကနကကငအဖ�

ြဖစသည ကရငအမျးသားအစညးအ�း (ေကအနယ) �င အစးရတ

�စဖကသေဘာတ အပစအခတရပစေရး သေဘာတစာချပ

ချပဆခ�ကသည။ ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စ

တစ�ငငလးအပစအခတရပစေရးသေဘာတစာချပ (အနစေအ) တင

လကမတေရးထးခ�ကသည EAO ၈ ဖ�တင ေကအနယလညး

တစဖ�အပါအဝင ြဖစသည (Kyed & Gravers 2015)။

လကနကကငတပဖ�များအ�ကား

တကခကမ�ရပစေရးသေဘာတမ�များက ကရငြပညနယအတငး

တည�ငမမ�က ရ�ေစခေသာလညး ကျယြပနသည �ငငေရးဆငရာ

သေဘာတညမ�များသည �ငငေရးေဆးေ�းပြဖစစဉမတစဆင

ထကေပါလာမည ရလဒများအေပါ မတညမညြဖစသညအတက

ယငးရလဒများ အရမချငး �ငး�ငးလငးလငး မ�ေသးသည၊

မေြဖ�ငးရေသးသည ကစ�ရပများစာလညး ကျန�ေနေသးသည။

အြငငးပားစရာကစ�ရပများစာ �သညအနက တစခမာ ေြမယာ�င

Page 45: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 225 ေြမယာပငဆငမ�တ�ငပတသကသည ကစ�ြဖစသည (Mark 2016)။

ကရငြပညနယအတငး အချ�ေသာနယေြမများတင

အသးြပေန�ကသည ေကအနယ၏ ေြမယာဥပေဒသည ဥပမာ

ြမနမာအစးရ၏ ေြမယာဥပေဒများ�င ကြပားမ�များ�သည။

ေကအနယတင ၎ငးတ၏ ကယပငေြမယာဥပေဒ �ထားသညမာ

�စေပါငးများစာ�ကာခ�ပ ြဖစ�ပး ယငးကလညး �ကမဖနများစာ

ြပငဆငမ�ြပလပခရာ ၂၀၁၀ ြပည�စတငလညး

ြပငဆငမ�တချ� ြပလပခသည (KNU 2010, 1)။ (ယငးဥပေဒက)

အဂငလပဘာသာြဖင ေနာကဆးထတခသညမာ ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စက

ြဖစသည (KNU 2015)။ (ေကအနယ) ေြမယာဥပေဒများတင

ကရင�းရာကျငထးများ�ငအည ဓေလထးတမးပငေြမယာများ�င

အေမဆကခထားသည ေြမယာများအား အသအမတြပထားသည။

ေကအနယက အနစေအသေဘာတစာချပက ချပဆ�ပးေနာက

၎ငးတ၏ ေဒသဆငရာ တရားစရငေရး စနစများအတငးတင

��ပေထးမ�များ ပမ�လာခသည။ အစးရထနးချပထားသည

နယေြမများ သမဟတ အစးရ�င EAO အဖ� �စဖကစလးက

ထနးချပထားသည နယေြမေဒသများအတငး တည�သည

ေြမယာများက ြပညသလထအေနြဖင မမတ စတချရသည

ပငဆငမ�ြဖစရန အစးရအသအမတြပ ေြမယာပငဆငခငလကမတ

�ထားရန လအပသည။ သေသာလညး စာေရးသ၏

သေတသနြပချကများအရ ေဒသခြပညသများသည ြမနမာအစးရ၏

ေြမယာဥပေဒ�င ရငး�းမ�မ�သညကလညးေကာငး၊

ယငးဥပေဒအေ�ကာငး မသ��ကသညကလညးေကာငး ေတ�ရသည။

Page 46: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

226 | Lue Htar

ထအြပင (အစးရ၏) ေြမယာဥပေဒများသည

ေြမြပငအေြခအေနမနများ၊ ေြမယာအေမဆကခပငခင�င

ဆကစပသည ဓေလထးတမးများ�င ကကညမ� မ�သညကလညး

ေလလာေတ� �ခရသည။

၂၀၁၂ ခ�စတင ြမနမာ�ငငေတာအစးရက လယယာေြမဥပေဒ �င

ေြမလတေြမလပေြမ�ငးများ စမခနခမ�ဥပေဒ ၂ ခက ြပ�ာနးခသည။

လယယာေြမဥပေဒအရ လယသမားများ၏ ေြမယာအသးြပခငက

အသအမတြပထား�ပး လယယာေြမများ အသးြပြခငးက တရားဝင

အသအမတြပေပးမည လယယာေြမပငဆငခငြပစာအပ ပစ ၇ အား

ေလ�ာကထား�င�က�ပ ြဖစသည။ ပငဆငခငစာအပက အသးြပ၍

လယယာေြမများက ေပါင�ေရာငးချြခငးများ ြပလပ�ငသည။ ဤပစ

၇ စာအပြဖင ြမနမာလယယာဖ� �ဖးေရးဘဏမလညး

ေငေချး�ငသည။ သေသာ ေ���ေြပာငးလယယာစကပျးခင �င

စကပျးေြမများ၊ ေြမယာများ အေမဆကခလ�ေြပာငးခငကမ

လယယာေြမဥပေဒက အသအမတြပထားြခငး မ�ေပ။ ယငးသည

ကရငေကျးလကေဒသများတင ပမနကျငသးေန�ကသည

ဓေလထတမးများ ြဖသသည။ လယယာေြမဥပေဒ ပဒမ ၉ တင

သကဆငရာေြမအား သး�စတတ အသးချလပကငခ�ပးမသာ

လယယာေြမပငဆငခငြပစာအပ ရ��ငေ�ကာငး ပါဝငသည။

ဦးေဇာမငး (U Zaw Min 2016, 80) က ၂၀၁၂ လယယာေြမဥပေဒက

သတမတြပ�ာနးရာတင ြပညသလထတ၏ အသများက

ထညသငးနားေထာငထားြခငး မ�သညအတက ယငးက

ြပညသလထ�င ကငးကာေနသည ပဂ�လကဥပေဒ တစရပ�င

Page 47: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 227 တေ�ကာငး ဆထားသည။ လယယာေြမစမခနခမ�ဆငရာ

ပညာ�ငများ၊ တက�ကလ�ပ�ားသများ�င

ေဒသခလထေခါငးေဆာငများတထ အ�ကဉာဏေတာငးခခြခငး

မ�ေ�ကာငးသရသည။ ထေ�ကာင လယယာေြမဥပေဒအသစတင

ေဒသခရပရာြပညသများ�င ကကညမ�မ�သည အချကများ

အများအြပားပငပါဝငေနသညက ေတ�ရသည။

ထအြပင ြပညသလထက လယယာေြမဥပေဒအသစ�င ပတသက�ပး

လလေလာကေလာက သ�ထားြခငး မ�သည အချကကလညး

အသးချလျက�သညကလညး ေတ� �ရသည။

အစးရအဖ� ဌာနဆငရာဝနထမးများ�င

စစဘကဆငရာဝနထမးများသည စးပားေရးလပငနး�ငများ�င

ပးေပါငးကာ အများပငေြမများက

ကျးေကျာဝငေရာကသမးယခ�ကသညက ေတ� �ခရသည။ ၂၀၁၂

လယယာေြမဥပေဒအတငး ြပ�ာနးအတညြပထားသည

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများ

ေြဖ�ငးေရးနညးစနစများသညလညး လကေတ�တင အလပ

ေကာငးေကာငး မြဖစသညက ေလလာေတ� �သည။ ဥပေဒအရ

ရပကက�င ေကျးရာအပစ ေအာကေြခအဆငအထ ေြမယာစမခနခမ�

ေကာမတအဆငဆငက ဖ�စညးထား�ထားသည။

ယငးေကာမတများတင ရပကက�င ေကျးရာအပစ

အပချပေရးမ�းများက ဥက� �အြဖစ တာဝနယေဆာငရက�ကသည။

�မ�နယအဆင ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာန ဝနထမးတစဦးမ

အတငးေရးမ�းအြဖစ တာဝနယရသည။ ေြမယာေကာမတတင

Page 48: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

228 | Lue Htar

အသကဝါ�ကးသည ပဂ�လ ၂ ဦး၊ လယသမားကယစားလယ ၂ ဦး �င

စးပားေရးသာမား ၁-၂ ဦးတလညး ပါဝင�ကရသည။

ေြမယာဆငရာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာတစရပက ေြဖ�ငးရာတင ဥက� �၊

အတငးေရးမ�း �င အနညးဆး အြခားအဖ�ဝင ၂ ဦး ပါဝင�ကရသည။

သေသာ စာေရးသ၏ သေတသနေလလာေတ� �ချကများအရ

ေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေြပလညသားေအာင ေဒသအဆင

ေြမယာစမခနခမ� ေကာမတများက ေြဖ�ငး�ငသညမာ

ြဖစေတာငြဖစခကစ�တစခပင ြဖစသည။ အေ�ကာငးရငးများစာ

�သညအနက တစခမာ ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနဝနထမးမာ

�မ�နယ�မ�များတင အေြခစက�ကရာ ရပကက သမဟတ

ေကျးရာအတငး၌ အမ�များက နာ�ကားသညအခါတငး ၎ငးတ

မတကေရာက�ငသညက များသည။ ေကျးရာအပစအတငး

ပျ� �လျက တည�ေန�ကသည ရာများမ အြခားေသာ

ေကာမတအဖ�ဝငများကလညး ယငး�ကားနာမ�များက တကေရာကရန

အခကအခ��ကသည။ သညအြပင အဖ�ဝငများသည

ေကာမတအတက ေစတနာဝနထမးအေနြဖငသာ အလပလပ�ကရ�ပး

အခေ�ကးေငတစစတရာ မရ�ေပ။ မမေနထငရာ

ရပရာအတငးမဟတဘ ေကျးရာအပစအတငး� အြခားေသာ

ေကျးရာတစရာတင အမ�ြဖစသညအခါ ယငးရာသ

သားေရာကအမ�ေြဖ�ငးရန လမးစာရတက မမဘာသာ

အပစကသးရသည။ ယငးကသ မမကယပငေင�င ခရးသားလာရမ�မာ

အမ�ကစ� တစခ�စခအတက အဆငေြပေသာလညး

အမ�ကစ�တငးအတက အဆငမေြပ�ကေပ။

Page 49: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 229 ဤအေ�ကာငးရငးများေ�ကာင အစးရမ ချမတထားေပးသည

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ေြဖ�ငးေရးလပထးလပနညးများက

လကေတ�တင အသးြပ�ကေလ မ�ေပ။ ယငးက ေ� �လာမည

အပငးတင တငြပသားပါမည။

တစ�ပငတညးတင �ငငေရးဆငရာြပြပငေြပာငးလညမ�များ

ြဖစထနးေပါေပါကလာသည�ငအမ� တရားမ�တမ� အလျဉးမ�ဘ

အသမးဆညးခထားရသည ၎ငးတ၏ ေြမယာများက ြပနလညရ�ရန

ေတာငးဆတကပဝငရနအတက ကရငြပညသလထတမာ

ပမ�း�ကားတက�ကလာ�ကသည။ ယငးမာ တစစတတစပငးအားြဖင

�ငငတကာ�င ြပညတငးအေြခစက အစးရမဟတသည

အဖ�အစညးများ၊ ေဒသခလထအကျးြပ အဖ�အစညးများက

စစဉြပလပေပး�ကသည ေြမယာပငဆငခင�ငပတသကသည

အြမငပငေရးလပေဆာငချကများေ�ကာငလညး ြဖစသည။

စာေရးသ၏ သေတသနေတ� �ချကများအရ မမတ၏

အခငအေရးများက ြပညသများက သ�လာ�ကသညအခါ မမတ

ေြမယာများက ြပနလညေတာငးဆရယရန

�ကးပမးလပေဆာငလာ�ကသညက ေတ�ရသည။ ထအခါ

ေြမယာဆငရာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများ ေပါေပါကလာသည။

ေြမယာဥပေဒတင သကဆငရာလယယာေြမများက

လက�အသးြပေနသည လယသမားများအား ပငဆငခငြပထားရာ

ေြမယာြပဿနာအများစမာ လက�လယယာေြမပင�ငများ�င

ယငးလယယာေြမများက ယခငက ပငဆငခဖးသည

ပင�ငများအ�ကား ြဖစပားလျက��ပး ဘက�စဘကမာ

Page 50: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

230 | Lue Htar

လမျးအရေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ကးကယယ�ကညရာ

ဘာသာတရားအရေသာလညးေကာငး မတည�ကြခငး မ�ေပ။

ဤအချကသည ေကျးလကေဒသတငသာမက �မ� ြပဧရယာ၌

ြပလပခသည ေလလာမ�တငလညး ထငထင�ား�ားေတ� ြမငရသည။

ဤစာတမးအတငး ေလလာမ�ြပခသည �မ� ြပေဒသမာ ကရငြပညနယ

�မ�ေတာြဖစသည ဘားအ�မ�အတငး� ရပကကတစခ ြဖစသည။

ရပကကေနြပညသအများစမာ ဗဒ�ဘာသာဝင ဖလကရငလမျးများ

ြဖစ�က�ပး ခရစယာနဘာသာဝငကရငလမျး၊ ဗမာ�င

ဟ�� အမေထာငစအနညးငယလညး ေနထင�ကသည။ ရပကကသည

ြမနမာအစးရ၏ အပချပမ�ေအာကတင

ေတာကေလ�ာက�လာခေသာလညး ၁၉၉၂ ခ�စမတငမက

လယယာလပငနးများ လပကငခ�ကသည ေြမေနရာ ြဖစခဖးသည။

သက� ရာဇ ၁၉၉၂ ခ�စတ ေရာက�လာသညအခါ လယကကများက

အစးရက လေနအမြခေြမများအြဖစ ေြပာငးလလက�ပး

တစအမေထာငစာ ေြမကကငယေလးများက

လေပါငးေြမာကများစာတအား

ေပးအပေြပာငးေ���ဝငေရာကေနထငေစခသည။ သ�င

ေြမပင�ငလယသများများသည ၎ငးတပင လယယာေြမများ

အကနလးေသာလညးေကာငး၊

တစစတတစေဒသကေသာလညးေကာငး

လကလ�တဆး�� းလက�ကရသည။

သေတသနြပလပစဉကာလအတငး ယခငလယယာေြမပင�ငများက

ဤအချကအေပါ အေြခခ၍ ေြမယာြပနလညပငဆငခင�ငဆငေသာ

Page 51: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 231 ေတာငးဆမ�အမျးမျးက တး၍ လပေဆာငခ�ကသည။ သေသာ

