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Behaviorism

Main article: Behaviorism

Behavorism as a theory was most developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely includes the

work of such people as Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes theseinvestigators is their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence,

three basic assumptions are held to be true. First, learning is manifested by a change in

behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles ofcontiguity (how close in time, two events must be for a bond to be formed ) and

reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated ) are

central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition ofnew behavior through conditioning.

There are two types of possible conditioning:

1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as inthe case ofPavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw thatthe dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva

still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs

were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the

dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series ofexperiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For

example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close

association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food.After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling.

2) Operant conditioningwhere there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or apunishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinnerand is

known as Radical Behaviorism. The word operant refers to the way in which behavioroperates on the environment. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement,

which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases

the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punisher is notconsidered to be punishment if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so

the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within

this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes inbehavior.

Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum basedmeasurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.[citation needed]

[edit] Cognitivism

Main article: Cognitivism (psychology)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Behaviorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_instructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learning_theory_(education)&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Behaviorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_instructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learning_theory_(education)&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)


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The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt

psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to

explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather thanisolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to

be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1)

that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that priorknowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior

to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to

promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of sorting and encodinginformation and events into short term memoryand long term memory are important to

educators working under the cognitive theory. The major difference between gestaltists

and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity . For gestaltists, it lies

with the individual learner; for behaviorists, it lies with the environment.

Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley'sworking

memory model were established as a theoretical framework incognitive psychology, new

cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today,researchers are concentrating on topics likecognitive load and information processingtheory. These theories of learning are very useful as they guide instructional design.[citation

needed]. Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role

acquisition, intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age.

Constructivism

Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or

builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. Inother words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own

experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby

internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a

practical real-world context. This is also known associal constructivism (see socialconstructivism). Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when

individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning

is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilledmembers"(Driver et al., 1994) Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active

learning,discovery learning, andknowledge building. Regardless of the variety,

constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or

structure.[citation needed]The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discoverprinciples for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic

problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning,

transformational learning,experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice.

Informal and post-modern theories
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_term_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_term_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_term_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson-Shiffrin_memory_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_term_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_term_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson-Shiffrin_memory_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed


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Informal theories of education deal with more practical breakdown of the learning

process. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of

concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the detailsfilled in later. Modern thinkers favor the latter, though without any basis in real world

research. Critics[citation needed] believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details

(facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks.

Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning. To this end, many have split offfrom the mainstream holding that learning is a primarily self taught thing, and that the

ideal learning situation is one that is self taught. According to this dogma, learning at its

basic level is all self taught, and class rooms should be eliminated since they do not fit theperfect model of self learning. However, real world results indicate that isolated students

fail. Social support seems crucial for sustained learning.

Informal learning theory also concerns itself with book vs real-world experience learning.

Many consider most schools severely lacking in the second. Newly emerging hybrid

instructional models combining traditional classroom and computer enhanced instructionpromise the best of both worlds.[citation needed]

Other learning theories

Other learning theories have also been developed. These learning theories may have amore specific purpose than general learning theories. For example,andragogyis the art

and science to help adults learn.

Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning which focuses on learning as

making connections

Multimedia learningtheory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in

learning.

The Sudbury Model learning theory adduces that learning is a process you do, not a

process that is done to you. This theory states that there are many ways to learn withoutthe intervention of a teacher
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Cognitive Learning Theory

from notes on Ormond's Human Learning

[ref: Ormrod, J.E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.]

Since the 1960's cognitivism has provided the predominantperspective withinwhich Learning Research has been conducted and theories of learning haveevolved.

History of and assumptions of cognitivism:

Edward Tolman proposed a theory that had a cognitive flair. He was abehaviorist but valued internal mental phenomena in his explanations of how

learning occurs.

Some of his central ideas were:

Behavior should be studied at a local level.

Learning can occur without reinforcement.

Learning can occur without a change in behavior.

Intervening variables must be considered.

Behavior is purposive.

Expectations of fact behavior.

Learning results in an organized body of information.Based on his research of rats, Tolman proposed that rats and other organismsdevelop cognitive maps of their environments. They learn where different partsof the environment are situated in relation to one another. The concept of acognitive map also called a mental map has continued to be a focus of research.

Gestalt psychology:

Gestalt psychologist emphasized the importance of organizationalprocesses of perception, learning, and problem solving. They believed thatindividuals were predisposed to organize information in particular ways.

The basic ideas of Gestalt psychology are:


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1. Perception is often different from reality. This includes opticalillusions.

2. The whole is more than the sum of its parts. They believed thathuman experience cannot be explained unless the overall experience

is examined instead of individual parts of experience.

3. The organism structures and organizes experience. The Germanword Gestaltmeans "structured whole." This means an organismstructures experience even though structure might not be necessarilyinherent.

4. The organism is predisposed to organizeexperience in particular ways. Forexample, the law of proximityis that people tend to perceive as a unit thosethings that are close together in space. Second example: similar people tend toperceive as a unit those things that are similar to one another.

Problem-solving involves restructuring and insight. It was proposed thatproblem-solving involves mentally combining and re-combining the variouselements of a problem until a structure that solves the problem is achieved.

