EVALUATINGTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFTHECHLORINEBANKPROGRAMFORSUSTAINABLEWATER

DISINFECTIONINRURALHONDURAS

PreparedfortheNewForestsProjectbyCarolinaFritz,MichaelHeller,JiheiSong&DaynaWolter

GeorgeWashingtonUniversityInternationalDevelopmentStudiesCapstone

May7,2010

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

I.OBJECTIVES&METHODOLOGY........................................................................4

I.1.OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................................4I.2.METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................................................................................4

II.BACKGROUND ................................................................................................5

II.1.WATERSYSTEMSANDCHLORINEUSE:UNDERSTANDINGTHEDIALOGUE............................................................................6II.2.WATERANDPOLITICS:LEGALREFORMSANDTHENEWFRAMEWORKLAW.........................................................................7

III.FINDINGSANDDISCUSSION.........................................................................12

IV.CASESTUDIES:COMMUNITYTYPOLOGYINRURALHONDURAS...................16

LASTRANQUITAS,LAPAZ:ADEQUATERESOURCESANDMANAGEMENT ..................................................................................17PIEDRASBLANCAS,VALLE:POORRESOURCES,POORMANAGEMENT ......................................................................................18LALLAVE,VALLE:POORRESOURCES,GOODMANAGEMENT..................................................................................................18

V.CHALLENGES ................................................................................................20

V.1.COMMUNITY‐LEVELISSUES .....................................................................................................................................20V.2.ORGANIZATIONALLEVELISSUESFORAHJASA............................................................................................................21V.3.NATIONAL‐LEVEL/STRUCTURALISSUES ......................................................................................................................21

VI.RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................22

VII.CONCLUSION..............................................................................................25

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................26

APPENDICES .....................................................................................................28

APPENDIXA—FIELDWORKSITEVISITS .............................................................................................................................28APPENDIXB—LISTOFINTERVIEWEESANDCOMMUNITIES ...................................................................................................29APPENDIXC—INTERVIEWQUESTIONNAIRESWITHTRANSLATIONS.........................................................................................30APPENDIXD—SAMPLESURVEY......................................................................................................................................40APPENDIXE:CATEGORIESOFWATERSYSTEMSINHONDURAS..............................................................................................46APPENDIXF.NON‐CHLORINE‐BASEDDISINFECTIONMETHODSFORHOUSEHOLDS ...................................................................46APPENDIXF.WHO'SCLASSIFIEDWATERSOURCETYPESANDDESCRIPTIONS ..........................................................................47

ENDNOTES .......................................................................................................48

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MainWaterActorsandAcronyms

AHJASA HonduranAssociationofWaterBoardsAPP AguaParaelPuebloASCH SavetheChildrenHondurasCONASA NationalWaterandSanitationCouncilCRS CatholicReliefServicesERSAPS PotableWaterandSanitationRegulatoryAgencyFHIS HonduranSocialFundIRWA InternationalRuralWaterAssociationMOH MinistryofHealthNFP NewForestsProjectNGO Non‐governmentalorganizationNRWA NationalRuralWaterAssociationRAS‐HON NationalNetworkofW&SSANAA NationalAutonomousW&SServiceSIAR SistemadeInformaciondeAguaRuralUSAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentW&S WaterandSanitation

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I.Objectives&Methodology

I.1.Objectives

TheaimofthisstudywastoevaluatetheeffectivenessofChlorineBankprogramsmanagedbytheAssociationforHonduranWaterBoards(AHJASA)increatingasustainablemarketfortheprovisionoflow‐costwaterdisinfectionproductsandservicestoruralHondurancommunities,andtoofferrecommendationsforhowAHJASA’sworkcanbeimproved.

Inordertoaccomplishthis,itisnecessarytounderstandboththemicro‐leveloperationsaswellasthemacrostructuralissuesatplay,including:1)localdemandforwatertreatmentproducts;2)thecapacityoflocalwaterboardstoeffectivelymanagetheirwatersystemsandprovidequalitywatertotheirbeneficiaries;3)thecapacityofAHJASAtofosterandmeetthedemandforqualitywateranddisinfectionproductsandservices;and4)theoverallsociopoliticalandeconomiccontextofruralwatersystemsinHondurasandtheidentifiedbarrierstowatertreatment.