၎ငးတတင အစးရက လကခ�ငသည

ေြမယာပငဆငမ�အသအမတြပလကမတများ မ��ကသညအတက

ဤကသေသာေြမယာအြငငးပားမ� ြပဿနာများက အလယတက

ေြဖ�ငးရန မြဖစ�ငေပ။ ၁၉၉၂ ခ�စ ြပနလညေနရာချထားေရး

စမကနးမ ေြမပင�ငများြဖစလာ�ကသများကလညး

လက�ြခေြမများက ၎ငးတလညး ပငဆင�ကသညဟ

လကခယ�ကညထား�ကသည။

ဘားအ�မ� မ ကားြဖငသားလ�င ၁ နာရခန �ကာမည မေဝးလသည

�မ�နယတစခတင ကနးတနးဟေခါသည

ေကျးလကေတာရာတစရာ�သည။

ကနးတနးေကျးရာသရာသားများသညလညး ဗဒ�ဘာသာဝင

ဖလကရငလမျးများ ြဖစ�ကသည။ ရာသ/သားများသည

စကပျးေရးကသာ အဓကလပေဆာင�ကသညအတက

လယယာေြမများမာ ၎ငးတ၏ အသကြဖစသည။ သေသာ

စကပျးေရးလပငနးများမ ရ�သည ဝငေငများမာ

အမေထာငစအသးစာရတများအတက လေလာကမ�မ�ေသာေ�ကာင

ထငး�ငငသ သားေရာက၍ အလပလပကင�ကသညများလညး

�သည။ ယခငက ကနးတနးေကျးရာ�င မလမးမကမးတငပင

ေကအနယ�င တပမေတာတအ�ကား တကပများ ြဖစပားေလ�သည။

ကနးတနးေကျးရာသည ြမနမာအစးရ၏

တရားဝငအပချပမ�ဧရယာတစခ ြဖစေသာြငား

လကနကကငတပဖ�များ�ကား အပစအခတရပစခ�ကသည ၂၀၁၅

Page 52: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

232 | Lue Htar

ခ�စထ ဘက�စဖကစလးက အခန�င ဆကေ�ကးေငများ

ေပးလာခ�ကရသည။ ေကအနယမ ခထကလာသည (ကရင)

တငးရငးသားလကနကတပဖ�တစဖ�က အစးရ�င

အပစအခတရပစေရး လကမတေရးထးလာသြဖင သက� ရာဇ ၁၉၉၇

ခ�စတင �ငငေတာအစးရက ၎ငးတအား ေြမဧက ၅၀၀ က

ေပးအပလကရာတင ကနးတနးရာမ ေဒသခအချ�၏

အသမးအဆညးခ လယယာေြမများလညး ပါဝငသည။

ဤအစအမေ�ကာင ေြမယာပငဆငမ�အြငငးပားြပဿနာများစာ

ြဖစပားလျက��ပး အသမးအဆညးခထားရသည ေြမေနရာများတင

ေကအနယခထက လကနကကငတပဖ�များအတက

စကပျးေရးရာသေရာကတငး ရာသရာသားများက

လပအားေပးလပခ�ကရသည။ ယခအခါ ယငးေြမေနရာများက

ြပနလညရယရန ရာသရာသားများက �ကးပမးလျက�ပး

လာမညအပငးတင ၎ငးတ၏ �ကးပမးမ�များအေ�ကာငးက

ေဖာြပသားပါမည။

ေြမယာြပဿနာများက လကေတ�ကငတယ ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးြခငး

ေလလာမ�တင ပါဝငခ�ကသည ေကျးလက�င �မ � ြပေနြပညသများက

၎ငးတအေနြဖင ေြမယာြပဿနာတစခ�င �ကေတ�လာရပါက

မညသညအရာများက ြပလပပါမညနညးဟ ေမးြမနးရာ တရားဝင

ချမတထားသည လပထးလပနညးများအတငး အဆငဆငက

ေဆာငရကသားမညဟ ေြဖ�ကားေလ��ကသည။

တရားဝငလပထးလပနညးများ အတငးလပေဆာငသညဆရာတင

အပချပေရးစနစ� ရပကက သမဟတ ေကျးရာအပစအဆငမစ၍

Page 53: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 233 ေနြပညေတာ� ဗဟအစးရအဆငထ

အထကေအာကအဆငများအတငး တစဆငချငးစ

ေဆာငရကသားြခငးက ဆလသည။ သရာတင

အမနတကယြဖစပားလျက�သည

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက ေစာင�ကညေလလာ�ပး

ယငးြပဿနာများ�ငပတသက၍ လအများအား ေမးြမနး�ကညရာတင

တရားဝငလပထးလပနညးများက ယငးအတငး တစေသမသမး

လကနာေဆာငရက�ပး အြငငးပားြပဿနာများအား ေြဖ�ငးမ�မာ

�ားပါးြဖစစဉြဖစေ�ကာငး �ငး�ငးလငးလငး ေလလာေတ� �ရသည။

ေဒသခြပညသများသည ရပေကျးအဆငတငပင ြပဿနာများက

ေြဖ�ငးရန ပမအားသန�က�ပး ပမနတရားေရးစနစများက အသးြပရန

ဝနေလး�ကသည။ နယခများသည ြပဿနာများြဖစပားလာပါက

ပထမဦးစာ မမတဘာသာ ေြဖ�ငးရန �ကးစားေလ��က�ပး

အဆငမေြပသညအခါမသာ ေကျးရာ သမဟတ

ရပကကေခါငးေဆာငများထသ သားေရာက ေြဖ�ငး�ကသည။

ဥပေဒအရ ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရန

(�မ�ေပါ) ရပကက �င (ေကျးလကေတာ) ရာများမ

အပချပေရးမ�းေခါငးေဆာငများအား အာဏာေပးအပထားြခငး

မ�ေသာလညး အြငငးပားလျက ��ကသည ဘက�စဖကအ�ကား

�ကားဝငေစစပည���ငးေပးြခငးအားြဖင ေြမယာြပဿနာများက

အလတသေဘာ ကညေြဖ�ငးေပးေလ�သည။

ရပေကျးေခါငးေဆာငများသည ေြမယာ�ငပတသကသည

ဓေလထးတမးဆငရာစညးမျဉးစညးကမးများ၊

Page 54: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

234 | Lue Htar

ြပဿနာေြဖ�ငးေရးနညးလမးများက ေြမယာဥပေဒပါ ပဒမအချ� မ

ြပ�ာနးချကများ�င ေပါငးစပကာ ေြဖ�ငးေလ��ကသည။

ရပေကျးအပချပေရးမ�းများအေနြဖင အြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများတင

ဥပမာအားြဖင ပငနကကျးေကျာမ�ကသေသာ ရာဇဝတမ��င

မကငးလတသည ြဖစရပများပါဝငလာသညအခါများတင

ယငးအမ�များက ပမနတရားစရငေရးစနစများသ

လ�ေြပာငးေပး�ကသည။ သေသာလညး များေသာအားြဖင

ေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေကျးရာ သမဟတ ရပကကအဆငတင

ေြဖ�ငးမ� မြပ�ငသညအခါ ဥပေဒပါ လပထးလပနညးများအား

ယငးအတငး လကနာေဆာငရကြခငးထက အသမတေဆများ၊

တရားေရးဆငရာအကအညေပးသများအား

အသးြပေဆာငရကြခငးကသာ ပများသည။ ေအာကတင

ဤကသေသာ အြဖစအပျကမျး �မ�ေပါရပကကတင

မညကသ ြဖစပားလျက�သညက အလျငေဖာြပမညြဖစ�ပး

ေနာကတင ေကျးလကေတာရာ၌ အလားတြဖစရပမျး

မညကသ ြဖစပားသညက တငြပသားပါမည။

�မ � ြပတင ေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေြဖ�ငးြခငး

စာေရးသေလလာခသည ဘားအ�မ�ေပါရပကကမ

အပချပေရးမ�းသည ေြမယာ�င ဆငသညအမ�များက

ကငတယရာတင ေဒသအတငးအသးြပေနကျြဖစသည

နညးလမးအမျးမျးသး၍ ကငတယေြဖ�ငးသညနညးက

အသးချသားသည။ အဓကအားြဖင အလတသေဘာ

�ကားဝငေစစပည���ငးေပးသည နညးလမးက သးသားေသာလညး

Page 55: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 235 ေြမယာဥပေဒပါ ဥပေဒပဒများက မ�ကာခဏဆသလ ကးကားမ�များ

ြပေလ�သည။ အစးရေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာန၏

တရားဝငေြမစာရငးများ�င

နယနမတခြခားသတမတချကများကလညး

ကးကားအသးြပ�ကေလ�သည။ အမ�အတက

ဆးြဖတချကများချမရာတင ေြမယာဥပေဒက ဥပေဒအတငး

အသးြပြခငးမျးမဟတဘ ေြခာကလနရန�င

အလတသေဘာဆးြဖတချကများအား (တရား�းမ ချမတသည

အမနများကသ) ေလးစားလကနာ�ကရန

ရညရယအသးြပ�ကေလ�သည။ ဥပမာအားြဖင

စာေရးသေလလာေစာင�ကညခေသာ ရပကက�းသ

ေရာက�လာခသည လငမယားချငးကာ�ငး�ကသညအမ�တင (အမ�င

ြခ ပါဝငသည) ၎ငးတပးတပငပစ�ညးများက မညကသ ခေဝ�ကမည

ဆသည�င ပတသက၍ ဇနးြဖစသ�င ခငပနးြဖစသ�စဦးအ�ကား

သေဘာတညမ� မရဘ ြဖစေနခသည။ ယငးအမ�ကေြဖ�ငးသညအခါ

ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက အမျးသမးြဖစသအား ေအာကပါအတငး

ေြပာသည။

“ေြမယာဥပေဒအရဆလျင ဒအမ�မာ ခငဗျား�ငဖ အခငအေရးမ�ဘး။

ခငဗျားအမျးသားက ဒြခေြမေပါမာ �စေပါငး ၁၅ �စေလာက

ေနလာခ�ပး�ပ။ ဒတစချကတညးနတင ခငဗျားအမျးသား

အမ��ငသားမယ။”

ေြမယာဥပေဒတင အေမဆကခခင�င ပတသက�ပး

ေဖာြပထားြခငးမ�ေပ။ သေသာ အကယ၍

Page 56: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

236 | Lue Htar

ပဂ�လတစဦးတစေယာကသည ေြမေနရာတစခတင ၃ �စအထက

ဆကတကေနထငခပါက အဆပါပဂ�လသည ယငးေြမကကက

အလအေလျာကပငဆင�ငမညဟ ဆထားသည။

ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းသည ဇနးြဖစသအား ယငးဥပေဒပဒမြဖင

ေြခာကလန �ပး လငမယား�စဦး�ကား

ပငဆငမ�ခေဝေရးသေဘာတညချကတစခ ရေအာင ြပလပခသည။

သ�ငတင အမ�အတက အမနတကယ အမနချမတသညအခါ

ေြမယာဥပေဒက ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက အသးြပခေပ။

ရပကကအတငး� အေမခေဝြခငးဆငရာဓေလထးတမးများအရ

ပငဆငမ�က သားသမးများ�င အမျးသမးြဖစသအပါအဝင

မသားစဝငများအားလးအ�ကား ညတညမ�

ခေဝရမညြဖစသညအတက အမျးသားြဖစသသည

ပငဆငမ�အားလး၏ ေလးပပ တစပကသာ ရသငေ�ကာငး

ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက အမနချမတခသည။

အမခေဝြခငး�င အမြခေြမဆငရာကစ�များအပါအဝင

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာအများစက တရားဥပေဒအတငး

အတအကျမဟတဘ ဤနညးလမးြဖစသာ ေြဖ�ငးေလ��ကသည။

ေြမယာဥပေဒက ဥပေဒအတငး တက�က

အသးချြခငးမ�ေသာလညး အမ�တင ပါဝငပတသကသများအ�ကား

သေဘာတညမ� တစစတရာရရန လပေဆာငရာတင

အရငးအြမစတစခအေနြဖင အသးြပ�ကေလ�သည။ ဤသ ြဖင

ဥပေဒမ ြပ�ာနးသတမတထားသည လပထးလပနညးများ�င

Page 57: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 237 ဥပေဒြပ�ာနးချကမ�သည နညးလမးများက

ေရာေ�ာအသးြပ�ကသည။

ေြမယာြပဿနာများ�င ရငဆင�ကေတ�ရသညအခါ

ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းထ သားေရာကသည နညးလမးအြပင

ေဗဒငဆရာ၊ ေ� � ြဖစေဟာဆရာ�င ဘနးေတာ�ကးတကသေသာ

ကးကယယ�ကညမ� နယပယအတငးမ ပဂ�လများ၊

ရဟနးများထတငလညး အကအညေတာငးခ�ကသည။

ယ�ကညသများသည ၎ငးတ၏ ကအညများ

ေလျာပါးေစရနလညးေကာငး၊ ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�များတင

အမ�များ�ငြခငး သမဟတ ေဈးတနသည ေြမကကများ

ဝယယရ�ြခငးစသည လအငဆ��များ

ြပညဝ�င�ကေစရနလညးေကာငး ဤကသေသာ ပဂ�လများအား

ေငေ�ကးလ�ဒါနးပေဇာ�က�ပး ယ�တာများ ရယေလ��ကသည။

ေြမယာများအသမးခရသည အမ�ကစ�များအပါအဝင ပမ�ကးမားသည

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများတင ဘနးေတာ�ကးများအားလညး

အကအည ေတာငးခ�ကေလ�သည။ အထးသြဖင ဘားအ�မ�ေပါ၌

ေြမယာြပဿနာများ ေြဖ�ငးသညေနရာတင ဩဇာ�ကးမားသည

ရဟနးအဖ�အစညးတစခြဖစသည မဘသ ၏ ပါဝငမ�မာ

တးလျက�လာေနသည။ မဘသအဖ�ထတင ေြမယာကစ�များက

အထးြပကငတယရန ရဟနးေတာတစပါးကပင သးသန

တာဝနေပးအပထားသည။ တရား�းသေရာက�လာသည

ေြမယာအမ�များက ရငဆင�ကရသများအတက အဆပါ ရဟနးက

Page 58: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

238 | Lue Htar

ရဖနရခါ အကအညများေပးတတသည။ သေသာ

ယငးအကအညများက ပမနစနစတကျေပးြခငးမျးေတာ မဟတေပ။

ေအာကပါအမ�ြဖစရပေလလာမ�တင ဥပေဒြပ�ာနးချကပါ

လပထးလပနညးများက အတအကျ လကနာြခငးမျး မဟတဘ

ဘနးေတာ�ကးများ�င အြခားေသာ ြပငပပဂ�လအမျးမျး၏

ကညေဆာငမမ�များက ရယလျက �ကးမားသည

ေြမယာအသမးခရမ�ကစ�ရပများက ြပညသလထက မညကသ

ရငဆင�ကသညအေနအထားက စာေရးသ

သ�ပေဖာတငြပသားပါမည။ အမ�တင

ပါဝငကညေဆာငရကေပး�ကသများတင �ငငေရးပါတအဖ�ဝငများ၊

ြပညနယအဆငဝန�ကးများ၊ ရဟနးေတာများ�င

ပညာတတပဂ�လများတ ပါဝင�ကသည။ ေဖာြပပါ အမ�တင

ဘနးေတာ�ကးများ�င လပဂ�လအမျးမျးတ၏ ပါဝငမ�များ�ငအတ

အမ�ဓါးစာခြဖစခရသည ေဒါ နနကသေသာ စာတတေပတတပဂ�လ

တစေယာကမဟတသည သက�ကးအမျးသမးတစဦးအေနြဖင

ေြမယာပငဆငမ��င ပတသကေသာ �းပငးဆငရာ

စာရကစာတမးများ၊ ေြမယာဥပေဒများက �ငး�ငးလငးလငး

နားမလညသညအတက ေြမယာြပဿနာများက

ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးရာတင မညကသေသာ အခကအခများ

�ကေတ� ခရသညကလညး တငြပသားပါမည။

�မ � ြပတင ေလလာခသည ြဖစရပ -- ေြမယာအသမးဆညးခရြခငး�င

ဘနးေတာ�ကးများ၏ အခနးက�

Page 59: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 239 ယခငက လယကကြဖစခဖးသည ေြမေနရာများက ၁၉၉၂ ခ�စတင