Piaget's developmental theory

Besides psychology, Piaget was interested in epistemology. Piaget usedsomething he called the clinical method. This was research in which he gavechildren a series of tasks or problems, asking questions about each one. He thentailored his interviews to the particular responses that each child gave. His follow-up questions varied from child to child. This methodology was very different from

the methods of contemporary behaviorist research.Piaget's ideas about human learning:

People are active processors of information. Instead of being passiverespondents to environmental conditions, human beings are activelyinvolved and interpreting and learning from the events around them.

Knowledge can be described in terms of structures that change withdevelopment. Piaget proposed the concept of schema. As childrendevelop, new schemes emerge, and are sometimes integrated witheach other into cognitive structures.

Cognitive development results from the interactions that children havewith their physical and social environments. As a child explores hisworld, and eventually they began to discover that they hold aperspective of the world uniquely their own.

The process through which people interact with the environmentremains constant. According to Piaget, people interact with their


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environment through to unchanging processes known as assimilationand accommodation.

In accommodation, an individual either modifies an existing schemeor forms a new one to account for the new event.

In assimilation an individual interacts with an object or event in a waythat is consistent with an existing scheme.

People are intrinsically motivated to try to make sense of the worldaround them. According to this view, people are sometimes in thestate of equilibrium, they can comfortably explain new events in termsof their existing schemes. However at times they can encounterevents they cannot explain our make sense of this is calleddisequilibrium, a mental discomfort. Through reorganizing thoughtpeople are able to then understand the previously un-understandable

and return to equilibrium.

Cognitive development occurs in distinct stages, with thought processes at eachstage being qualitatively different from those and other stages.

Piaget's four stages:

Sensorimotor stage:

Preoperational stage:

Concrete Operations:

Formal Operations:Sensorimotor stage: from birth until about two years of age. At this age childrenare only aware of objects that are directly before them, thus the saying, "out ofsight, out of mind." (Example: The game of "peek-a-boo" is enjoyed only byinfants. Their joy in this game comes from their "finding" the adult -- who"hides"by blocking the child's view and thus "disappears" and "re-appears" as the childexperiences it.)Preoperational stage: emerges when children are about two years old until theyare about six to seven years old. This is the stage of language development.

Expanding childrens vocabularies reflect the many new mental schemes that aredeveloping. This stage is characterized by a logical thinking, but not accordingtoadult standards. A classic example is how young children cannot understandconservation of liquid. They will usually think that a taller glass has more waterthan a short glass even though both have been demonstrated to have the exactsame amount of water.Concrete operations: this third stage of cognitive development appears whenchildren are six or seven years old and continues until they are about 11 or 12


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years old. Children begin to think logically about conservation problems andother situations as well. However, they typically can applytheirlogical operationsonly to concrete, observable objects and events.Formal operations: the fourth and final stage usually appears after children are11 or 12 years of age and continues to evolve for several years after that time.

During this time the child develops the ability to reason with abstract,hypothetical, and contrary-to-fact information.[It must be noted that some recent research does not confirm Piaget's fourstages in their entirety.]

Vygotsky's developmental theory:

This Russian psychologist conducted numerous studies of children'sthinking.

Some of his most influential ideas are:

1. Complex mental processes began as social activities. As childrendevelop, they gradually analyze these processes and can use themindependently of those around him. Vygotsky called this process ofsocial activities being internalized as mental activities "internalization."

2. Children can often accomplish more difficult tasks when they havethe assistance of other people more advanced and competent thanthemselves.

3. Tasks within the zone of proximal developmentpromote maximum

cognitive growth. This is the zone of learning for a child where he canlearn something with the assistance of others. Without suchassistance he would not be able to learn the subject.

4. The idea ofscaffoldinglearning comes from Vygotsky's zone of proximaldevelopmenttheory. Scaffolding refers to learning situations in which adults andother more competent individuals provide some form of guidance or structurethat enables students to engage in learning activities within their zone of proximaldevelopment.Verbal Learning Research

Verbal learning research is another area that has affected cognitive theory.Verbal learning research studied serial learning and paired social learning.Serial learningis characterized by a particular pattern. People usually learn thefirst few items and the last few items first of a list (i.e., they are more likely toforget items from the middle of the list than the beginning or the end).


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Overlearning is learning something to the level of mastery and thenpracticing additionally. Overlearned material is more easily recalled at alater time.

Distributed practice is easily more effective than massed practice. This is

the idea of spreading study out over time instead of into one long cramsession.

Learning in one situation often affects learning and recall in a later situation.

The characteristics of the material affect the speed with which people canlearned it. For example, items aremore quickly learned when they aremeaningful, pronounceable, concrete rather than abstract, or able to bementally visualized.

People often impose meaning when learning new information.

People organize what they learn.

People often use coding strategies to help them learn. (Examples:mnemonics -- like the strategy of remembering "HOMES" as a mnemonicfor the names of the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, andSuperior; or a rhyme, like "In 1492, Columbus sailded the ocean blue" toremember that date)

People are more likely to learn general ideas than to learn words verbatim.

Introduction to Contemporary Cognitivism

General assumptions of cognitive theories:

1. Some learning processes may be unique to human beings. (Example, complex

language.)

2. Cognitive processes are the focus of study. Mental events are central to human

learning and they must therefore be incorporated into theories of learning.

3. The objective, systematic observations of peoples' behavior should be the focus

of scientific inquiry; however, inferences about unobservable mental process canoften be drawn from such study.