Thestudyoutlineskeyfactorsrequiredforwaterdisinfectiontobesustainable,examinesAHJASA’soverallsuccessincreatingtheseconditions,andanalyzessomeofthecorebarriersandchallengestheorganizationand,morespecifically,itschlorinebankprogramfaceinmeetingtheirobjectives.TheoverarchinggoalistoenabletheNewForestsProject(NFP)toidentifythebestwaystoinvestinthedevelopmentofasustainablemarketfordisinfectionproductsinruralHonduras.

I.2.Methodology

Ateamoffourgraduatestudentsconductedthisstudyusinginterviews,fieldobservation,andareviewofrelevantliteratureandinstitutionaldocuments.Researchinthefieldtookplaceoveraten‐dayperiodinMarch2010inbothTegucigalpaandninedifferentcommunitiesinthedepartmentsofLaPaz,Valle,ElParaíso,andFranciscoMorazán(seemap,AppendixA).

Theteamconductedovertwentyformal,semi‐structured,andinformalinterviewswithvariouskeystakeholders.WhileinTegucigalpa,theteamperformedin‐depthinterviewswithstaffattheAHJASAheadquarters,governmentofficialsfromwateragenciesCONASAandSANAA,andcivilsocietygroupsandinternationaldevelopmententitiesincludingAguaParaelPueblo,CenterforAffordableWaterandSanitationTechnology,PureWater,USAID,SavetheChildren,andCARE.Duringtheguidedtouroflocalcommunities,theteamorganizedsemi‐structuredinterviewswithlocalandregionalwaterboardmembers,AHJASAstaffintheMarcalaandNacaomebranches,citymayors,andlocalNGOs.(SeeAppendixBforalistofallinterviewsandcommunities).Moreinformal,butrelevant,conversationswereheldwithanumberofcommunitymembersencounteredthroughoutthetrip,whichofferedamorerobustunderstandingofthedifferentproblemsfaced.

ThecommunitiesvisitedwereselectedbyAHJASAandrepresentedamixofmembers,non‐members,successful,andstrugglingcommunitiesindiverseenvironmentalsettingswithuniqueresourcemanagementchallenges.ThecommunitiesinLaPazandElParaíso,forexample,areinmoremountainous,coffee‐producingzonesandhavesufficientwater

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resources,butwatershedpollutionresultingfromcoffeeprocessingrequiresattention.Bycontrast,thedepartmentofValleinthesouthernmostpartofHondurasisrelativelyflat,aridandregularlysuffersseveredroughtduringthesummer(DecembertoJune).Manyofthesecommunitiesrelyonmoreexpensivepumpsystemsfortheirwaterandarecontinuallypressedtofindnew,increasinglyscarcegroundwatersources.

NoraHernandez,thechlorinebankadministrator,plannedthevisitsinadvanceandaccompaniedtheteamduringtheguidedtour.Whilethisattimesmayhaveinhibitedsomeactorsfromfullydisclosingproblemsorcomplaintsandallowedthemtopreparestockanswers,shewasanecessarylinkforaccesstothewaterboardsandotherkeyplayers.Moreover,theteamalsobenefitedfromtravelingduringthesummermonths,aftertheharvestseason,whichfacilitatedgoodparticipationfromthewaterboardsandcommunityactors.

Uponarrivingtoacommunity,theteambeganwithsemi‐structuredsmallgroupinterviewswithwaterboardmembers(usuallyincludingthepresidentandtreasurer),followedbysitevisitstotheirwatersystems,andonoccasion,visitstothewatersourceandsurroundingwatershed.Often,thecommunityplumberwouldaccompanythegrouptoexplainthetechnicaloperationofthesystemanditschlorinatorandgivehisperspectiveonanyaccomplishmentsandproblemsathand.Fieldsitesalloweddirectobservationofhowwellthewatersystemswerebeingmaintained(e.g.iftheywerepainted,ifthefencingwassound)andanopportunitytoverifythetrainingreceivedandcommitmenttoprovidingqualitywaterservices.Thesitevisitsalsoprovidedanopportunitytoengageinsideconversationswithwaterboardmembers.ThiswasbeneficialinovercominganybiasintroducedbyNora’spresenceandtogainvaluableinsights.