လေနအမြခများအြဖစ အကကချ၍ ရပကက က ဟေြပာငးလမ�

ြပလကသညအခါ လယယာေြမအေြမာကအများက

�ငငေတာအစးရက သမးဆညးခသည။ ဤတင ေဒါ နနပငဆငသည

ေြမ ၅ ဧကအနက ၄ ဧကလညး အသမးခခရသည။ ေဒါ နနအား

အလျားအန စတရနးေပ ၅၀ x ၇၅ �သည လေနအမြခ တစြခက

ေလျာေ�ကးအြဖစ ြပနလညရ�ခသည။ ေဒါ နန�င စာေရးသ

ေတ�ဆခသညအချနတင ေြမး(ေယာကျားေလး) ြဖစသ�ငအတ

ေနထငလျက�သည။ သားသမး ၄ ေယာကမာ

အမေထာငအသးသးကျ�ပး ထငး�ငငတင အလပသားေရာက

လပကငလျက��ကသည။ ေဒါ နနသည စာေရးစာဖတ

မလပတတသည အသက�ကးအမျးသမးတစဦးလညး ြဖစသည။

ခငပနးြဖစသ မဆးပါးခငက ၎ငး�ငအတ မဟာဘနး�ကးေကျာငးတင

ေနထငခ�ကသည။ ေကျာငးထငဆရာေတာ�ငလညး

နးစပေကာငးမနသည ဆကဆေရး �ခသည။ ဦးသနးစမအစးရ

အာဏာရလာသညအခါ ရပကက က အတငးမ

ရပကကေနြပညသများက ၎ငးတ အသမးဆညးခခရသည

ေြမယာများအား ြပနလညရ�ရန စတငေတာငးဆလာခ�ကသည။

သက� ရာဇ ၂၀၁၂ ခ�စတင မမတပငဆငခသည ေြမဧကအချ�က

ြပနလညရ�ရနအလငာ ေဒါ နနတလငမယား�စဦး

မဟာေကျာငးထငဆရာေတာ၏ အကအညက ရယလျက ယခင

အစးရလကထက ကရငြပညနယဝန�ကးချပအား

ေတာငးဆခ�ကသည။ ဝန�ကးချပေဟာငးြဖစသသည

Page 60: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

240 | Lue Htar

မဟာဘနးေတာ�ကးေကျာငးသ မ�ကာခဏ သားေရာကတတသ

ြဖစ�ပး ေဒါ နနတအား ေြမ ၁ ဧကက ြပနလညေပးအပခသည။

သေသာယငးသည ��တြဖငသာ ေပးခသည ခငြပချကြဖစ�ပး

ေြမယာပငဆငခငအသအမတြပလကမတကမ မရ�ခေပ။

ြပဿနာမာ ယငးြပနလညေပးအပခသည ေြမေနရာတင

မသားစေပါငး ၈ စခနေနထငေန�ကြခငး ြဖစသည။ မမခငပနး

ဆးပါးသားသညအချနတင ဝန�ကးချပက ြပနလညေပးအပခသည

ေြမက ရယလေသာေ�ကာင ယငးေြမေနရာတင

အေြခချေနထငေန�ကသည ြခေြမပင�ငအသစများ�င ေဒါ နန

အမ�ရငဆငရေတာသည။ ဘက�စဖကစလးက ပထမဦးစာ

ရပကကတရား�းတင ည���ငးေြဖ�ငး�ကသည။

အမြခေြမပင�ငသစမသားစ တစစစမ (အေမရကနေဒါလာ ၄၀၀၀

ခန�င တနဖးတညသည) ေငကျပ သနး ၅၀ က ေလျာေ�ကးအြဖစ

ေဒါ နနက ရယလသည။ ေြမကကေပါတင အမေဆာကထားသည

စးပားေရးလပငနး�ငအမျးသားတစဦးက ေငကျပ ၁၅ သနးသာ

ေပးလသည။ ကျန�သည မသားစ ၇ စ က မညသညေလျာေ�ကးမ

မေပး�ငေ�ကာငး ေြပာသညဟ ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက

စာေရးသတအား ြပနလညေြပာြပသည။ အဘယေ�ကာငဆေသာ

၎ငးတတင ယခင ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက ေပးအပထားသည

ေြမပငဆငမ�အသအမတြပလကမတများ �ေန�ကေသာေ�ကာင

ြဖစသည။ (ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းေဟာငးသည ေြမကကများက

တရားမဝငေရာငးချခသညဟ စပစခထားရသည ဟ၍လညး

စာေရးသေမးြမနးခသည အြခားရငးြမစများက ေြပာြပ�ကသည။)

Page 61: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 241 ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စ မတလတင အမ�က ေနာကထပတစ�ကမ

ြပနလညေဖာထတရန ေဒါ နန �ကးစားခသည။ �ကားနာပက

မဟာဘနး�ကးေကျာငးတင ြပလပခ�ပး စာေရးသတ၏

ကငးဆငးသေတသနအဖ�လညး တကေရာကေစာင�ကည

ေလလာခသည။ ေဒါ နနအား လက�အမြခေြမပင�ငများက လနစာမ

စတပျကေန�က�ပ ြဖစသညအတက အမ�က ရပကကတရား�းတင

ေနာကတစခါ ေြဖ�ငးရန ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက

မလလားေတာေပ။ ရဟနးေတာများကမ

�ကညည ေလးစား�ကေသာေ�ကာင ဘနေတာ�ကးေကျာငး၌ အမ�က

�ကားနာပါက လအများ ကမး�းထး ြဖစ�ကမညမဟတဟ

အပချပေရးမ�းက ယ�ကညေမ�ာလငထားသည။

ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�း�ငအတ ရပကကလ�ကးပငးက

သကဆငသများအ�ကား �ကားဝငေစစပည���ငးေပးေနစဉ

ေကျာငးထငဆရာေတာက နားေထာင၍သာ ေနေလသည။ သ�င

ေဒါ နနအား အားလးက နစနာေ�ကးေပးရန သေဘာတ�ကသည။

သေသာ သနး ၅၀ ဟသည ေငေ�ကးပမာဏအထ ေပးရနကမ

လကမခခ�ကေပ။ ည���ငးမ�အချ� ြပလပ�က�ပးေနာက အမေထာငစ

တစစလ�င ေင ၁ သနး ေပးမညဟသည အချကက လကမခချငဘ

ေဒါ နန လကခခရသည။ ေဒါ နနအေနြဖင အမ�က ဥပေဒအရ

ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးရန �ကးစားပါက အချနများစာ ကနမညြဖစ�ပး

ေလျာေ�ကးတစစတရာ မရသည အေြခအေနမျးလညး

�ကေတ�ရ�ငေချ �သညအတက အခရ�မည ေငပမာဏက

လကခသငေ�ကာငး ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက ေဒါ နနအား

Page 62: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

242 | Lue Htar

ေြဖာငးဖျေြပာဆသည။ �ကားနာမ� �ပးသားေသာလညး

ေဒါ နနအေနြဖင မေကျနပ�ငေသးသညအတက စမးေချာငးအနား

ေြမကကအသစက သ(မ)အား ေပးအပခသည

ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းထ ထပမတင�ကားြပနသည။ သေသာလညး

အစးရက သမးဆညးရယခသည ကျနသည ေြမဧက ၄ ဧကအတက

နစနာေ�ကးကလညး သ (မ) အေနြဖင ရယလေသးသည။

စမးေချာငးအနးမ ေြမကကက ေဒါ နန ရ��ပးသည�င

အမ�အသားအလာက တစမျးတဖေြပာငးလသားသည။

ေြမကကအသစ၏ နယနမတကေကျာ၍ ေြမကကက ကာရထားရန

အမနးနားချငးတစဦးက ေဒါ နနအား အ�ကေပးသည။

ယငးအမနးချငး၏ အလပ�ငသေဌးက ၎ငးေြမကကအား

ဝယယရနမျကစကျေနသညဟလညး ေြပာသည။ သ�င သ (မ)အား

ေပးအပထားသည ေြမကကအြပင အနးအနားေြမေနရာများကလညး

မမအပငသဖယ ေဒါ နန တးချ� ြခဝငးခတထားလကသည။

မမအေနြဖင ဤကသ ြပလပရန အခငအေရး�သညဟ

ယ�ကညေ�ကာငး၊ ယငးေြမများမာ ပင�ငမေြမများ ြဖစေသာေ�ကာင

ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနထမ ခငြပချကလညး

ရ�ထား�ပးသားြဖစေ�ကာငး စာေရးသတအား ေဒါ နန

ြပနလညေြပာြပသည။ ယငးေြမကကမာ လက�

ရနကန�မ�တငေနထငသည တပမေတာသား တစဦးက ပငဆငသည

ေြမကကြဖစသညဟ ဆကာ ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက ေဒါ နန၏

လပရပက အြပငးအထနကနကကေြပာေလသည။ သ (မ)၏

လပေဆာငချကမာ ပငနကကျးေကျာရာေရာကသညအတက

Page 63: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 243 ရာဇဝတမ�တစခ ြဖစေ�ကာငးလညး အပချပေရးမ�းက ေြပာသည။

“အဖား လပေနတာေတ ရပလကပါေတာ။ ဒအတငးဆကလပေနလ�င

အဖား အချပထ သားရမယ။ ဒဟာ (ေြမကက) က ပင�င�တယ။

ပင�ငေတက တင�ကားတာေတ လပလာ�ငတယ” ဟလညး

သတေပးေြပာဆေလသည။ ေဒါ နနအေနြဖင င�ပးရငးသာ

ငေနရေတာသည။

သက� ရာဇ ၂၀၁၆ ခ�စ ေအာကတဘာလ ေရာကသညတင

ြခစညး�းက ေဒါ နန မဖယ�ားခေသးေပ။ အပချပေရးမ�းက သ (မ)က

လမလညလညဖျားေနသညဟသာ ေဒါ နန အထင�ေနခသည။

မညသညအရာက ြပလပရမညမနး မသေတာသလ၊ သ (မ)အေနြဖင

တရား�းသလညး မသားချငေပ။ သ (မ)အတက ြဖစစဉများမာ

��ပေထးလနးလသည ဟ၍လညး ေဒါ နန ေြပာသည။ သ(မ)၏

�ငငသားမတပတငကဒမာလညး ေပျာကဆးေန�ပး

ယငး�ငပတသက၍လညး ရစခနးက သတငးပရဦးမည။

ေဒါ နနအေနြဖင ေြမပကလညး မနမနကနကန မ�ကညတတေပ။

ေဒါ နန စာရကစာတမးများ၏ မတ� အများအြပားက စာေရးသ

ရ�ထား�ပး ယငးတအထတင ေြမယာ�င ပတသကသည

အသအမတြပ လကမတများလညး ပါဝငသည။ ၂၀၁၂ ခ�စ

မတငမက ြမနမာ�ငငတင �ငးလငးတကျသည

ေြမယာပငဆငမ�အသအမတြပလကမတများ �မေနခသညအတက

ေဒါ နနထတင ေြမယာဆငရာ စာရကစာတမးများ �ေနမ�မာ

နားမလည�ငစရာပင ြဖစသည။ ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စတင �မ�နယအဆင

ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနမ တာဝန�သက သ (မ) အေနြဖင

Page 64: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

244 | Lue Htar

ြပညနယဝန�ကးချပထ ရပကကအတငး� စမးေချာငးနေဘး

ေြမကကက ရ�ထားသညဟ သားေရာကသတငးမပရန

ေြပာသညဟလညး ေဒါ နနက ြပနလညေြပာြပသည။

ဆရာေတာမတစဆင ဝန�ကးချပ�င

ေဒါ နနအဆကအသယေကာငးများ�ေနသညကလညးေကာငး၊

ေဒါ နနအမ�တင အစးရ (အပချပေရးစနစ) အထကအဆငမ

တာဝန�ပဂ�လများ ပါဝငလာမညကလညးေကာငး

ေဒသအဆင�းပငးဆငရာ တာဝန�သများက မလလား�ကေပ။

ေဒသအာဏာပငများက အမ�က ေဒသအဆငတငပင

ေြဖ�ငးလ�ကသည။

၂၀၁၅ ခ�စ မတလအတငး ြပလပခသည �ကားနာမ��ပးေနာက

အသမးအဆညးခေြမယာများ�င ပတသက�ပး

မဟာေကျာငးထငဆရာေတာထမအကအညက ေဒါ နန

ဆကလကရယေနခသည။ ဆရာေတာအေနြဖင ဤကစ�တင

တက�ကပါဝင မပတသကလသညအတက မဘသအဖ�အတငးမ

ေြမယာကစ�က�မးကျငသ ရဟနးတစပါးအား ဆကသယေပးခသည။

ေဒါ နန၏ အမ�ကစ�တစေလ�ာကလး အဆပါဘနး�ကးက သ (မ)အား

ကညေနခသည။ ဘနးေတာ�ကးအေနြဖင �ငငေရးအေြခအေန

အေြပာငးအလက ေစာငဆငးခ�ပး အနအယလဒအစးရ

အာဏာရလာသညအချနေရာကသညအခါမ အမ�ကစ�အတက

စတငလ�ပ�ားခသည။ ေဒါ နန ကယစား အနအယလဒ အစးရ၏

(ကရင) ြပညနယဝန�ကးချပက ဆကသယခ�ပး ေဒါ နနအမ�

ေြဖ�ငးေရးနညးလမးများက ဝန�ကးချပအား

Page 65: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 245 အ�ကေပးမန �ကားခသည။ ဝန�ကးချပအသစက ေဒါ နန၏

ေြမအမ�က စာြဖငေရးသား�ပး ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနသ တငြပရန

ဆရာေတာအား ေြပာ�ကားခသည။ မဟာဘနးေတာ�ကးေကျာငးမ

ပဂ�လတစဦးက ေဒါ နနအတက စာတစေစာငကညေရးသားေပး�ပး

သအားပလာေပးရန မဘသဘနးေတာ�ကးက မနမာ��န�ကားခသည။

သ�ငတင ြပညနယဝန�ကးချပအသစ�င

အနအယလဒတာဝန�ပဂ�လများက ေြမယာဥပေဒ�ငပတသတ�ပး

များစာ သ�ထားမညမဟတဟ ယဆသညအတက

ေဒါ နနအမ��ငပတသက�ပး အဆငမေြပြဖစမညက ဘန�ကးက

စးရမေနခသည။ ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာန�းအေနြဖင

လပေဆာငမ�အချ�က အေကာငအထညေဆာငရကခပါက ယငးတက

စစေဆးရန�င မနကနသညဆးြဖတချကများ ချမတရန

အနအယလဒဝန�ကးချပ�င တာဝန�ပဂ�လများက

ေ� �ဆကေဆာငရက�ကရန အေတ�အ�က��ကသည။ သေသာ

ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနမ တာဝန�ပဂ�လမာ မဘသအေနြဖင ေဒါ နန၏

အမ�တင ကညလကပါေဆာငရကရနက အလ�မာ

မဟတသညအတက မညသညအခါမ မနမနကနကန

ေဆာငရကေပးမညမဟတဟ ဘနးေတာ�ကးက အထင�ထားသည။

၂၀၁၆ ခ�စ ေအာကတဘာလတင ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနမ အရာ�က