4. Individuals are actively involved in the learning process. They are not passivereceivers of environmental conditions, they are active participants in that learning

process. In fact, they can control their own learning.


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5. Learning involves the formation of mental associations that are not necessarily

reflected in overt behavior changes. This is very contrary to the behaviorist

position, where no learning can happen without an external behavior change. Thisis contrasted with behavioral objectives.

6. Knowledge is organized. An individual's knowledge is self organized throughvarious mental associations and structure.

7. Learning is a process of relating new information to previously learnedinformation. Learning is most likely to occur when an individual can associate new

learning with previous knowledge.

Information Processing Theory

This theory focuses on how people process the information they receive from the

environment; how they perceive the stimuli around them, how they put what

they've perceived into their memories, and how they find what they have learnedwhen they need to use the knowledge.

Constructivism:

In the last 30 years, it has become apparent that people don't just receiveinformation at face value. Instead, learners do a great deal with the

information they acquire, theyt actively organize and try to make sense of it.

This is often done in a unique and special way. Most cognitive theories nowshow learning as a construction of knowledge rather than just a reception or

absorption of knowledge from the surrounding world.

Contextual views:

Several cognitive theories have emerged that place considerable emphasis on the

importance of the immediate environment (i.e., the context) in learning and behavior.This view includes thezone of proximal development. Contextual use of learning has

many labels, such assituated learning, situated cognition, and distributed intelligence.

Distributed intelligence is shown when we think about and discuss ideas with others andthink more intelligently than when we think alone.

General educational implications of cognitive theories:

1. Cognitive processes influence learning.

2. Learning difficulties often indicate ineffective or inappropriate cognitive

processes, especially for children with learning disabilities, who tend to process


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information less effectively. Therefore, teachers need to be aware that all students

are trying to learn something, as well as what they are trying to learn.

3. As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticatedthought.

4. People organize the things they learn. Therefore, teachers can facilitate students'

learning by presenting information in an organized manner. This organization

should reflect students' previous knowledge and show how one thing relates to theother (i.e., helping students understand and make connections).

5. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with

things they have already learned. Teachers should then show how new ideas relate

to previous learning.

5. People control their own learning. Ultimately students, not their teachers,

determine what things will be learned and how they will be learned.

Summary:

Cognitivism is currently the predominant perspective within which human learning is

described and explained. Contemporary cognitivism emphasizes mental processes and

proposes that many aspects of learning may be unique to the human species. Cognitivismhas affected educational theory by emphasizing the role of the teacher in terms of the

instructor's effectiveness of presentation of instructional material in a manner that

facilitates students' learning (e.g., helping students to review and connect previouslearning on a topic before moving to new ideas about that topic, helping students

understand the material by organizing it effectively, understanding differences in students'learning styles, etc.)


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Overview of Behavioral Theories

Behaviorism, along with several newer variations that have names like information

processing theory, emphasize the learning of facts and skills that authorities, such asteachers or school boards, have decided are important. While these theories have many

different names we will use the term behaviorism here. Names associated withbehaviorism include John Watson, an American psychologist who was very influential in

the 1920s and 1930s, and B. F. Skinner(http://129.7.160.115/INST5931/Beyond_Freedom.html), another American psychologist

who had a tremendous impact on education in the 1950s and 1960s. Behavioral

approaches to teaching generally involve the following:

1. Breaking down the skills and information to be learned into small units.

2. Checking student's work regularly and providing feedback as well as

encouragement (reinforcement).

3. Teaching "out of context." Behaviorists generally believe that students can be

taught best when the focus is directly on the content to be taught. Behavioralinstruction often takes the material out of the context in which it will be used.

4. Direct or "teacher centered" instruction. Lectures, tutorials, drills,

demonstrations, and other forms of teacher controlled teaching tend to dominate

behavioral classrooms.

General Implicationsof Behavioral Theories

Behavioral teaching and learning tends to focus on skills that will be used later. You learn

facts about American history, for example, because it is assumed that knowing those factswill make you a better citizen when you are an adult. You learn basic mathematics

computational skills because you may need them when you get a job. Behavioral learning

does not, however, generally ask you to actually put the skills or knowledge you learninto use in a "real" or "authentic" situation. That will come later when you graduate and

get a job.

The behavioral emphasis on breaking down complex tasks, such as learning to read, into

subskills that are taught separately is very common in American schools today. In the

elementary school classroom, for example, students may spend many lessons on phonicsskills such as consonant clusters, vowel digraphs, and diphthongs. Other literacy skills

such as appropriate uses of the comma may also be taught in separate lessons, often bywhole class lectures followed by individual drill activities.

Types of Instructionof Behavioral Theories
http://129.7.160.115/INST5931/Beyond_Freedom.htmlhttp://129.7.160.115/INST5931/Beyond_Freedom.htmlhttp://129.7.160.115/INST5931/Beyond_Freedom.htmlhttp://129.7.160.115/INST5931/Beyond_Freedom.html


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Behavioral theories support a number of different approaches to teaching. Almost all of

them fall under the general category of "direct", or "teacher-centered" instruction. The

approaches include tutorials, drill and practice, behavioral simulations, and programmedinstruction. An approach that combines all these teaching strategies into one "system" is

called an "integrated learning system" orILS.