InterviewswereconductedinSpanish,exceptforafewinstanceswhereNGOrepresentativesspokefluentEnglish(seeAppendixCfortheinterviewquestions).InterviewsweresupplementedwithareviewofAHJASA’srelevantprogrammaticandfinancialdocumentsaswellasextensiveresearchinwater,sanitation,decentralization,andrelatedliterature.Althoughtheteampreparedasurveyforcommunitymembersinordertogathermorequantitativedata,thelimitedtimespentineachcommunityandavailableresourcespreventeditscompletion.However,thesurveyisincludedinthisreportandwillbeprovidedtoAHJASAinguidingcommunityanalysisanddepartmentalevaluations(seeAppendixD).

II.BackgroundHondurasisavibrantandecologicallydiverseCentralAmericancountrythatfacesmanychallengesasitseekstoimproveitseconomicperformanceandthewellbeingofitspopulation.Thecountryishometoalmost8millioninhabitants,overhalfofwhichareconcentratedinruralareas.iNearly60percentofHonduranslivebelowthepovertyline,andthecountryisextremelydependentonitsagriculturalexportsandheavilyexposedtothevagariesoftheworldmarket.Honduras’humandevelopmentindicatorof0.73currentlygivesitanunenviablerankingof112thintheworld.iiPervasiveincomeinequalityandhighratesofun‐andunder‐employmentfuelmigration,especiallytotheUS,andremittanceshavebecomeanimportantsourceofincomeformanyHonduranfamilies.TheJune2009militarycoupd’étatandouster

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ofthen‐PresidentZelayaledtoviolentprotests,internationalcondemnation,andaseverecontractionoftheeconomyfromwhichthecountryhasyettorecover.

Ofparticularconcernisthecountry’swatersystemascontaminatedwatersourcesareoneoftheleadingglobalburdensofdisease.Water‐bornediseasesconstitutethemajorcauseofmorbidityandmortalityinHonduras.iiiInruralHonduras,thechildmortalityrateundertheageoffiveisover40percent,aratethatis1.5timeshigherthanthatofurbanareas(30percent).ivOfthe6,000childrenunderfivewhodieannually,itisestimatedthat12.2percentareduetodiarrhealdiseases.vInacountrythathasrecentlybeenravagedbydrought,apoliticalcoupd’état,andconsistentlyfacesharsheconomicconditions,diarrheaandotherwater‐borneillnessesputfurtherstressonthepopulation.Ruralcommunitiesingeneralhavelowerincomes,moreemigration,andlessconsistentwaterresourcesthanurbanareasinHonduras.Ruralandurbansystemsalikewerehardhitin1998,whenHurricaneMitchcausedthedestructionof1,683ruralwatersystemsleaving75percentofthepopulationwithoutpotablewater.vi

IntheaftermathofMitch,theinternationaldevelopmentcommunitydispersedaidtoHondurasatarapidpaceandmanynewprogramswerequicklyimplemented.YetevennowmuchofHonduraslacksadequatewaterandsanitationcoverage,especiallyinruralareas(70percentcoverageforwaterand49.5percentforsanitation).viiOnlyone‐thirdofruralcommunitieswithaccesstowatersystemshavecontinuouscoverageandonly14percentregularlychlorinate.viii

II.1.WaterSystemsandChlorineUse:UnderstandingtheDialogue

Ingeneral,therearethreemainwaysofcapturinggroundorsurfacewatertodistributetocommunitiesviapipes:gravity‐fedsystems,electricormanualpumpsystems,oracombinedpumped/gravity‐fedsystem.Thesepipedwatersystemscanbeconnectedtoindividualhouseholds,orcentrallylocatedintheformofapublictap.Collectedrainwatercanprovidethemainorsupplementalwatersupplytoaruralarea,aswateriscapturedfromtinroofsintotanksorinplasticbottlescarefullypositionedamongtrees.