ေဒါ နန၏ ေြမက လာေရာကတငးတာခ�ပး စမးေချာငးေဘး�

ေြမကကအတက အသအမတြပလကမတ ထတေပးခသည။

သ (မ)၏ ေြမအမ�က တရားဥပေဒလပထးလပနညးများအတငးသာ

ေြဖ�ငးလခသညဟ ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနက ယခငက

Page 66: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

246 | Lue Htar

ေြပာ�ကားခသညဟ စာေရးသအား ေဒါ နန ြပနေြပာငးေြပာြပသည။

သေသာ ရပကကအပချပေရးမ�းက သ (မ)အေနြဖင

ဥပေဒအတငးလကနာေဆာငရက�ငေသာလညး ယငးမာ

အချန�ကာြမငမညြဖစ�ပး သ(မ) လလားသည အေြဖလညး

ရ�ငမညမဟတဟ သတေပးေြပာ�ကားခဖးသည။ ၎ငးတ၏

အစအမသည သ (မ)အတက အေကာငးဆး ြဖစသညဟလညး

အပချပေရးမ�းက ေဒါ နနက အခငအမာေြပာခသည။ ယငးမာ

သ (မ)အမ�က ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စ မတလအတငး ဘနးေတာ�ကးေကျာငးတင

�ကားနာခသညအချနမစ၍ ေဒါ နန ေတာကေလ�ာက

လကခရ�ခသည အ�ကတစခ ြဖစသည။ ေဒါ နန၏ အမ�

မညကသေသာ ပစြဖင အ�ပးသတသားမညက မဘသ အဖ�အေနြဖင

�ကတငမသသလ၊ ေဒါ နနကယတငလညး အမ��ငပတသက၍

မညကသ ေ� �ဆကသားရမညကလညး မသေပ။

ဤအမ�တင အမ�ရငဆငရသများက မတညသည ပဂ�လ၊

အဖ�အစညးအမျးမျးထ သားေရာကအကအညေတာငးခကာ

ြပဿနာများက �ကးစားေြဖ�ငးရာတင ‘legal hybridity’

သေဘာအယအဆက ထငထင�ား�ားေတ� ြမငရမည ြဖစသည။

အစးရတာဝနများက ထမးေဆာငေန�ကသည ဝနထမးများသညပင

ြပညသများအေနြဖင ဥပေဒြပ�ာနးချကပါ လပထးလပနညးများက

လကနာ�ပးအမ�ေြဖ�ငးြခငးက မလလား�ကေပ။ ၎ငးတအေနြဖင

အစးရ၏ ေြမယာဥပေဒက အသးြပ�ကေသာလညး

ေြမြပငအေြခအေနများ�င ပတသက�ပး ၎ငးတ၏

အြမငသေဘာထားများအေပါအေြခခ၍သာ ဥပေဒက

Page 67: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 247 အသးြပ�ကသည။ ထအြပင ေြမယာြပဿနာများက

ေြဖ�ငးသညပစအေပါ လ�မးမးမ��သည အချကများတင

ေဒါ နနကသ �မ �ေနလထများပင လက�ေြမယာဥပေဒအေ�ကာငးက

နားလညသေဘာေပါကမ�မ�သညအချက၊ ၎ငးတအေနြဖင

မေကျနပမ�များ �လာပါက မညသညေနရာတင မညကသ

တင�ကားေတာငးဆရမညက �ငးလငးစာ

မသ�ကေသးသညအချကတလညး ပါဝငသည။

အထကတငေဖာြပခသည ြဖစရပနမနာအရ ရဟနးေတာများ�င

ဝန�ကးချပေဟာငးကသေသာ မမတ၏

အသအက�မးမတေဆအဆကအသယများထ

ချဉးကပအကအညရယသည နညးလမးများက လအများ

ပမအသးြပ�ကသည။

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက ေြဖ�ငးမ�ြပရသညအခါ

မမဘာသာအမအခကငးကငး ရပတညရနခကခ�ပး

အလယတကထခကခစားရ�ငသများ �င စာတတေြမာကမ�

မ�သညသများအတက အေြခအေနက ပ၍ဆး�ငေ�ကာငးကလညး

ေဖာြပပါြဖစရပက မးေမာငးထးလျက�သည။ သ (မ)က ရပကက�င

�မ �နယအာဏာပငများက လမညာလညဖျားေနသညဟ

ေဒါ နနအေနြဖင ေလးေလးနကနက ယ�ကညထားသညအတက

မမအမ�ကစ�က ကညေြဖ�ငးေပးရန ဩဇာတက� မ�ကးမား

ဘနးေတာ�ကးများ�င ြပညနယအဆင အစးရအရာ�များအား သ(မ)

အားကးအားထား ြပခသည။ အဦးအစတင အမ�က

ရပကကအဆငတငသာ ေြဖ�ငးရန သ(မ) ပမ လလားခေသာလညး

Page 68: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

248 | Lue Htar

ယငးအတငး ေြဖ�ငးမ�ြပရန ခကခေ�ကာငး

လကေတ�သတြပမလာသည�ငအမ� အထကအာဏာပငများ၏

အကအညက ရယေြဖ�ငးရန ေဒါ နန အာသသြဖစလာခသည။

ေကျးလကေဒသမ ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ဆငရာြပဿနာများ

�မ� ြပရပကကေနြပညသများကသပင

ကနးတနးေကျးရာသေကျးရာသားများကလညး

ေြမယာဆငရာြပဿနာများက ေကျးရာအဆငတငပင

ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးရန ပမလလား�ကသည။ ကနးတနးရာကသ

ေကျးလကေဒသများတင ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနများ�င

ေြမယာစမခနခမ�ေကာမတများထမ အကအညများရယမ� ပ၍ပင

နညးပါး�ကသည။ ရာသရာသားများတင ေြမယာဥပေဒ�င

ပတသကသည ဗဟသတ နညးပါးလျက��က�ပး

ဌာနဆငရာလပထးလပနညးများ�ငလညး ရငး�းက�မးဝငမ�

မ��ကေပ။ ေကျးလကေနြပညသများအတက အစးရဌာနများ၏

ြပညသဝနေဆာငမ�စနစမာ အလနတရာမ ��ပေထး�ပး ေငေ�ကး

အကနအကျများြခငး၊ အချနေပးရြခငး�င ဘာသာစကားဆငရာ

အတားအဆးများ�ြခငးဟသည အချကများြဖင

ယဉလျက��ြမင�ကသည။ စာေရးသ၏ မျကြမငလကေတ�

ေလလာေတ� �ချကများအရ ရပရာေခါငးေဆာငပငးများပင

ေြမယာဥပေဒက နားလညမ�မ�ေ�ကာငး ေတ�ရသည။

ေကျးရာအပစအဆင အပချပေရးမ�းများသာ အစးရဥပေဒများ�င

ပတသကသည ဗဟသတ�ထားသည။ သ�ငတင

�းပငးဆငရာလပထးလပနညးများက အဆပါအပချပေရးမ�းများက

Page 69: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 249 လကနာအသးြပမ� သပမ�ေပ။ ေကျးရာေခါငးေဆာငများကသပင

ေစစပည���ငးေရးနညးလမးများ�င

ဓေလထးတမးဆငရာနညးလမးများက အဓက အသးြပေလ�သည။

ေကျးရာအတငး မေြဖ�ငး�ငသည အမ�ကစ�များအတက

ေကျးရာေခါငးေဆာငများေရာ၊ ရာသရာသားများပါ ယခငက

တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ�အစညးများအား မ�ကာခဏဆသလ

ေတ�ဆေဆးေ�းတငပင�ကေလ�သည။ ယခအခါ ယငးကသေသာ

တငပငေဆးေ�းမ�များမာ ေလျာပါးလာေသာလညး

ပမ�ကးမား��ပေထးသည အမ�ကစ�များ ေပါေပါကလာသညအခါ

တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ�များထ အကအညေတာငးခ�ကသည

အေြခအေနများ ြဖစေပါလျက�ေသးသည။

ယခငက တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ�များထ ချဉးကပအကအည

ေတာငးခရြခငးမာ �ငငေတာအစးရ၏ ယ��ရားများထကစာလ�င

၎ငးတက ပ၍လ�ငလ�ငြမနြမန ဆးြဖတလပကင�ငသညသာမက

အကနအကျအားြဖငလညး ပမသကသာေသာေ�ကာငြဖစသညဟ

ရာသရာသားများက စာေရးသအား ေြပာြပ�ကသည။

တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ�များ၌ မမတ၏

ေဆမျးအရငးအချာများ ဝငေရာကတာဝနထမးေဆာငေန�ကသည

အေြခအေနမျးတငလညး သကဆငရာေကျးရာသ/သားများက

ယငးအဖ�များထ သားေရာကအကအညရယြခငးမျး ��ငသည။

တငးရငးသားအဖ�များက တရားမ�တမ� ပ�သည ဆးြဖတချကမျးက

ချမတေပး�ငသညဟလညး ရာသ/သားများက ယဆ�ကသည။

(အစးရ�င တငးရငးသား လကနကကငအဖ�များအ�ကား) ၂၀၁၂

Page 70: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

250 | Lue Htar

အပစအခတရပစေရး သေဘာတညချက ရ��က�ပးေနာက

တငးရငးသားအဖ�များ၏ အခနးက� ေမးမနလာ�ပး ရာသ/သားများမ

၎ငးတထ ချဉးကပအကအညေတာငးြခငးများ ေလျာနညးလာသည။

စာေရးသြပလပခသည သေတသနတင ပါဝငခသည ပဂ�လတစဦးက

ေအာကပါအတငး ေြပာသည။ “အခဆရင လကနကကငအဖ�ေတမာ

(အလျငကေလာက) အာဏာသပမ�ေတာဘး။ အမ�ေတက

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရတာလညး သတအလပ မဟတေတာဘး။”

အြငငးပားစရာကစ�များက အဓက တာဝနယ ေြဖ�ငးရသမာ

ေကျးရာအပချပေရးမ�းများ ြဖစလာသည။ တငးရငးသား

လကနကကငအဖ�များတင ဩဇာအ�နအဝါ ကျဆငးသားေသာလညး

၎ငးတ၏ ေဆာငရကချကများက အစးရ၏ တရားဝင

ယ��ရားအေဆာကအအများထက ပမထေရာကမ��သညဟ

ယ�ကည�ကသည ေဒသခအချ�လညး �သည။ ဤအချက�င

ပတသက�ပး ဦးေနေကျာ ဆသက �ငးလငးေြပာြပသည

ေအာကပါအမ�ကစ�က စာေရးသ ေလလာခပါသည။

က�နေတာ ေယာကဖ ြဖစသရ ေယာက�မဆကေန

ေြမကကတစကကဝယခတယ။ �ပးခတ သး�စက က�နေတာ

ေယာကဖ ဆးေတာ သေယာက�မ က ေြမက ြပနလချငတယ

ြဖစေရာ။ �စဦးသေဘာတ ချပထားတ စာချပေတာ �တယ။

ဒါေပမ စာချပက တရား�းမာ အေသအချာ ချပထားတာေတာ

မဟတဘးေပါ။ ဒါန ေကျးရာအပချပေရးမ�း (ရာအမေခါငး)

ဆက က�နေတာ သားရတာေပါ။ အပချပေရးမ�းက

က�နေတာတ �ကားမာ ေစစပည���ငးေပးတယ။

Page 71: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 251 ေယာက�မြဖစသက ေြမကကက ြပနလချငတယဆရင လက�

ေပါကေဈးေပးဝယရမယလလညး အပချပေရးမ�းက

ေြပာတယ။ ဒါက ေယာက�မ�ကးက မလကနာဘန ေြမကက

ြပနရဖကပ ဆကလပေနခတယ။ ဒါန က�နေတာရယ၊

ေကျးရာအပချပေရးမ�းရယ �စေယာကသား ေကျးရာအပစ

ေခါငးေဆာငဆက သား�ကတယ။

ေကျးရာအပစေခါငးေဆာငကလညး ရာက

အပချပမ�းေြပာတအတငးပ ေြပာတယ။ ဒါေပမ ဒါကလညး

ေယာက�မ�ကးက လကမခ�ငေတာ

ေကျးရာအပစေခါငးေဆာငက ဘာဆကလပရမယ

မသေတာဘး။ ေနာကဆးေတာ တစဖကရာက

(ေကအနယခထကအဖ�) တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ�ဝင

တစေယာကက အကညေတာငးေတာ သက ေကျးရာအပစ

အပချပေရးမ�းအမက လကသား�ပး

အမ�သားအမ�လာအေ�ကာငးက �ငးြပတယ။

ေကျးရာအပစတာဝနခ ရေတန ေကျးရာအပစ

အပချပေရးမ�းေတကလညး ဖနးဆကတယ။

လကနကကငအဖ�ဝငပဂ�လက အမ�က သကတင ကငတယ

ေြဖ�ငးတာေတာ မဟတပါဘး။ ဒါေပမ

ဘယလေြဖ�ငးရမလဆတာကေတာ အ�ကေပးတယ။

ေနာကဆးေတာ ေကျးရာအပစ ေခါငးေဆာငက

ေယာက�မ�ကးအေနန ေြမကကမလတနဖးရ �စဆ ၈ သနး

ကျပ (အေမရကနေဒါလာ ၅၈၀ ခန) က ေပးဖ

Page 72: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

252 | Lue Htar

အမနချမတလကတယ။ ေကျးရာအပစေခါငးေဆာငအေနန

အဒလ ဆးြဖတချက ချမတဖက လကနကကငအဖ�ဝငရ

ဩဇာအ�နအဝါက ရယအသးြပခရတယ။

�မ� ြပေဒသများတင ေတ� �ခရသညအတငးပင

ေကျးရာေခါငးေဆာငများက ဦးေဆာငေြဖ�ငးရန ခကခသည

�ကးမားကျယြပန��ပေထးလနးသညအမ�များက

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရာတင လပဂ�လအမျးမျး၊ အဖ�အစညးအဖဖက

ပါဝငပတသက�ကေလ�သည။ ေကျးလကေဒသများတငမ

တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ�များ�င အဖ�ဝငများ၏

ပါဝငပတသကမ�က �မ�ေပါထကပများသည။

လကနကကငအဖ�အစညးများပါဝငပတသကမ�သည အထးသြဖင

ေြမယာအသမးအဆညးခရသည အမ�ကစ�များ ြဖစေလ�သည။

ေအာကပါြဖစရပတင ဤကသေသာ ပါဝငပတသကမ�က

ေတ�ရသည။ လက�ေြပာငးလမ�များက

ေြမယာြပဿနာေြဖ�ငးေရးြဖစစဉအား မညသ ��ပေထးမ�

ြဖစေစသညကလညး ထငထင�ား�ား ေတ� �ရပါမည။

ေကျးလကေဒသတင ေလလာခသည ြဖစရပ --

ေြမယာအသမးဆညးခရြခငး�င လကနကကငအဖ�အစညးများ၏

အခနးက�

လနခသည ၁၉၉၇ ခ�စက ကနးတနးေကျးရာအတငး�င

အနးတဝကပတလညတင တပမေတာအစးရက လယယာေြမဧက

၅၀၀ က သမးဆညးခသည။ ယငးေြမများက တပမေတာအစးရ�င

အပစအခတရပစေရး လကမတေရးထးခသည ဖဒေအာငခင

Page 73: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 253 ဦးေဆာငသည ေကအနယခထကအဖ�ငယတစခအား ေပးအပခသည။