The sections below explain several popular types of behavioral instruction. The

explanations are, however, very brief. You may want to explore the links in each sectionthat take you to examples of the different types of software. "Playing" with the software

will give you a much better feel for what drill and practice or behavioral simulation

software are.

Examples of Behavioral Theories Classroom Activities

Drills Games Tutorials

Programmed Instruction Simulations GraphicOrganizer/ SemanticWeb
http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/ils.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/drills.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/games.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/Tutor.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/besim.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/integr.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/besim.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/Tutor.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/games.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/drills.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/ils.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/drills.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/games.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/Tutor.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/besim.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htmhttp://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/web.htm


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Constructivist Theory (J. Bruner)

Overview:

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process

in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/pastknowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and

makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e.,schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows

the individual to "go beyond the information given".

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to

discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an activedialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be

learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding.

Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds

upon what they have already learned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1)

predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be

structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effectivesequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and

punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying,

generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoreticalframework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice

of law.

Scope/Application:

Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the studyof cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially

Piaget ). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on

science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and

social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original developmentof the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin

(1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.

Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy andscience and Bruner's theory represents one particular perspective. For an overview of

other Constructivist frameworks, see

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html.

Example:
http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.htmlhttp://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.htmlhttp://tip.psychology.org/piaget.htmlhttp://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html


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This example is taken from Bruner (1973):

"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child,

through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out incompleted rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or

in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few tofill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for

the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a recordsheet of quantities in completed mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring,

multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized."

Principles:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the studentwilling and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiralorganization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going

beyond the information given).

References:

Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press.

Bruner, J. (1973). Going Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. (1983). Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press.

Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., & Austin, A. (1956). A Study of Thinking. New York: Wiley.

More about Bruner can be found at:


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Constructivist Learning TheoryThe Museum and the Needs of People

CECA (International Committee of Museum Educators) Conference

Jerusalem Israel, 15-22 October 1991

Prof. George E. Hein

Lesley College. Massachusetts USA

Introduction

The latest catchword in educational circles is "constructivism, " applied both to learning

theory and to epistemology---both to how people learn, and to the nature of knowledge.1,2

We don't need to succumb to each new fad, but we do need to think about our work in

relation to theories of learning and knowledge. So we need to ask: what is constructivism,

what does it have to tell us that is new and relevant, and how do we apply it to our work?As far as I can see, there is nothing dramatically new in constructivism: the core ideas

expressed by it have been clearly enunciated by John Dewey among others, but there is a

new, widespread acceptance of this old set of ideas. and new research in cognitive

psychology to support it. I would like to give a brief exposition of ideas central toconstructivism and widely accepted today by educators. curriculum developers and

cognitive psychologists, and then suggest what they mean for museum educators.

Constructivism

What is meant by constructivism? The term refers to the idea that learners constructknowledge for themselves---each learner individually (and socially) constructs

meaning---as he or she learns. 3 Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind.

The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold;

1) we have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/lesson to

be taught):

2) There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience

(constructed) by the learner, or community of learners.

Let me discuss the second point first because, although it appears radical on an everydaylevel, it is a position which has been frequently adopted ever since people began to

ponder epistemology. If we accept constructivist theory (which means we are willing to

follow in the path of Dewey, Piaget and Vigotsky among others), then we have to give upPlatonic and all subsequent realistic views of epistemology. We have to recognize that

there is no such thing as knowledge "out there" independent of the knower, but only

knowledge we construct for ourselves as we learn. 4 Learning is not understanding the"true" nature of things, nor is it (as Plato suggested) remembering dimly perceived

perfect ideas, but rather a personal and social construction of meaning out of the

bewildering array of sensations which have no order or structure besides the explanations

(and I stress the plural) which we fabricate for them.

I'm sure that many of you have had philosophy courses which have exposed you to these

concepts, and you may accept this basic premise that there is no such entity as a Ding an


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sich whether or not we can perceive it. Yet we all tend to remain closet realists, and refute

Bishop Berkeley, as Samuel Johnson did, by kicking the stone and feeling real pain. The

more important question is, does it actually make any difference in our everyday workwhether deep down we consider knowledge to be about some "real" world independent of

us, or whether we consider knowledge to be of our own making? The answer is yes, it

does make a difference, because of the first point I suggested above: in our profession ourepistemological views dictate our pedagogic views.

If we believe that knowledge consists of learning about the real world out there, then we

endeavor first and foremost to understand that world, organize it in the most rational way

possible, and, as teachers, present it to the learner. This view may still engage us inproviding the learner with activities, with hands-on learning, with opportunities to

experiment and manipulate the objects of the world, but the intention is always to make

clear to the learner the structure of the world independent of the learner. We help thelearner understand the world. but we don't ask him to construct his or her own world.

The great triumph of Western intellectual history from the Enlightenment until thebeginning of the 2Oth century rested on its ability to organize the knowledge of the world

in a rational way independent of the learner, determined by some structure of the subject.Disciplines were developed, taxonomic schemes established, and all these categories

were viewed as components of a vast mechanical machine in which the parts could be

explained in terms of their relationship to each other, and each part contributed to makingthe whole function smoothly. Nowhere in this description does the learner appear. The

task of the teacher was to make clear to the learner the working of this machine and any

accommodation to the learner was only to account for different appropriate entry points

for different learners.