လယယာေြမပင�င ၁၃၅ ဦး မာ ရာေပါငး ၉ ရာမ ရာသရာသားများ

ြဖစ�ကသည။ ၁၀ ေယာကမာ ကနးတနးေကျးရာသ/သားများ

ြဖစ�ကသည။ ၎ငးတလယယာေြမ စတငအသမးခရသညအချနတင

လယသမားများမာ မညသထတငမ မတင�ကားရဘ �ေနခသည။

အသမးအဆညးခရသည ေြမေပါတင ဖဒေအာငခငက

စကပျးေရးလပငနးများ ေဆာငရကစဉအချနမာပင

လယရာေြမပင�င ရာသရာသားများက အခမလပအားေပး

အတငးအ�ကပေစခငးြခငး ခခ�ကရသည။ ဦးသနးစနအစးရ

အာဏာရလာ�ပးေနာကပငး လထအေနြဖင မမတရပငခငများအေပါ

ေတာငးဆတကပဝငရန ယ�ကညမ�ပမ အားေကာငးလာ�ပး ၎ငးတ၏

ေြမယာများက ြပနလညရယရန

စတဆ��ေပါေပါကလာ�ကေတာသည။ ပထမအဆငအေနြဖင

တရားဝငဖ�စညးထားသည ေြမယာစမခနခမ�ေကာမတ၊

ေြမစာရငးဦးစးဌာနစသညတသ မသားေရာက�ကေသးေသာလညး

၂၀၁၃ ခ�စတင ရာေကျာငးဆရာေဟာငး (ဦး)ေစာဝငးအား မမတ၏

မေကျနပချကများက ဖငဟေြပာ�ကားခသည။ (ဦး)ေစာဝငးမာ

ကနးတနးေကျးရာတင ပညာအတတဆးပဂ�လတစဦးအြဖစ

သတမတခရသြဖစသည။ ေနာငတင (ြမနမာ)

ေ�ကးမသတငးစာတငလညး စကားြပနအြဖစ အလပလပခသည။

(ဦး)ေစာဝငးသည အသက ၄၅ �စ��ပး

အြခားေသာေကျးရာသ/သားများကသပင ဗဒ�ဘာသာဝင

ဖလကရငလမျးတစဦး ြဖစသည။

Page 74: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

254 | Lue Htar

ရာသရာသားများ၏ လယယာေြမများက

ြပနလညရယေပးလသညအတက ၂၀၁၃ ခ�စတင ၎ငးတ၏ အမ�က

လကပါေဆာငရကရန (ဦး)ေစာဝငး သေဘာတခသည။ သေသာ

လသထင�ား ဆ��ြပရန�င သကဆငရာ လကနကကငအဖ�ထ

တင�ကားစာများ ေပးပရန (ဦး)ေစာဝငး၏ ��န�ကားချကက

လကနာေဆာငရကရန လယသမားများက မဝရ�ကေချ။

ဖဒေအာငခင�င ၎ငး၏ လကနကကငတပဖ�က ရာသ/သားများက

ေ�ကာကရ�ေန�ကရသည။ ထငထငေပါေပါ

ေတာငးဆတကပဝငရသည လယသများတချ�က (ဦး)ေစာဝငး

စစညး၍ အသမးခခရသည ေြမေနရာေပါတင “ဖဒေအာငခင

ငါတေြမြပနေပး” ဟသည စာတမးများ ကငေဆာငကာ

ဆ��ြပေစခသည။ ရာသရာသားများ ပထမဦးဆးအ�ကမ

ဆ��ြပသညအချနတင အသမးအဆညးခ ေြမကကေနရာေပါတင

ဖဒေအာငခင၏ တပဖ�ဝငများကာ ေသနတများကငေဆာငကာ

ေစာင�ကပေနခ�ကသည။ သ�င လယသမားများလညး

ဆ��ြပရာေနရာမ လညြပနလာခ�ကသည။ ဒတယအ�ကမ

ရာသ/သားများ ဆ��ြပရန သားသညအခါ (ဦး)ေစာဝငးက

ဖဒေအာငခင၏ တပဖ�ဝငစစသားများဆသားေရာကကာ

လကဆ��တဆကခ�ပး သမးဆညးထားသည ေြမကကများက

လယသမားများထ ြပနလညေပးအပသငေ�ကာငးက

ေြပေြပလညလည ေစစပည���ငးေြပာဆခသည။ လယယာေြမများက

လယသမားများထ ြပနလညေပးအပခမညဆပါက

ရတသမးထက�လာမည အသးအ�များက

Page 75: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 255 လကနကကငတပဖ�ဝငများ�ငလညး

ေဝမ�သားမညြဖစေ�ကာငးကလညး (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ကတေပးခသည။

(ဦး)ေစာဝငးဦးေဆာငသည လယသမားများအဖ� �င ဖဒေအာငခင၏

လကနကကငတပဖ�တ ေတ�ဆ�က�ပးေနာက

လက�လယယာေြမများသည ၎ငးတလကနကကငအဖ�အေနြဖင

အပစအခတရပစေရးစာချပတင လကမတေရး�ပးေနာက

တရားဝငလမးေ�ကာငးမတစဆင ရ�ခသည ေြမများ

ြဖစသညဟဆကာ ဖဒေအာငခငက �မ�နယတရား�းက တင�ကားစာ

ေပးပေလေတာသည။ ရနကန�မ� မ ေ� �ေနတစဦးအြပင

လသများသည ကရငလမျးေ� �ေန မနးေလးြမတေကျာကလညး

ဖဒေအာငခငမ ငားရမးခသည။ စာေရးသ၏ သေတသနတင

ပါဝငေြဖဆခသများက ေ� �ေန�စဦးစလးက ေမာေတာကားများ�င

ဖဒေအာငခင လာဘထးခသညဟ ေြပာြပ�ကသည။ ယငးက

(လကခသများက) လာဘေပးလာဘယမ�အစား ဝနေဆာငမ�အတက

အခေ�ကးေငဟ သတမတ�ကသည။ (ဦး)ေစာဝငးမာ

မနးေလး(ြမတေကျာ)�ငလညး ရငး�းသည

ဆကဆေရး��ငထား�ပးသား ြဖစသညအတက သ�င

တတတဆတဆကသယမ� လပခသည။ ေ� �ေနမနးေလးအား

ြဖစေ�ကာငးကနစငက (ဦး)ေစာဝငး �ငးလငးေြပာြပခ�ပးေနာက

မနးေလးသည ဘကေြပာငးသား�ပး လယသမားများအေရးက

စတငေထာကခ ကညပါဝငေဆာငရကခေတာသည။ သ�ငတင

အမ�က တရား�းမ လကခစရငြခငး မြပခေပ။

ေြမယာသမးဆညးခရမ�များမာ �ငငေရး�င ဆကစပမ��ေန�ပး၊

Page 76: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

256 | Lue Htar

ပါဝငပတသကသများအတက အလနတရာမ အ��ရာယများကာ

တရား�းများမလညး လကခေြဖ�ငးေပးရန ခကခလနးသညအတက

မညသညလပေဆာငမ�မျးကမ တရား�းများက

လပေဆာငမညမဟတေ�ကာငး (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ေြပာသည။

ဤကသေသာ အေြခအေနမျးက �ကားသရသည အချနတငပင

ြပညနယအဆင တပမေတာ အရာ�ေဟာငး တစဦးထ (ဦး)ေစာဝငး

တတတဆတချဉးကပကာ ေနြပညေတာ(ဗဟ)အဆငသ

မညပတင�ကားမ�ြပ�ငမညက ေမးြမနးမ� ြပေလသည။

တပမေတာအရာ�၏ အ�ကြပချကအရ တင�ကားစာတစေစာငက

သမ�တ�းသ (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ပခသည။ အမ�က ေြဖ�ငးရန

နညးလမး�ာစဉးစားေပးမညဟ သမ�တ�းမ

အေ�ကာငးြပန�ကားေသာလညး ယငးေနာကတင

မညသညလပေဆာငချကမ လပေဆာငသညက မေတ� �ခရေပ။

သ�င အမတ ၂၂ ေြခြမနတပမဌာနချပ လကေအာက�

တပမေတာတပရငး ၂၀၂ သ အမ�ကစ��င ပတသက၍ အကအညများ

သားေရာကေတာငးခရန (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ဆးြဖတခသည။ ဤကသ

စစဘကဆငရာ အရာ�များက ချဉးကပရာတင ဉာဏပညာ�င

သခငးတမနခငးနညးလမးများက အသးြပ၍ လမ�ာပါးနပစာ

လပေဆာငခရသညဟ (ဦး)ေစာဝငးက စာေရးသအား ေြပာြပခသည။

အမ�ကစ��င ပတသက�ပး ေအာကပါအတငး သမေမ� စာ �ငးလငး

ေြပာြပခသညဟ ဆသည။

“ဒေြမေတက လယသမားေတ ပငဆငတ လယယာေြမေတေလ။

လယလပစားဖ ေြမမ�လ�င ဒလယသမားေတမာ စားစရာ ဘာမ

Page 77: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 257 �ေတာမာ မဟတဘး။ ဒါေ�ကာင ဖဒေအာငခငဦးေဆာငတ

လကနကကငတပဖ� န က�နေတာတ ည���ငးေဆာငရကချငတယ။”

သ�င လယသမားများ၏ လယယာေြမများ တည�ရာေနရာသ

တပရငးမ�း ၂ ဦး ေရာကလာ�က�ပး လစတကစ

ေတ�ဆေဆးေ�း�ကသည။ ေဆးေ�းပတင တပမေတာမ တပရငးမ�း ၂

ဦး၊ ေကျးရာအပစေခါငးေဆာင၊ ေကျးရာအပချပေရးမ�း�င

ရပရာလ�ကးများ၊ လယသမားအချ�၊ (ဦး)ေစာဝငး �င ဖဒေအာငခင၏

ကယစားလယတ ပါဝင�ကသည။ ယငးဟငးလငးြပငေနရာတငပင

စစခ�းတစခပစ ဖနတးခ�ကသည။ ဤအြဖစအပျကမာ ၂၀၁၄

ခ�စအတငး ြဖစပားခြခငး ြဖစသည။ ပထမဦးစာ

တပမေတာတပရငးမ�း ၁ ဦးက လယသမားများဘကမ

ေြပာ�ကားချကက အလျင�ကားနာခသည။ ေြမဧက ၂၅၀ က

လယသများအား ြပနလညေပးအပသငေ�ကာငး တပရငးမ�းက

ဆးြဖတချကချသည။ သေသာ (ဦး)ေစာဝငး၊

ရပရာေခါငးေဆာငများ�င လယသမားများက ယငးဆးြဖတချကက

လကမခလ�ကေပ။ “သမးထားတ လယယာေြမဧကအကနလးက

ြပနေပးရမယ။ အကနလးမဟတရငေတာ က�နေတာတ လကခမာ

မဟတဘး” ဟ (ဦး)ေစာဝငးက တငြပေြပာဆခသည။ သ�င

ဖဒေအာငခင ဦးေဆာငသညအဖ�အေနြဖင

လယယာေြမများ(အားလး)က ြပနလညေပးအပရမညဟ

တပရငးမ�းက ��တအားြဖင ဆးြဖတချကချလကေလသည။ သေသာ

ဖဒေအာငခငအဖ�ဝငများက ေြမေနရာေပါမ အ�ပးတင

ဖယ�ားြခငးမျး မြပလပခေပ။ (အသမးအဆညးခထားရသည

Page 78: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

258 | Lue Htar

လယယာေြမေပါငး၏ ထကဝကြဖစသည ပမာဏ) ဧကေပါငး ၂၅၀

ခန �သည လယယာေြမေပါတင

ဖဒေအာငခငတပဖ�ဝငများဘကကေရာ၊ ရာသရာသားများဘကကပါ

မညသမ� ဝငေရာကစကပျးလပကငြခငး မြပရ�ကေတာေပ။

သက� ရာဇ ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စ �စဆနးပငးတင အနအယလဒပါတ၏

ေြမယာြပဿနာေြဖ�ငးေရးအဖ�အား တင�ကားစာတစေစာင

ေပးပခေသာလညး မမတ ပါတ အစးရမဖ�ခင ဤြပဿနာက

မေြဖ�ငး�ငေသးဟသာ အေ�ကာငးြပနခေ�ကာငး (ဦး)ေစာဝငး

ြပနလညေြပာြပသည။ ယငးအေ�ကာငးြပနချကမတစပါး

အနအယဒပါတမ အြခားေသာ အေ�ကာငး�ကားချကတစစတရာ

မရ�ေတာေ�ကာငးလညး ဆသည။ သ�င တပမေတာတပရငး ၂၀၂ သ

(ဦး)ေစာဝငး�င လယသမားများ ေနာကတစ�ကမ

ထပမသားေရာက�ကသည။ ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စ ဇလငလတင တပရငးမ�းက

ဖဒေအာငခင�ငအဖ�အား ၎ငးတ ရယထားသည

လယယာေြမများအားလးက လယသမားများအား အ�ပးအပင

ြပနလညေပးအပရန ထပမ��န�ကားခေသာလညး

အေ�ကာငးမထးခေပ။ အနအယလဒအစးရသစလကထကတင

အမ�က အ�ပးအြပတ ေြဖ�ငး�ငရမညဟ တပရငးမ�းက

ယငး�စတငပင ရာသရာသားများအား ကတေပးခသည။ ၂၀၁၆ ခ�စ

ဧ�ပလတင အနအယလဒအစးရတကလာ�ပး ြမနမာ�ငငအတငး

ြဖစေပါလျက�သည ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးမည၊ အမ�ရငဆငေနရသည

ေကျးရာများအားလးကလညး ကငးဆငးေလလာမ� ြပလပမညဟ

Page 79: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 259 သတငးစာများတင ေ�ကြငာခသည။ ဤေ�ကြငာချကက

ေတ� ��ပးေနာက အနအယလဒပါတထ

ေနာကထပတင�ကားစာတစေစာငက (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ေပးပခသည။

သသာထင�ားသည �ငငေရးေြပာငးလမ�များ

ြဖစထနးေပါေပါကလာသညအတက ၎ငးတ၏ လယယာေြမများက

ြပနလညရ�ေတာမညဟ လယသမားများ

ယ�ကညေမ�ာလငခ�ကသည။

ဤကသေသာ ေြမယာအမ�မျးက ရငဆငေြဖ�ငး�ငရန

သတ� �ဖလေ�ကာငး၊ အဖ�အစညးအမျးမျးထသလညး မေမာတမး

သားေရာက�ငဖလေ�ကာငး စာေရးသအား (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ေြပာသည။

ဘယသက ဘယလ ချဉးကပမလဆတာ သရမယ။

သကဆငရာ ရာရအေြခအေနန ရာသရာသားေတရ

စတပငးဆငရာကလညး သေဘာေပါကဖလတယ။

ေစစပည���ငးေဆးေ�းတတတ အရညအချငးလညး �ရမယ။

တစဖကက လကပါေဆာငရကေပးတ ေ� �ေနေတကလညး

သထားရမယ။ �ပးေတာ စစတပ၊

တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ�ေတ၊ အစးရန

တြခားဆကစပအဖ�အစညးေတ စသြဖင

အဖ�အစညးအမျးမျးန ပတသကတ ဗဟသတေတ ကယမာ

�ထားရမယ

ဟ၍လညး ေြပာသည။

၂၀၁၆ ခ�စ ေအာကတဘာလ ေရာကသညတင

အနအယလဒအစးရအေနြဖင မညသည ေြမယာြပဿနာကမ�

Page 80: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

260 | Lue Htar

မေြဖ�ငးရေသးေ�ကာငး (ဦး)ေစာဝငး စာေရးသအား ေြပာသည။

သမးဆညးခထားရသည ေြမယာများ�င ပတသကသည

အချကအလကများက ေကာကယရန အနအယလဒပါတအဖ�ဝငများ

ေရာကလာ�ကေသာလညး မညကသေသာ လပေဆာငချကမ

စတငလပကငခသညမျး မ�ေသးေပ။ ေြမယာများ

သမးဆညးခခရသည အမ�ကစ�များ�င ပတသက�ပး

မညသညသတငးစာတင မမအေနြဖင

ေဆာငးပါးေရးသားေဖာြပရမညက အချနေတာေတာ�ကာ�ကာ

(ဦး)ေစာဝငး စဉးစားခေသးသညဟလညး သရသည။ သအေနြဖင

ြပဿနာက ေသးထကသယြဖစေစမည နညးလမးများ သး�ပး

မေြဖ�ငးချငသညအတက အြခားေသာနညးလမးများ

ေရးချယအသးြပရန စဉးစားဆးြဖတခသည။ ၎ငးတပင

လယယာေြမများက လယသမားများ ြပနလညရ�ြခငး မ�ဘ

အမ�ဆးခနးတငသားမညက (ဦး)ေစာဝငး မလလားေပ။

အနအယလဒပါတ အာဏာရလာသညအခါ

ေြမယာအသမးအဆညးခရသည အမ�ေပါငးအေြမာကအများက

အစးရက ေြဖ�ငးမ� ြပ�ငမညဟ (ဦး)ေစာဝငး�င ရာသ/သားများ

ေမ�ာလငခ�ကေသာလညး အစးရမ ေြမယာြပဿနာများက

ေြဖ�ငးေနသညဟသည မညသညအသကမ� မ�ကားသရေသးေပ။

ကနးတနးေကျးရာ�င ေဒသအနးတဝကတင တပမေတာ၊

ယခငစစအစးရ �င တငးရငးသားလကနကကငတပဖ�များတ�င

ဆကစပမ��သည �ကးမားသည ေြမသမးယာသမးြပဿနာေပါငး ၅

ခအထ �ေသာလညး အမ�တစခကမ� မေြဖ�ငး�ငေသးေပ။

Page 81: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 261 ဒတယပငလ �ငမးချမးေရး ညလာခများက ေအာငြမငစာကျငးပ�ပး

(�ငငေရးအရ အေြဖ�ာ�ပး) မသာ

အသမးအဆညးခေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေြဖ�ငး�ငမညဟ

(ဦး)ေစာဝငး ယဆသည။

တစ�ငငလးအပစအခတရပစေရးသေဘာတစာချပ (အနစေအ) တင

လကမတေရးထးခ�ကသည EAO အဖ�များ၊ အစးရ �င

တပမေတာတအ�ကား �ငမးချမးေရးဆငရာ ေစစပည���ငးမ�များ၊

�ငငေရးဆငရာေတ�ဆေဆးေ�းမ�များ ြပလပရာ အခနးအနားများအား

‘ဒတယပငလ �ငမးချမးေရး ညလာခ’ ဟ ေဒါေအာငဆနးစ�ကညက

အမညေပးခသည။

ေြမယာများအသမးအဆညးခခရသညကစ�ကလညး

�ငငေရးြပဿနာတစရပအြဖစ (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ��ြမင�ပး ယငးက

�ငမးချမးေရးေစစပည���ငးေဆးေ�းပများ၏

အစတအပငးတစခအေနြဖင ကငတယေြဖ�ငးြခငးသာလ�င

အေကာငးဆးြဖစမညဟ လကခယ�ကညထားသည။

အာဏာလကဝယ ရယထားသည ေခါငးေဆာငများအေပါ

(ဦး)ေစာဝငး လနစာ သသယ�သည။ �ငငအေရးက ဦးေဆာင

စမအပချပေနသများသည လမ�ာပါးနပ�က�ပး ၎ငးတကယက

မညကသ ကာကယရမညက အထးသ�ကသညဟ မမအေနြဖင

ထငြမငယဆေ�ကာငး စာေရးသအား (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ေြပာသည။

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာတစရပအား မေြဖ�ငး�ငပါက

မျက�ာပျကရမည၊ မမတ၏ ပရပက ထခကလာ�ငမညက

ေခါငးေဆာငလပသများက စးရမေန�ကသညဟလညး ဆသည။

Page 82: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

262 | Lue Htar

ယငးမာ အသမးအဆညးခေြမယာြပဿနားများက

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရန သကဆငရာေခါငးေဆာငများ

တနဆတေနရသည အေ�ကာငးရငးတစခ ြဖစသည။

ေြမယာပငဆငမ�အြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများအေ�ကာငးအားလးက

တာဝန�ပဂ�လများ သထား�ပးသားြဖစေ�ကာငး�င ၎ငးတထတင

အသမးအဆညးခခရသည ေြမယာစာရငးများ

��င�ပးသားြဖစေ�ကာငး မမအေနြဖင ခငခငမာမာ

ယ�ကညသညဟလညး (ဦး)ေစာဝငး ေြပာသည။ သေသာ ဝန�ကးများ၊

ဗလချပများ�င လကနကကငတပဖ�များစသည

အဆငြမငအရာ�ပဂ�လများ ပါဝငေန�ကေသာေ�ကာင

ေြမယာသမးဆညးခရမ�ြပဿနာများသည အလနတရာမ

��ပေထးနကနကနလသည။ ၂၀၁၅ ခ�စတင

ဘားအ�မ�ဘနး�ကးေကျာငးတစေကျာငး၌ ြပလပခသည

အစညးအေဝးတစခ တကရငး ေြမယာြပဿနာများ၏ ��ပေထးမ�က

(ဦး)ေစာဝငး စတငခစားသ�လာသည။ ယငးစညးေဝးပတင

ေဆးေ�းသည ေခါငးစဉမာ �ငမးချမးေရးြဖစစဉအေ�ကာငး ြဖစသည။

အစညးအေဝးတကေရာကလာသများက

မမကညေြဖ�ငးေပးေနသည ေြမယာအမ�များအေ�ကာငး

(ဦး)ေစာဝငးေြပာြပခ�ပး ယငးအမ�များ�ငပတသက�ပး

စာြဖငေရးသားထားသည စာရကစာတမးများက တပမေတာ၊

ေကအနယ၊ ဒေကဘေအ အပါအဝင

လကနကကငအဖ�အသးသးတအား ြဖနေဝေပး�ငခသည။ သေသာ

ေကျးရာအဆငတင ြဖစပားလျက�သည ေြမယာအမ�များက

Page 83: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 263 မညသညအဖ�ကမ� ကငတယ မေြဖ�ငးလ�ကေပ။

ကရငြပညနယအတငး ြဖစပားလျက�သည ေြမယာြပဿနာများက

တာဝနယေြဖ�ငးေပးလသည အဖ�တစဖ� မ မ�ေတာဘးလား ဟ၍ပင

(ဦး)ေစာဝငး သသယ�လာသည။

ဤအမ�တင �ကးမား��ပေထးလသည ေြမယာြပဿနာများ�င

ရငဆင�ကေတ�လာရသညအခါ ေကျးရာသ/သားများသည

(ဦး)ေစာဝငးကသေသာ ပညာတတပဂ�လများထ မညကသ

သားေရာကအကအညရယ�ကသညက ေတ� ြမငခရသည။

ေြမယာေကာမတများကလညးေကာငး၊

အစးရ၏တရားစရငေရးစနစယ��ရားများကလညးေကာငး

ချဉးကပအကအည ေတာငးခြခငးများ မ�သညက ေတ�ရသည။

ပညာတတပဂ�လများပငလ�င ြပဿနာေြဖ�ငးရာ၌ ေြမယာဥပေဒ၊

ဥပေဒလပထးလပနညးများက အားကးတ�ကး အသးမြပ�ကသညက

ေတ�ရသည။ ယငးအစား ေြမက လက�ပငဆငထားသည

တငးရငးသားလကနကကငအဖ� �ငသာ ဦးစာ ေစစပည���ငးမ�များ

�ကးစားြပလပသညက ေတ�ရသည။

တငးရငးသားလကနကကငတပဖ� �င �ကးစားည���ငးမ�များ

အလပမြဖစေတာမသာ တပမေတာအရာ�ထ အကအညရယခသည။

အဆပါ တပမေတာအရာ�ကလညး ဥပေဒလပထးလပနညးများက

အသးမြပခေချ။ ယငးအစား ဟငးလငးြပငေနရာတစခတင

တရားခငတစခ ဖနတးခသည။ ေြမယာြပဿနာက ဝငးဝနးေြဖ�ငးရန

�ကးစားခသများ၏ စဉးစားချကများသည ေြမယာဥပေဒက

ဗဟမြပဘ ယငးြပဿနာအတငး ပါဝငပတသကေနသများအ�ကား

Page 84: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

264 | Lue Htar

�ကားဝငေစစပည���ငးေြဖ�ငးရနသာ �ကးစားခ�ကေ�ကာငး

ေတ�ရသည။ တစချနတညးတင တငးရငးသားလကနကကင တပဖ� မ

ေ� �ေနများက ငားရမးအသးြပရန �ကးစားခေ�ကာငး ေတ� ခရသည။

ယငးမာ အစးရ၏တရားေရးစနစမတစဆင ြပဿနာေြဖ�ငးလသည

အားထတမ�တစခ ြဖစသည။ သေသာ အစးရတရား�းများက အမ�က

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးလြခငး မ�သည အေနအထားက ေတ� ခရသည။

အမ�က �ငငေရးြပဿနာများ�င ဆကစပမ��သညဟ ဆကာ

(ဦး)ေစာဝငးက အနအယလဒ ပါတ �င �ငမးချမးေရးြဖစစဉအတငး

ပါဝငေန�ကသည အဖ�အစညးများ�ငလညး ပးေပါငးကာ အမ�က

ေြဖ�ငးရန �ကးစားခသည။ ထေ�ကာင ဤအမ�က

�ကးစားေြဖ�ငးသညေနရာတင လပဂ�လအမျးမျး၊

အဖ�အစညးအဖဖတ၏ အကအညက ေပါငးစပရယသည

အေနအထားက �ငး�ငးလငးလငး ေတ� ြမငရသည။ ေြမြပငတင

ယငးကသ လပဂ�လမျးစ၊ အဖ�အစညးမျးစတ၏

ပါဝငပတသကမ�ြဖင အမ�ေြဖ�ငးြခငးသည

အထေရာကဆးနညးလမး ြဖစသညဟ လအများ

ယ�ကညလကခထား�က�ပး ဤကသေသာနညးလမးများကသာ

အသးြပရန ပအားသန�ကသည။ သေသာ ဤေဆာငးပါးတင

ေဖာြပခသည အမ�များမာ ခကခ��ပေထးလ�ပး

�ငငေရးဆနသညအတက ယငးတက အလယတက

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးြခငး မြပ�ငေပ။

အစးရတရား�းများမ တရားသ�ကးများပင ဤကသေသာ အမ�များက

မညသ ကငတယေြဖ�ငးသငသညက မသ�ကေသးေချ။ ဤအချကက

Page 85: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 265 ေြမယာဥပေဒတင အားနညးချကများ �ေနေ�ကာငး ေထာကြပလျက

�သည။ အမ�တင အဆငြမငအရာ�ပဂ�လများ

ပါဝငပတသကေနသည အေနအထားမျးတင ယငးက

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရန တရားသ�ကးများက

လကတနသားေလ�ေ�ကာငးကလညး ေတ� �ရသည။

အထကတငတငြပခသညအမ�က ဝငးဝနး�ကးပမးေြဖ�ငးေပး�ကသ

ပဂ�လအများစမာ အစးရက တရားဝင အသအမတြပထားသည

တရားေရးဆငရာဝနထမးများ၊

အတတအသပညာ�ငများမဟတေ�ကာငးကလညး

ြမငေတ� ခရသည။ ရာသ/သားများ၏ သေဘာထားမာ ၎ငးတ

ရငဆငေနရသည အမ�ြပဿနာများက ကညေြဖ�ငးေပး�ငသည

ဩဇာအာဏာ�သ မညသကမဆ အစးရက

အသအမတြပသညြဖစေစ၊ မြပသညြဖစေစ ချဉးကပ�ပး အကအည

ရယသားမညပင ြဖစသည။

ေဆးေ�းချကများ

ြဖစရပများက ေလလာ�ကညသညအခါ အမ�ကစ�များက

လကေတ�ကငတယ ေြဖ�ငးရာ၌ �ငငေတာအစးရ၏

တရားဥပေဒစရငေရးစနစယ��ရားများ�င လပထးလပနညးများက

အသးြပ�ကြခငးမ�သညက �ငးလငးစာ ြမငေတ�ရသည။

အြငငးပားစရာကစ�များ ေပါေပါကလာသညအခါ ြပညသအများစမာ

ရပေကျးအဆငတငပင

အဆငေြပသညနညးလမးများသး၍ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အကယ၍

�ကးမားကျယြပန��ပေထးသည အမ� ဆပါက လပဂ�လအမျးမျး၊

Page 86: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

266 | Lue Htar

အဖ�အစညးအဖဖတ၏ အကအညများက

ရယြခငးနညးလမးများြဖငေသာလညးေကာငး �ကးစားေြဖ�ငးမ�များ

ြပ�ကသညက ေတ�ရသည။ အကအညေပး�ကသည ပဂ�လအများစ၊

အဖ�အစညးအများစတင ဘနးေတာ�ကးများ၊ ပညာတတများ�င

လကနကကငတပဖ�များ�င ၎ငးတ၏အဖ�ဝငများ ပါဝင�ကေသာလညး

၎ငးတမာ ေြမယာအမ�ကစ�များက ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရန ဥပေဒအရ

ေပးအပထားသည အာဏာမ��ကေပ။ သေသာ ၎ငးတတင

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက ကငတယေြဖ�ငးေပး�ငမည

အ�နအဝါ�င ဩဇာအာဏာ ��ကသညဟ ြပညသလထက

ယ�ကညထား�ကသည။ �ကးမား�ပး ကငတယရခကခသည

ြပဿနာများက ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးတင ပါဝငပတသကသည

လပဂ�လမျးစ၊ အဖ�အစညးေပါငးစ�င နညးလမးမျးစတက

အထးသြဖင ေရာေ�ာေပါငးစပအသးြပ�ကသညအချကမာ

သသာထင�ားသည အချကတစချကြဖစသည။ ယငးမာ

ေယဘယျအားြဖင အစးရ၏ တရားဥပေဒစရငေရးမ� ငမာ

သာမနြပညသများအကျးငာ လ�ပ�ားလညပတေနသည က�တစရပ

ြဖစမေနေသးေ�ကာငးက ေရာငြပနဟပလ�က�သည။ ထေ�ကာငသာ

၎ငးတ၏ အမ�တေဘာငကစ�များက ကညေြဖ�ငးေပး�င�ကရန

ဩဇာအာဏာပငဆငသည လပဂ�လအမျးမျး၊

အဖ�အစညးအဖဖတက ြပညသလထက အားကးတ�ကး

�ာေဖချဉးကပ�ကြခငး ြဖစသည။

တရားဝငြပ�ာနးသတမတထားသည

လပထးလပနညးစညးမျဉးဥပေဒများ�ငတက ရပကက�င

Page 87: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 267 ေကျးရာအပချပေရးမ�းကသေသာ ေဒသအဆင