However, as I have indicated above, constructivist theory requires that we turn ourattention by 180 degrees we must turn our back on any idea of an all-encompassing

machine which describes nature and instead look towards all those wonderful, individual

living beings---the learners---each of whom creates his or her own model to explainnature. If we accept the constructivist position we are inevitably required to follow a

pedagogy which argues that we must provide learners with the opportunity to: a) interact

with sensory data, and b) construct their own world. 5

This second point is a little harder for us to swallow, and most of us constantly vacillate

between faith that our learners will indeed construct meaning which we will find

acceptable (whatever we mean by that) and our need to construct meaning for them; that

is, to structure situations that are not free for learners to carry out their own mentalactions, but "learning" situations which channel them into our ideas about the meaning of

experience. A common example of the unresolved tension is our attitude towards museum

tours which explain exhibits to the visitor. I have repeatedly asked museum professionalsif they personally enjoy guided tours, and they almost universally tell me that they try to

avoid them at all costs. Yet, at CECA meetings (and this one is no exception) our

colleagues frequently give us extensive guided tours through galleries, insisting onpresenting the expert guide's interpretation, pace and selection to influence the viewer's


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perception and learning. It is this tension between our desire as teachers to teach the truth,

to present the world "as it really is", and our desire to let learners construct their own

world which requires us to think seriously about epistemology and pedagogy. 6

Principles of learning

What are some guiding principles of constructivist thinking that we must keep in mindwhen we consider our role as educators? I will outline a few ideas, all predicated on the

belief that learning consists of individuals' constructed meanings and then indicate howthey influence museum education.

1. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs

meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea involves the terminology

of the active learner (Dewey's term) stressing that the learner needs to do something; thatlearning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists "out there" but that

learning involves the learner s engaging with the world. 7

2. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning andconstructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a

series of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology.

Each meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other sensations

which can fit a similar pattern. 8

3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical

actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it

is not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the

hands.9 (Dewey called this reflective activity.)

4. Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empiricallevel. researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more

general level. there is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vigotsky,that language and learning are inextricably intertwined. 10 This point was clearly

emphasized in Elaine Gurain's reference to the need to honor native language in

developing North American exhibits. The desire to have material and programs in their

own language was an important request by many members of various Native Americancommunities.

5. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection

with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual

acquaintances, including the people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are morelikely to be successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle rather than

try to avoid it. Much of traditional education, as Dewey pointed out, is directed towards

isolating the learner from all social interaction, and towards seeing education as a one-on-one relationship between the learner and the objective material to be learned. In contrast,

progressive education (to continue to use Dewey's formulation) recognizes the social

aspect of learning and uses conversation, interaction with others, and the application ofknowledge as an integral aspect of learning. 11


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6. Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract

ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in relationship to

what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears. 12 On reflection, itbecomes clear that this point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and

social. We cannot divorce our learning from our lives. 13

7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without

having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. 14 The more weknow, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state

of the learner, must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner's

previous knowledge. 15

8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need torevisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. This cannot happen

in the 5-10 minutes usually spent in a gallery (and certainly not in the few seconds

usually spent contemplating a single museum object.) If you reflect on anything you have

learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought. Even, orespecially, moments of profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of

preparation.

9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helpslearning, it is essential for learning. This ideas of motivation as described here is broadly

conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used.

Unless we know "the reasons why", we may not be very involved in using the knowledgethat may be instilled in us. even by the most severe and direct teaching. 16

The meaning of constructivism for museums

Having suggested these principles, I want to reflect on what they may mean for ourspecific day- to-day work both in mounting exhibits and in developing educationalprograms.

Points #1 and 3

Most museum educators have accepted the idea that learners need to be active, that in

order to participate in learning we need to engage the learner in doing something, inhands-on involvement, in participatory exhibits and programs. But the more important

point, I believe, is the idea that the actions which we develop for our audience engage the

mind as well as the hand. Not all experiences are educative, as Dewey pointed out inExperience and Education. This does not mean that they necessarily have to be

complex---but they do need to allow the participants to think as they act. I recently saw a

videotape of a group of children building a cardboard ramp which would serve as aninclined plane for an experiment they were to do. What the video tape showed was a

fifteen-minute period in which the children spent time measuring, constructing (and

wandering around) with little idea of what they were building or why they were building

it. It was a hands-on activity that was not likely to be educative as intended for tworeasons: a) The children had no chance to incorporate what they were doing into a larger

picture: the focus was on completing a task, which for them must have appeared to be


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just one more of the senseless requirements of school. b) There was no opportunity to

alter the task to fit the meaning-making of any individual student. They all simply

measured strips of paper 24 inches long (the US is still not on the metric system) and 1.5"wide, everyone following the same recipe with no variation.

By way of contrast, I have watched adults look at a map of England at the dock where theMayflower replica is berthed in Plymouth, Massachusetts. Repeatedly, adults will come

to the map, look at it and then begin to discuss where their families come from. (I couldimagine an even more elaborate exhibit at the same place which would include a map of

the world and different ways in which people have immigrated to the US, so that all

visitors could find something to interest them.) But at least for those who trace their rootsback to England, here is an interactive exhibit (even if there is little to "do" except point

and read) which allows each visitor to take something personal and meaningful from it

and relate to the overall museum experience. For me, the Diaspora Museum in Tel Avivcame alive when I had the opportunity to call up family genealogies on the computer in

the reference center. The opportunity to view and manipulate a library of family trees

covering several generations and a wide geographical distribution, gave personalmeaning to the idea of a Diaspora.