အပချပမ�တာဝနခများတကပင အဘယေ�ကာင ြပညသများက

အသးြပလြခငး မ�သညအေ�ကာငးရငးများက ဤအပငးတင

ေဆးေ�းတငြပသားပါမည။

စာေရးသ၏ လကေတ�ကငးဆငးေလလာမ�ေတ� �များအနကတစခမာ

ရပရာအတငး မတငးေနထင�ကကနေသာ ြပညသအများစသည

ြမနမာ�ငငတင ေြမယာစမခနခမ�ေကာမတများ

�သညဟသညအချကက သ�ထားြခငး မ��ကေသးသည

အချကြဖစသည။ ၎ငးတအား အစးရ၏

တရားဥပေဒစရငေရးစနစများ�င ပတသက�ပး ေမးခနးများ

ေမးြမနးသညအချနတငး ယငးမာ �မ�နယ၊ ခ�င�င ဗဟ ဟ၍

အဆငဆင�သည တရား�းများကသာ ရည��နးမ�ြပသညဟသာ

နားလညထား�ကသည။ �ငငေတာအစးရ၏

တရားဥပေဒလပထးလပနညးများက ြပညသလထက

လကနာေဆာငရကမ� မြပလ�ကသည အေ�ကာငးရငးများစာတင

ေငေ�ကးအကနအကျ၊ အချနအကနအကျ၊

ဘာသာစကားအတားအဆး၊ ယ�ကညမ�မ�ြခငး၊ (ေြမယာ)ဥပေဒ၏

အားနညးချက၊ အဂငလပဘာသာြဖင formality-phobia ဟေခါသည

အစးရအာဏာ၊ အစးရ�းပငး�င ဌာနပငးဆငရာလပငနးများက

ေ�ကာကရ� မ�တပါဝငသည။ သ�င အစးရစနစ၏ ေဘာငအြပငဘကမ

ဩဇာအာဏာ��ကကနေသာ လပဂ�လများထ

ချဉးကပအကအညရယြခငးက ပမ၍ ထေရာကသညဟ

ထငြမငလာ�ကသည။

Page 88: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

268 | Lue Htar

�ငငေတာအစးရ၏ တရားဥပေဒစရငေရးစနစမ ဝနေဆာငမ�များ

ရ�ရန အချန�ကန �ကာလနးြခငး၊

ေငေ�ကးအကနအကျများလနးြခငးတ�ေ�ကာငး မ�ကာခဏဆသလ

သေသတနတင ပါဝငေြဖဆသများက စာေရးသအား ေြပာြပ�ကသည။

ဘားအ�မ�ရပကက က မ ေြမယာအမ�ရငဆငေနရသည

အမျးသမးတစဦးက စာေရးသအား ေအာကပါအတငး ေြပာသည။

ေြမအမ�တစခန က�နမ ၃ �စေလာက ရငဆငခရတယ။ အမ�က

ြမနြမနေလး အဆးသတလကချငတယ။ (ဒလ

အမ�ြဖစတအတက) တြခားအလပေတက

လတလတလပလပ လပလ မရေနဘး။ အမ�က

ဒေလာကအထ အချနယမယလ က�နမ ဘယတနးကမ

မေမ�ာလငခဖးဘး။ ၁၅ ရက ြပညတငး ြပညတငး

တရား�း�ကားနာပ တကေရာကေနရ�ပးေတာ

အမ�ဆးြဖတချကကလညး ြမနြမန ချမတ�ငတယ

အေနအထား �မေနဘး ြဖစေနတယ။ အခေတာ ဒအမ�မာ

က�နမ �� းေတာမယဆတာ သ�ပ။ ဘာေ�ကာငလဆေတာ

ေနြပညေတာအဆငမာ တစဖကတရား�ပငေတက

�ငေန�ပးသားလ တရားသ�ကးက ေြပာတယ။ သက ဒ

(�မ�နယအဆင) မာ က�နမ အမ��ငသားတာမျး မလပရဖးေလ။

တရား�းအဆငဆငမာ �တ တရားသ�ကးေတက လာဘထးဖ

ေ� �ေနက က�နမက အ�ကေပးတယ။ ေ� �ေနက “တကယလ

ခငဗျား/�င လာဘမေပးရင၊ �� းမာပ” လ ေြပာတယ။ ဒါေပမ

အဒေလာကအထေတာ က�နမလညး မတတ�ငဘးေလ။ ဒ ၃

Page 89: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 269 �စအတငး တရားသ�ကးကေပးဖဆ�ပး အမ�ရငဆငေနရတ

ေြမကကရ တစဝကကေတာင ေင သနး ၁၁၀

(အေမရကနေဒါလာ ၇၅၀၀) န ေရာငးခ�ပး�ပ။

ဘာသာစကား�င ပတသကသည အခကအခများ၊ ဥပေဒပငးဆငရာ

ဗဟသတ နညးပါးမ� �င အစးရ၏ တရားေရးမ� ငအေပါ ယ�ကညမ�

မ��ကသည အချကများက ဥပေဒလမးေ�ကာငးအတငး

ြပညသများက အမ� ရငမဆငလ�ကြခငး အဓက အေ�ကာငးရငးများ

ြဖစသည။ ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ� ြပဿနာတစရပ�င

ရငဆငေနခရသည ကနးတနးေကျးရာေနြပညသတစဦးက

စာေရးသအား ေအာကပါအတငး ေြပာြပခသည။

အစးရရ စညးမျဉးဥပေဒလပထးလပနညးေတက သလညး

မသထားဘး။ ဗမာစကားကလညး (ေကာငးေကာငး)

မေြပာတတဘး။ အစးရ�းေတကလညး သားကျင

မ�တအတက တစဖကက �မ�နယအဆငအထ

အယခဝငတယဆရင က�နေတာ/မတက အမ�က

ဆကမလကေတာဘး။ ရာအဆငကေန တက�ပး

ဘယကမလညး မသားဘး။

ဘယတငးရငးသားအဖ�အစညးနမလညး အဆကအသယ

�မထားေတာ ေကျးရာအဆင၊ ေကျးရာအပစအဆငမာ �တ

အပချပေရးမ�းေတနပ အမ�ေြဖ�ငးချငတယ။

စတတ� ေြမာက အေ�ကာငးရငးတစခမာ လကေတ� ြဖစပျကေနသည

အမနတကယြဖစရပများက ဥပေဒက လလေလာကေလာက

မလ�မးြခ�ငသည ကစ�ြဖစသည။ ဤအချကသည

Page 90: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

270 | Lue Htar

လက�ြပ�ာနးထားသည ေြမယာဥပေဒ�င မညကသ ဆကစပမ�

�သညက စာေရးသ ေဆးေ�းခ�ပးြဖစသည။ ဥပေဒသည

ေြမြပငအေြခအေန�င ကကညမ�မ�သည အချကက

ြပဿနာ၏တစဖကတင ��ပး အြခားတဖကတင ဥပေဒက

ြပညသအများက နားမလည�ကသည အချကက �ေနသည။

သညအြပင ြပစမ�ဆငရာဥပေဒပဒမများကလညး

ေခတေနာကကျလျက �သည။ ဥပမာအားြဖင ပငနကကျးလနမ�

ြပလပခသညဟ စစေဆးေတ� �ခပါက ဒဏေင ၅၀၀ ကျပ

(အေမရကနေဒါလာ ၀.၃၆) ေဆာငရန သမဟတ ေထာငဒဏ ၁ လ

ကျခရန ဟ၍ ေရးချယ�ငသည။ ဒဏေင ၅၀၀ ကျပသည

မေြပာပေလာကသည ပမာဏြဖစသညအတက နစနာေ�ကးအြဖစ

ဒဏေငေပးသည နညးလမးကသာ လတငးေရးချယ�ကသည။

ဤသညမာ ဥပေဒများ ေခတေနာကကျမ� ဥပမာ တစခတညးသာ

�ေသးသည (အလားတ ကစ�များ များစာ �သည)။

မျကေမာကေခတအေြခအေနများ�င ကကညမ� မ�ေတာသည

ဥပေဒပဒမေပါငး ေြမာကများစာ�သည။ ဥပမာအေနြဖင

အထကတငေဖာြပခသညအတငး ၂၀၁၂ ေြမယာဥပေဒသည

တငးရငးသားလမျးစများစာက လကခကျငသးလျက�သည

ေ���ေြပာငးလယယာစကပျးြခငးအေလအထက

အသအမတြပထားခြခငး မ�ေပ။ ထအြပင ေြမယာများက

မတပတငရာတငလညး လတစဦး�င တစဦးအ�ကား အခငအေရး

သာတညမ� မရ��ကေပ။ ေြမယာမတပတငသည ြဖစစဉသည

စနစတကျ မ�ေပ။ ယငးက စနစတကျ�င ြပငဆငခြခငး မဟတသလ

Page 91: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 271 တင�ကားမ�များ �လာသညအခါ မညကသ

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရမညကလညး တတကျကျ ေဖာြပထားြခငးမျး

မ�ေပ။ ထေ�ကာင ေြမယာအမ�များက ဥပေဒပါ

ြပ�ာနးချကများအတငး ြပညသများက လကနာေြဖ�ငး�ကြခငး

မလပ�ကေချ။ ဤသေတသနေတ� �ချကအရ ေဒသအာဏာပင

အပချပေရးမ�းများပင ေြမယာဥပေဒက လကနာေြဖ�ငးြခငး

မ��ကေ�ကာငး ေတ� �ရသည။

အစးရတရားစရငေရးစနစယ��ရားများ၏ အကအညက

ချဉးကပရယအသးြပ�ကြခငး မ�ရသည ပ�မေြမာက

အေ�ကာငးရငးတစခ အစးရ�းပငး၊ ဌာနပငးဆငရာလပငနးများ�င

ဆကစပလပကငရမညက ေ�ကာကရ� �ကသညအချက ြဖစသည။

အစးရဌာနဆငရာများ�င ရငဆင�ကေတ�ရသညအချကက

�ကေ�ကာကစရာဟ ��ြမင�ကတတသည။ ထေ�ကာင မမတ၏

အမ�ကစ�များက ကငတယေြဖ�ငး�ကရာတင တတ�ငသမ�

�းမေရာကေအာင ေ�ာင�ကဉ�ကသည။

ဤသေတသနေလလာေတ� �ချကများအရ အစးရ�းပငးဆငရာ

ဥပေဒ လပထးလပနညးများအတငး လကပါေဆာငရကြခငး

မ�ရသည ေနာကဆး အေ�ကာငးရငးတစခမာ

တရားေရးမ� ငအြပငဘက� ဩဇာအာဏာ�ကးမားသည

ပဂ�လများအား ဆကသယချတဆက�ပး ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးမသာ

အမ��ငေချ အလားအလာ ပများသညဟ ြပညသအများက

ယ�ကညလကခထားသည ဟသညအချကပင ြဖစသည။

ဤပဂ�လများတင ဥပေဒအရ အပ�ငးခထားရသည

Page 92: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

272 | Lue Htar

လပပငခငအာဏာ မ�ေပသလ

ဥပေဒလပထးလပနညးများအတငးလညး ေဆာငရကစမ�ကြခငး

မဟတေပ။ (သေသာ) ေအာကေြခအဆငအာဏာပငများက

ဤပဂ�လများက အမန��န�ကားချကများ ေပး�ငစမး�သညဟ

ြပညသအများက ယဆလကခထား�ကသည။ ေယဘယျအားြဖင

ြမနမာ�ငငအတငး ြဖစထနးေပါေပါကလျက�သည

�ငငေရးဆငရာေြပာငးလမ�များသည

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများ�င ပတသက၍ မညသထတင

လပပငခငအာဏာ�သည၊ မညသက ဆးြဖတချက

ချကမတေပး�ငသည ဟ၍ �ငး�ငးလငးလငး စတချလကချ

မသ�ငသည ဝနးကျငတစရပက ဖနတးလျက �သည။ ဤကသေသာ

ဝနးကျငမျးတင ဥပေဒမ ြပ�ာနးသတမတထားသည

လပထးလပနညးေဘာငအြပငဘက� နညးလမးများက အသးြပြခငး

(informality) သညလညးေကာငး၊ နညးလမးမျးစအား

ေပါငးစပေရာေ�ာ အသးြပြခငး (hybridity) သညလညးေကာငး

အားေကာငးအသကဝငလာသည။ ေြမယာပငဆငမ� အသအမတြပ

လကမတများ မရ�သည အေနအထားမျး�င

�ကေတ�ရသညအခါတင မလြခမ�က ြပညသအများ

ပမခစား�ကရသည။ မညသက အာဏာလပပငခငများ ��ပး

ေြမယာကစ�များက စမေဆာငရကသားမညက လထက

ေသေသချာချာ သ�ထားြခငး မ�ေပ။ ဤအချကသည ြမနမာ�ငငတင

အာဏာပငဗဟြဖစမ� ဝါ ဩဇာအာဏာ�သည လပဂ�လအမျးမျး၊

Page 93: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 273 အဖ�အစညးအဖဖ ယဉလျက တည�ေနေ�ကာငးက

လစဟြပသလျက�သည။

အဂငလပဘာသာြဖင ‘hybrid political orders’ ဟ ေခါသည

ပစအမျးမျးေရာေ�ာေနတတသည �ငငေရးစနစ အယအဆ (Boege

et al. 2009, 13-21) က သး၍ ဤအေြခအေနက

ခြခားစတြဖာသးသပေဖာြပ�ငသညဟ စာေရးသယဆသည။

ဤအယအဆက တငြပသညမာ ပဋပက�လန၊

ကးေြပာငးေရးကာလများက ြဖတသနးလျက�သည (�ငင)

အေြခအေနများတင ဥပေဒမ� င ၁ ရပ�င �ငးလငးတကျသည

အဏာပင ၁ ရပတညး တည�ေနြခငးမျး မဟတဘ

အာဏာပငဆငမ�မာ ဗဟသေဘာေဆာငလျက��ပး ဩဇာအာဏာက

ချပကငထားသမာ လပဂ�လအမျးမျး၊ အဖ�အစညးအဖဖ

ယဉလျကတည�ေနေ�ကာငးဟသည အချကြဖစသည။ ဘးဂါး �င

ဆကစပပညာ�ငများ (Boege et al. 2009, 13-21) က

တရားဥပေဒစရငေရးနညးလမးအမျးမျး၊ လပထးလပနညးအမျးမျး

�င အမ�ေြဖ�ငးေရးအမျးမျး တည�ေနသညအေြခအေနက

�ငးလငးေဖာြပ�ငရန ‘hybridity’ အယအဆက အသးြပခသည။

ေဒါ နနကသ လများက အစးရ၏

တရားဝငဥပေဒလမးေ�ကာငးအတငး ၎ငး၏အမ�ကစ�က

ရငဆငေြဖ�ငးလလငကစား ယငးကသ �ကးစားေြဖ�ငးသည

ြဖစစဉတေလ�ာက ဥပေဒလမးေ�ကာငးေဘာငအြပငဘကမ

နညးလမးများစာ�င (ဥပေဒအရ လပပငခငအာဏာ

အပ�ငးခထားရြခငးမ�သည) လပဂ�လ၊ အဖ�အစညးများစာ

Page 94: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

274 | Lue Htar

ပါဝငလာသညက ေတ� �ရသည။ ထအြပင ေလလာခသည

အမ�ြဖစရပများတင (ေြမယာပငဆငမ�)