Physical involvement is a necessary condition for learning for children, and highly

desirable for adults in many situations, but it is not sufficient. All hands-on activities must

also pass the test of being minds-on---they must provide something to think about as wellas something to touch.

Point #2

The idea that we learn to learn as we learn, that we begin to understand organizing

principles as we use them, is not terribly radical to most of us, but I believe that there is

an important manner of formulating it that can help us, which sometimes eludes us: Whatare we assuming about our visitors' ability to learn (to organize knowledge) when we

present exhibits to them? What organizing schemes do we attribute to them, that may or

may not be available to them? Let me give you an example. During the last year we havebeen observing visitors at the Boston Museum of Science interacting with a series of

exhibits developed originally at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. We asked them what

they thought of the exhibits. Some visitors did not have the tools they needed to get theconcept of the exhibit. I don't mean that they did not understand the concept (that will be

my next point) but that they did not have the organizing principles, and thus the learning

tools.

For example, there are exhibits which require visitors to turn knobs which will cause acomponent of the exhibit to move or change. Not all visitors are clear about the

relationship between the knob and what it does. The exhibit is intended to explain a

causal relationship between two variables in nature; one variable is altered by turning theknob and that change then causes the other variable to respond and vary. But if the visitor

does not understand about knobs and what they do, then the message of the exhibit

cannot possibly be understood.


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A similar issue concerns chronologies and time lines, which are common devices in

history museums. Do we know that our visitors understand chronology? Are we positive

that our visitors can appreciate a time line, for example, and can recognize that thedistribution of dates in linear space may be intended to approximate their distribution in

chronological time? There is considerable evidence that at least some visitors (i.e.

children) cannot follow such reasoning; there is less evidence that any significant numberof visitors can. 17 Maybe we need to teach our visitors to understand time lines through

simple examples before we present them with complex charts that span thousands of

years. Ayala Gordon discussed this issue when she pointed out that in order to allowchildren to experience a sense of time, the Youth Wing at the Israel Museum arranged

exhibits so that children and parents would talk about changes in their lifetimes.

Points #4 and 5

Learning is a social activity. To what extent do we recognize that people learn as theyspeak and interact with each other? In evaluating an interactive exhibit at the Boston

Museum of Science in which people could get information through a variety of

modalities---they could read labels, listen to tapes, smell animal smells, touch animalmounts and manipulate interactive exhibit components-- -we noted that individualvisitors preferred different learning modes. In family groups, the conversations became

more democratic, and involved more members after all these modalities were installed, as

family members shared, discussed and confirmed what each had learned while perusinghis or her preferred modality.

We need to ask what have we build into the exhibit that encourages visitors to discuss, to

share, to find out together. Has the architecture and exhibit arrangement encouraged

discussion? Some art museums have a quiet air like a church, discouraging active debateand verbal interaction. The quiet may be appropriate for individual contemplation of

pictures, but perhaps these museums could provide other rooms, close to the galleries,and fitted out with reproductions' reference materials or other reminders of the paintings,which would encourage dialogue.

Point #6

This is really an elaboration of the point made previously about learning to learn as one

learns. Our visitors need ''hooks"---connections---in exhibits to help them understand themessages intended. An experienced museum-goer or a person knowledgeable on a given

subject can be enlightened easily. But what does it mean for a naive visitor to be

confronted with a whole case containing may objects? Of what value is it to the naivevisitor to be invited to push this button or read a sophisticated label?

It is important for exhibits to provide different kinds of entry points, using various

sensory modes, different kinds of stimuli, to attract a wide range of learners. In teaching

people to read, the use of different words which have powerful connections forindividuals was dramatically described years ago by Sylvia Ashton-Warner18 and widely

emulated since. Eurydice Retsila described a program in which children served as young

ethnographers, developing individual projects of interest to them with the "assistance" ofuniversity students.


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Point #7

Perhaps no other issue in constructivism raises more questions than the concern with

finding the right level at which to engage the learner. Vigotsky spoke of the "zone ofproximal development," 19an unfortunately cumbersome term which refers to a level of

understanding that is possible when a learner engages in a task with the help of a more

expert peer (i.e. a teacher). People learn as they are stretched beyond their ownknowledge but only within a range that is within their grasp given what knowledge and

skills they bring to a task.

Point #8

Finally there is the issue of time to learn, time to reflect and time to revisit an idea.Museum educators have grappled with this problem and find it a particularly challenging

one, since our audiences are free to come and go, and large fractions of them are tourists

who many never return. Museum galleries are not designed as places to linger, despiteour desire to have visitors spend more time there. I was impressed to note in the slide

Michael Cassin showed yesterday that the National Gallery at the turn of the century had

many chairs scattered around the gallery for people to sit in and contemplate the pictures.What do we do for the visitors who wish to stay with a topic longer? How have weorganized our museums to accommodate them? To what extent have we provided

additional resources (in addition to items which we are eager to sell to them in the nearby

shop) that can satisfy the interested visitors' concerns that arise on the next day or a weekafter the visit?

I believe that an important issue for we, as museum educators is to tackle the problem of

increasing the time possible for visitors to interact with our exhibits and reflect on them,

revisit them (in the mind if not directly) and therefore internalize their messages to us.

ConclusionThe principles of constructivism, increasingly influential in the organization of

classrooms and curricula in schools, can be applied to learning in museums. The

principles appeal to our modern views of learning and knowledge but conflict withtraditional museum practices. We need to reflect on our practice in order to apply these

ideas to our work.

References

1 I will document this paper with quotes from relevant publications. See these for

additional information on constructivism and its application in education. I have also

indicated how the views in this paper relate to a number of ether presentations at this

conference.

2 "Constructivism asserts two main principles whose applications have far-reaching

consequences for the study of cognitive development and learning as well as for the

practice of teaching, psychotherapy, and interpersonal management in general. The two

principles are (1) knowledge is mot passively received but actively built up by theexperiential world, not the discovery of ontological reality."International Encyclopediaof Education. "Constructivism In Education," 1987.


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9 ''The object enters into dialog with the learner only after being transformed by him or

her. In fact, it is the set of significant units organized by the learner and the relationships

that he or she constructs between them that constitutes the cognitive object that, in turn,constitutes knowledge." A Henriques. "Experiments in Teaching," in E. Duckworth, J.

Easley, D. Hawkins and A Henriques. Science Education: A Minds On Approach to the

Elementary Years. Erlbaum, 1990.

10 "The relationship between thought and word is not a thing but a process. a continualmovement back and forth from thought to word and from word to thought: .... thought is

not merely expressed in words; it comes into existence through them." L.V. Vigotsky.Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press, 1962.

11 "Vigotsky was proposing that children's understanding is shaped not only throughadaptive encounters with the physical world but through interactions between people in

relation to the world---a world not merely physical and apprehended by the senses, but

cultural, meaningful and significant, and made so primarily by language. Human

knowledge and thought are themselves therefore fundamentally cultural, deriving theirdistinctive properties form the nature social activity, of language, discourse and other

cultural forms." D. Edwards and N. Mercer. Common Knowledge: The Development of

Understanding in the Classroom. London: Methuen, 1987.

12 As Mooly Broog stated in the discussion group "When you say Jerusalem, what is the

visitor's concept? Each visitor, from a different community, has a totally different idea of

what the city is."

13 "A fundamental way of changing the requirements for success on a particular task is torecontextualize the text presented to, and understood by, the learner. In all sample cases,

the subject is initially presented with the activity---the whole task---embedded in,contextualized as part of some larger activity. For the subjects themselves, therecontextualization involves familiar scripts and human intentions." M. Cole and P.

Griffin. Contextual Factors in Education. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for

Educational Research, 1987.

14 Maria Baretto referred to this point when she stated that "we cannot identify andrecognize what we don't already know ."

15 "We can learn most easily when we already know enough to have organizing schemas

in L.B. Resnick and L.E Klopfer, editors. Towards the Thinking Curriculum: Current

Cognitive Research. 1989 ASCD Yearbook. Alexandria, VA: American Association forCurriculum Development, 1989.

16 "Research... confirmed that acquiring skills and strategies, no matter how good one

became at them, would not make one into a competent reader, writer, problem solver orthinker... The habit or disposition to use the skill and strategies, and the knowledge of

when they are applied, needed to be developed as well." Resnick and Klopfer., op cit.


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17 Increasingly we find that the limitations of timing described by Piaget extend longer

into adulthood than Piaget would have had us believe. Research by Shayler and Adey

suggests that English children shift from concrete to hypothetical-deductive later thanPiaget argued; a considerable amount of research on college students indicates that many

are still in concrete stages, and work with adults on science concepts often indicates that

they hold "childish" views on a range of topics.

18 Teacher. New York. Simon & Schuster, 1963.

19 "...the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent

problem solving and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving

under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." L. Vigotsky. Mind

and Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.

The Five Dimensions of Learning

Learning theorists have argued that learning and development are not like an assembly-line which can be broken down into discrete steps occurring with machine-time precision,but an organic process that unfolds in complex ways according to its own pace andrhythm. Teaching and learning occurs in complex ecosystems, dynamic environmentswhere teachers, students, materials and supplies, texts, technologies, concepts, socialstructures, and architectures are interdependently related and interactive. Using theLearning Record, the teacher (and student) is actively searching for, and documenting,positive evidence of student development across five dimensions: confidence andindependence, knowledge and understanding, skills and strategies, use of prior andemerging experience, and critical reflection. These five dimensions cannot be "separatedout" and treated individually; rather, they are dynamically interwoven. Our goals for aparticular class should describe a trajectory of learning across multiple dimensions, and

our measurements should be able to identify the paths taken by students and theirprogress from their individual starting points along that trajectory.

Individually, learners can expect to make progress across these five dimensions:

Confidence and independence

We see growth and development when learners' confidence and independence becomecongruent with their actual abilities and skills, content knowledge, use of experience, andreflectiveness about their own learning. It is not a simple case of "more (confidence andindependence) is better." In a science class, for example, an overconfident student whohas relied on faulty or underdeveloped skills and strategies learns to seek help when

facing an obstacle; or a shy student begins to trust her own abilities, and to insist onpresenting her own point of view in discussion. In both cases, students are developingalong the dimension of confidence and independence.