တရားဝငအသအမတြပလကမတများ ရ�ရန

�ကးစားသညေနရာတငလညးေကာငး၊

အသမးအဆညးခေြမယာများက ြပနလညရယရန လပေဆာငသည

ေနရာများတငလညးေကာငး ဥပေဒမ ြပ�ာနးသတမတထားသည

လပထးလပနညးေဘာငအြပငဘက� နညးလမးများက

အစတအပငးတစရပအေနြဖင အသးြပခ�ကေ�ကာငးကလညး

ေတ� �ရပါသည။ ထေ�ကာင

ဥပေဒလမးေ�ကာငးေဘာငအြပငဘကနညးလမး (informality)

များသည ဥပေဒလမးေ�ကာငး (formal) ေပါသ ေရာကေအာင

သားသည ြဖစစဉတင အေထာကအကေပးသည ကရယာတစခလညး

ြဖစလာသည။ သ�င ဥပေဒေဘာငတငး (formal) �င ဥပေဒြပငပ

(informal) နညးလမးများသည သးြခားတည�ေနြခငးမျး

မဟတေတာဘ က��စခစလးမ နညးလမးများက

ေရာေ�ာေပါငးစပအသးြပကျငသးြခငး၏ အစတအပငးများ

ြဖစလာေလေတာသည။

နဂး

ဤစာတမး၌ ကရငြပညနယအတငး�

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရာတင

နညးလမးအမျးမျး ေရာေ�ာေပါငးစပအသးြပြခငး (legal

hybridity) က ေလလာတငြပထားပါသည။ အဓက အေရးပါသည

အချက ၄ ချကက ေရးထတတငြပခပါသည။ ၎ငးတမာ ၁)

Page 95: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 275 သေတသနြပမည ေဒသများ၏ ေနာကခသမငးေ�ကာငး �င

ေြမယာဥပေဒအေ�ကာငးက နားလညြခငး၊ ၂)

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက တရားမ�တမ�သ ေရာက�ေစရန

ကငတယေြဖ�ငးေပး�ကသည လပဂ�လ၊

အဖ�အစညးများအေ�ကာငးက နားလညသေဘာေပါကြခငး၊ ၃)

ေြမယာြပဿနာများက ေြမြပငတင နညးလမးအမျးမျးသး၍

အမနတကယ မညကသ ေြဖ�ငးမ� ြပေန�ကသညက

လကေတ�ကငးဆငးေလလာြခငး�င ၄) ေြမယာအမ�

ေြဖ�ငးေရးြဖစစဉများတင ဤကသ နညးလမးအမျးမျးသး၍

ေြဖ�ငးေန�ကသညက ခြခမးစတြဖာ သးသပြခငးတ ြဖစသည။

�မ�ေပါရပကက�င ေကျးလကေတာရာတအတငး၌

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�များက မညကသ ကငတယ ေြဖ�ငး�ကသညက

နားလညသေဘာေပါက�ငရန အလငာ ပထမဦးစာ ပမေသးငယသည

ေြမယာြပဿနာများ ေြဖ�ငးပက ေယဘယျဆနဆန

ေဆးေ�းတငြပခပါသည။

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာငယေလးများက ေြဖ�ငးရာတင

ေြမယာဥပေဒ၏ တစစတတစေဒသက ရည��နးမ�ြပ�ကေသာလညး

အစးရ၏ ပမနတရားစရငေရး ယ��ရားများထက

ဥပေဒလမးေ�ကာငးေဘာငအြပငဘက� နညးလမးများကသာ

အသးြပကာ ရပရာအဆငတင ကငတယေြဖ�ငး�ကသညက

ထင�ားစာ ေတ� ခရသည။ ဒတယအဆငတင

ပမ�ကးမားကျယြပန��ပေထးသည ေြမယာြပဿနာများ

ေပါေပါကလာသညအခါ ရပရာအဆငေလာကြဖင

Page 96: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

276 | Lue Htar

မေြဖ�ငး�ငေတာသည အေ�ကာငးအချကများက စာေရးသ

ေဆးေ�းတငြပခသည။ ဤကသေသာ �ကးမားသည ေြမယာအမ�များ

ရငဆင�ကရသညအခါများတငလညး တရားဥပေဒစရငေရး

အစးရယ��ရားများသ လထက တက�ကချဉးကပ

အကအညရယြခငးထက မမတ၏ အမ�ြပဿနာများက

�ပးြပတသညအထ ကညေြဖ�ငးေပး�ငမညဟ ယ�ကညရသည

ဩဇာအ�နအဝါ �ကးမားသည လပဂ�လအဆကအသယများကသာ

အားကးအားထား ြပ�ကသညကလညး ထငထင�ား�ား

ေတ� ြမငခရသည။

ေြမယာအမ� ရငဆင�ကသ ြပညသအများ�င

ယငးေြမယာအမ�အများစက ကငတယေြဖ�ငးေပးရသ ေဒသအဆင

အာဏာပငတအေနြဖင ၂၀၁၂ ေြမယာဥပေဒပါ ြပ�ာနးချကများ�င

လပထးလပနညးများက အလယတက နားလညလာ�ကေစရန

ယငးက ြပငဆငမ�ြပရန လအပလျက�ေ�ကာငး စာေရးသ၏

ကငးဆငးသေတသန ေလလာမ�များက ေထာကြပလျက�သည။

ယခထကတင ေြမြပငေပါ � ြပညသလထအား ည���ငးတငပငြခငး

မ�ဘ တရားဝငေြမယာကစ�ေြဖ�ငးေရးနညးလမးများြဖင

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ� ြပဿနာများအားလးက ထနးချပရနကသာ

ြမနမာအစးရက �ကးပမးေဆာငရကလျက �သည။

ေြမယာဥပေဒသည လကေတ�ေြမယာြပဿနာများ�င

ကငးကာလျက�သညအတက ြပညသလထက

ကယအားကယကး၍သာ နညးလမးေပါငးစ ယငးတက ေြဖ�ငးမ�

ြပ�ကေလ�သည။ ထေ�ကာင အစးရအေနြဖင ေြမယာဥပေဒက

Page 97: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 277 ြပဆငမ�ြပရာတင ေဒသခြပညသများ

အသးြပ�ကသညနညးလမးများ�င ၎ငးတ၏

သေဘာထားအြမငများက ဥပေဒတင ေရာငြပနဟပ

ထညသငးသားသငသည။ ဓေလထးတမးဆငရာကျငထးများ �င

တငးရငးသားမျး�ယစများ၏ ေြမယာအသးချမ�၊

(ေြမယာ)ြပဿနာများ ေြဖ�ငးမ�အေလအထတက

ထညသငးသားြခငးအားြဖင �ငမးချမးေရး တညေဆာကေရးကလညး

အေထာကအကြပ�ငပါသည။ ဘးဂါး �င ပးတပညာ�ငများ (Boege

et al. 2009) က တည�ငမေအးချမးမ� မ�ေသးသည �ငငများတင

�ငငေတာအစးရ၏ ဥပေဒတစရပကသာ အသးြပပါက

�ငမးချမးေရးတညေဆာကရန မြဖစ�ငေ�ကာငး အခငအမာ

ေြပာ�ကသည။ ြပဿနာများ ေြဖ�ငးရာတင နညးလမးအမျးမျးက

ေရာေ�ာေပါငးစပ အသးြပသငေ�ကာငး ၎ငးတက

အ�ကြပထား�ကသည။ အလားတ ဟစန (Hussain 2011) ကလညး

တငးရငးသားမျး�ယေပါငးစ �င ယဉေကျးမ�ေပါငးစ�သည

တငးြပညများတင ဥပေဒတစရပကသာ အသးြပြခငးသည

လေလာကမ�၊ ထေရာကမ� မ��ငေ�ကာငး၊ တရားေရးမ� ငဗဟဝါဒ

ဝါ တရားေရးမ� ငဗဟြဖစမ�က အသအမတြပရန

အေရး�ကးေ�ကာငး ေထာကခေြပာဆထားသည။ အစဉတစက

တရားေရးစနစတစခတညးြဖစေရးမဝါဒကသာ ဆပကငထားခသည

အေနအထားများက ေြပာငးလ�ပး ြမနမာအစးရအေနြဖင

ေြမယာဥပေဒက ြပငဆငရာတင တငးရငးသားလမျးများ၏

ဓေလထးတမး ေြမယာကျငသးမ�အေလအထများက

Page 98: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

278 | Lue Htar

ထညသငးစဉးစား အသအမတြပရန လအပသည။ ထအြပင

ြမနမာအစးရအေနြဖင ေကအနယေခါငးေဆာငများ၊

ေဒသအာဏာပငများ၊ ေြမယာကစ��ငပတသကသည

တတသပညာ�ငများတ�င ေဆးေ�းမ�ြပ�ပး ေြမြပငတင

ြဖစေပါလျက�သည ေြမယာြပဿနာများက အသငေတာဆး

ကငတယေြဖ�ငး�ငမည နညးလမးများက �ကးပမး�ာေဖသငသည။

ေကအနယတင ေြမယာပငဆငမ� �င လ�ေြပာငးခင၊ စကပျးေရး�င

ပတသကသညမဝါဒ �င ေြမယာအခငအေရး စသညတ ပါဝငသည

ေြမယာဥပေဒတစရပ �ထား�င�ပးသား ြဖစသည။ ေကအနယ၏

ဥပေဒတင ေ���ေြပာငးလယယာစကပျးြခငးကလညး

အသအမတြပထား�ပး ကနးြမငေဒသများ� ေြမယာ

အမျးအစားများကလညး ထညသငးစဉးစားြခငး ြပထားသည။

တငးရငးသား�းရာေြမအသးြပမ�က အထကပါအတငး

အသအမတြပြခငးက ြမနမာအစးရအေနြဖင

ထညသငးစဉးစား�ငသည။

ေနာကဆးအေနြဖင ေဒသခြပညသများက အစးရက

ေြမယာအခငအေရး အြမငဖငသငတနးများ ေပးသငသည။

စာေရးသတ၏ သေတသနေလလာေတ� �ချကများတင

အနကအဓပ�ာယေလးနက��ပေထးသည စာေပအေရးအသားများက

နားလညရန အခကအခများ�ေနေ�ကာငးလညး ပါဝငသညအတက

ဥပေဒများ၊ နညးဥပေဒလပထးလပနညးများက �း�ငးလယကေသာ

ဘာသာစကားအသးများက အသးြပေရးသား�ကရန လအပသည။

ေြမယာအြငငးပားမ�ြပဿနာများက မညကသ

Page 99: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 279 ကငတယေြဖ�ငးသားမညက �ငးလငးစာ ေဖာြပထားသငသည။

၂၀၁၆ ခ�စေရာကသညတင (အစးရ၏ တရားဝင)

ေြမယာစမခနခေရးနညးလမးမာ ေြမြပင�

ေဒသခြပညသများအတက အဆငေြပမ� မ�ေသးေပ။

သေသာလညး ဥပေဒများေြပာငးလ�၊ ဥပေဒဆငအသအြမငဖင�ြဖင

လေလာက�ပဟ မဆ�ငေပ။ အေပါ ပငးအဆငများတင

�ငငေရးဆငရာ ြပြပငေြပာငးလမ�များ �လာရနလညး လအပသည။

ယခေဆာငးပါးတင ဤကစ��ငပတသက၍ ေြမယာအသမးခရသည

အမ� ၂ ခ အေ�ကာငး စာေရးသ တငြပခပါသည။

�ငငေရးဆငရာြပြပငေြပာငးလမ�များ

ြဖစထနးေပါေပါကလာ�ပးေနာက မမေြမကက အသမးခခရသည

ပင�ငေဟာငးအေနြဖင ယငးက ြပနလညရ�ရန ရဝစာ

တင�ကားခေသာလညး အမ�မာ �ငငေရး�င

ဆကစပမ��သညဟဆကာ ၎ငးက �ပးြပတေအာင မေြဖ�ငး�ငခေပ။

ေြမပင�ငအေနြဖင ဩဇာအ�နအဝါ �ကးမားသည ရဟနးေတာများ၊

ဝန�ကးချပများ၊ လကနကကငအဖ�များ�င ၎ငးတ၏ အဖ�ဝငများထမ

အကအညရယ �ကးပမးေဆာငရကခေသာလညး

၎ငးပငေြမကကများက ယေနတင ြပနလညရ�ြခငး မ�ခေပ။

အဓကြပဿနာမာ အစးရအဖ� အေြပာငးအလ ြဖစခေသာလညး

ယခငတပမေတာအစးရလကထကမ အဆငြမငအရာ�ပဂ�လများမာ

ယခထကတင အာဏာက ချပကငထားသညအချက ြဖစသည။

ဤသ ြဖင ယခငအစးရများလကထကတင ြဖစပားခသည

ေြမသမးယာသမးကစ��ကးများက အစးရသစလကထက

Page 100: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

280 | Lue Htar

တာဝန�ပဂ�လများအေနြဖင ကငတယေြဖ�ငးရန

အလနအ��ရာယ�သည အေြခအေန�င ရငဆငေန�ကရေလသည။

ကျမးကးစာရငး

Albrecht, Peter and Louise Wiuff Moe. 2014. “The simultaneity of

authority in hybrid orders”. Peacebuilding 3, No. 1: 1-16.

Boege, Volker, Anne Brown and Kevin P. Clements. 2009.

“Hybrid Political Orders, Not Fragile States”. Peace Review: A

Journal of Social Justice 21, no. 1: 13-21.

Griffiths, John. 1986. “What is Legal Pluralism?” Journal of

Legal Pluralism 24: 1-50.

Hlaing, Kyaw Soe. 2015. “Peace and Nationwide Ceasefire

Agreement” September, 2015.

Hussain, Jamila. 2011. “More Than One Law for All: Legal

pluralism in Southeast Asia”. Journal of Democracy and Security

7, No. 4: 374-389.

Karen National Union (KNU). 2010. KNU land policy (in

Burmese), Amended and published by the department of

Agriculture of Karen National Union, October 2010.

Karen National Union (KNU). 2015. KNU Land Policy.

December 2015. https://www.tni.org/files/article-

downloads/knu_land_policy_eng.pdf

Kyed, Helene Maria and Mikael Gravers. 2014 “Non-State Armed

Groups in the Myanmar Peace Process: What are the Future

Options?” DIIS Working Paper 7, 2014.

Page 101: Everyday Justice and Plural Authorities: insights from ... · 3/30/2012  · Everyday justice and plural authorities | 185 In the article, I first provide a background to the land

Everyday justice and plural authorities | 281 Kyed, Helene Maria and Mikael Gravers.2015. “Integration and

Power-Sharing: What are the Future Options for Armed Non-State

Actors in the Myanmar Peace Process?” Stability 4, no. 1: 1-20.

Luckham, Robin and Tom Kirk. 2013. “The Two Faces of

Security in Hybrid Political Orders: A Framework for Analysis

and Research”. Stability 2, no. 2: 1- 30.

Mark, Siusue. 2016 “Fragmented Sovereignty over Property

Institutions: Developmental Impacts on the Chin Hills

Communities”. Independent Journal of Burmese Scholarship 1,

no. 1: 131-160.

Merry, Sally Engle. 1988. “Legal Pluralism”. Law and Society

Review 22, No.5: 869-96.

Min, Zaw. Ancestor land and land law problem. October 2016.

The Union Government of Myanmar. 2012 farmland Law, March

30, 2012.

The Union Government of Myanmar. Fallow, Virgin and Vacant

land law March 30, 2012.