Skills and strategies

Skills and strategies represent the "know-how" aspect of learning. When we speak of"performance" or "mastery," we generally mean that learners have developed skills and


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strategies to function successfully in certain situations. Skills and strategies are not onlyspecific to particular disciplines, but often cross disciplinary boundaries. In a writing class,for example, students develop many specific skills and strategies involved in composingand communicating effectively, from research to concept development to organization topolishing grammar and correctness, and often including technological skills for computercommunication.

Knowledge and Understanding

Knowledge and understanding refers to the "content" knowledge gained in particularsubject areas. Knowledge and understanding is the most familiar dimension, focusing onthe "know-what" aspect of learning. In a psychology class, knowledge and understandingmight answer a wide range of questions such as, What is Freuds concept of ego? Whowas Carl Jung? What is behaviorism? These are typical content questions. Knowledgeand understanding in such classes includes what students are learning about the topics;research methods; the theories, concepts, and practices of a discipline; the methods oforganizing and presenting our ideas to others, and so on.

Use of prior and emerging experience

The use of prior and emerging experience involves learners abilities to draw on their ownexperience and connect it to their work. A crucial but often unrecognized dimension oflearning is the capacity to make use of prior experience as well as emerging experience innew situations. It is necessary to observe learners over a period of time while theyengage in a variety of activities in order to account for the development of this importantcapability, which is at the heart of creative thinking and its application. With traditionalmethods of evaluating learning, we cannot discover just how a learner's prior experiencemight be brought to bear to help scaffold new understandings, or how ongoingexperience shapes the content knowledge or skills and strategies the learner isdeveloping. In a math class, students scaffold new knowledge through applying theprinciples and procedures theyve already learned: algebra depends on the capacity to

apply basic arthimetic procedures, for example.

Reflection

Reflection refers to the developing awareness of the learners own learning process, aswell as more analytical approaches to the subject being studied. When we speak ofreflection as a crucial component of learning, we are not using the term in itscommonsense meaning of reverie or abstract introspection. We are referring to thedevelopment of the learner's ability to step back and consider a situation critically andanalytically, with growing insight into his or her own learning processes, a kind ofmetacognition. It provides the "big picture" for the specific details. For example, studentsin a history class examining fragmentary documents and researching an era or event use

reflection to discover patterns in the evidence and construct a historical narrative.Learners need to develop this capability in order to use what they are learning in othercontexts, to recognize the limitations or obstacles confronting them in a given situation,to take advantage of their prior knowledge and experience, and to strengthen their ownperformance.


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During this stage of his/her life your child will be thinking in specifics andwill find it very difficult to generalize anything. An example would be a ball:

A ball is not something that you use to play a game, it is just something thatyou throw.

This is the time when a child learns by asking questions. You will begin to

think that if you hear the word why just one more time that you will gocrazy. The child generally will not want a real answer to his question at thispoint. When he asks why do we have grass --- He simply wants to know that

it is for him to play in. No technical answers for know.

The child in this age group judges everything the me basis How does it

affect me? Do I like it? You get the idea! This child also has no ability to goback in time and reason. If you miss your opportunity to explain or punish

when it happens -- forget it for they have.

This is a lot of information at one time, so, tomorrow we will bediscussing the other ways in which a child can learn. We will also be talking

about what we can expect out of our children during those times.

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Motivation is a concept that helps explain why people think and behave as they do. Though we

may be familiar with the term, truly understanding how it affects each of us is much more difficult.

Moreover, how it applies to education is less well-known.

Motivation is important for education for the following reasons:

A motivated person will surpass an unmotivated person in performance and outcomes.

Basically, when there is no motivation to learn, there is no learning.

Instruction with motivated learners can be joyful and exciting.

Learners who leave the educational environment feeling motivated are more likely to have

a future interest in what they learned and are more likely to use what they have learned.

Outstanding effort can be limited by the learners ability or by the quality of instruction.

One of the most commonly measured indicators of motivation is persistence, and when

this exists, people work longer and with more intensity.Intrinsic motivation is an internal energy called forth by circumstances that connect with what is

culturally significant to the person. In other words, intrinsic motivation relates to those things that

are near and dear to us because of values, beliefs, or circumstances.

Intrinsic motivation affects adult learningin the following manners:

Rather than try to know what to do to learners, we work with them to deepen their

existing intrinsic motivation and knowledge. Seeing learners as unique and active, we

emphasize communication and respect, realizing that through understanding and sharing

our resources together, we create greater energy for learning.

Instead of a focus on intrinsic motivation, some adult education is dominated by extrinsic

motivation or external rewards ("carrot and stick"). Unfortunately, this attitude tends to

keep learners more dependent on the instructor and in need of further help.

Because learning is the act of making meaning from experience for people, involving all

learners requires us to be aware of how they make sense of their world and how they

interpret their learning environment. This helps adults connect who they are with what

they learn for greater levels of intrinsic motivation.

Connecting intrinsic motivation to adult learning:

Adults will choose vocational and practical education that leads to knowledge about how

to do something.

Adults are keen to success indicators which help to signify accomplishments of learning

tasks, i.e. the "ah-ha!" learning moment. This causes adults to seek out and become

engaged in learning activities where this is present.


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The University of Florida's Nick Place, assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural

Education and Communication, shares about adult motivation and the foundational principles of

motivation in this narrated PowerPoint presentation.

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