Althoughonly14percentofruralwatersystemscurrentlychlorinate,thereismuchdocumentedevidenceandmanysuccessfuldevelopmentprojectssupportingtheuseofchlorineasacheapandefficientdisinfectant.Communitieswithhighlyturbid(cloudy)wateraremuchmorelikelytorecognizeaneedforsometypeofintervention.Ofcourse,justbecausewaterlookscleardoesnotmeanitisdisease‐free.Thereareanumberofharmfulorganismsthatthriveinwater,includingbacteriasuchascholera,salmonellaandE.coli;viruseslikeHepatitisA;andtheprotozoanparasitescryptosporidiumandgiardia.ixTohelpeliminatethesecontaminantsfromwatersupplies,someformofdisinfectionisnecessary.Moreover,standingwater,greywatersources(laundry,cookingwaste,human‐influencedrunoff),garbage,andfree‐roaminganimalscanpresentpossiblesourcesofcontaminationforanysystemandsurfacewater,soitisimportanttomaintainacleansurroundingarea

WhiletheUnitedStatesusesagaseousformofchlorinethatishighlytechnicalanddifficulttooperate,Hondurasandotherdevelopingcountriesgenerallypromotechlorineformsthataremoreaccessibleandrequirelesstrainingtouse.However,regardlessofthechosenproduct,

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chlorinelevelsmustalwaysbecarefullycontrolledsoasnottocauseunwantedeffectsinodorortaste,orcreateharmfuldisinfectionbyproductsproducedwhenchlorinereactstoorganicmatter,themostcommonofwhicharetrihalomethaneslikechloroform.Chlorineisproventobeacheapandhighlyeffectivedisinfectantthatcontrolsmanyvirusesandbacteria,butitdoesnotkillallorganisms,suchascryptosporidium.Additionally,ifchlorineresiduallevelsarenotmaintainedateffectivelevels,thistreatmentisofnouse.x

TherearetwomainformsofchlorineusedinwaterdisinfectioninHonduras:calciumhypochloriteintheformofgranulesortablets(65percentchlorine)andsodiumhypochlorite(alsoknownasliquidbleach;consistsof5‐15percentchlorine).SomedevelopmentorganizationssuchasCAREaremanufacturinghypochloriteonsitebybreakingdownsaltwaterthroughelectrolysis.xiOfthesetypes,calciumhypochloritehasalongershelflifeandiseasiertostore;howeveritalsoleadstotheprecipitateeffectmentionedearlier,whileliquidchlorinedoesnot.Themainbenefitofmanufacturingchlorineonsiteisthatitcosts25timeslessthanpurchasingtabletsorgranules,thoughithasahighinitialcostandmanufacturesaweakersolutionrequiringclosermonitoring(approximately0.8percent).xiixiii

InruralHonduras,therearetwomaintypesofcommunity‐scalechlorinedisinfectionsystems:dripchlorinatorsandtabletchlorinators.Bothofthesesystemsusecalciumhypochlorite.Themaindifferenceisthedripsystemusesgranules,whicharecheapertopurchasethantabletsandalsomanufactureddomestically.WhilethedripsystemisthemostcommoninruralHonduras,thedrawbackistheyarepronetocloggingandbreakeasily,andaredifficulttorepair.Extratrainingisusuallyneededforthesesystemstoavoidtheprecipitatebuild‐upproblem.xivTabletchlorinators,ontheotherhand,areessentiallylongtubesthatholdchlorineasitisdispensedautomaticallyintoawatersupply.Theydonotrequireelectricity,andonlydispensechlorineautomaticallywhenwaterisflowingfromthesource,thustheyaredeemedoptimalformanyareasinHonduraswherewaterdoesnotflowregularly(especiallyinthedryseasonorinthecurrentdrought).Theyhaveproventobeeffectiveinhand‐pumpsystemsaswellasgravity‐fedones,andtechniciansonlyneedtocheckthetankweeklyratherthandaily,ascomparedtothedripsystems.Thedownsideisthattabletchlorinatordevicesarebothmoreexpensivetoinstallandrefill.xv

Chlorine’smainbenefitisitsfunctionalityatthesourceaswellasatthehouseholdlevel.Thelong‐termriskofbladdercancerassociatedwithlifetimechlorineusepalesincomparisontotheriskofdeathduetodiarrhea.Ultimately,itisimportantthatAHJASAandotheractorsintheW&Ssectorscollaboratecloselywithdevelopmentorganizationsandengineerstokeepupwiththelatesttechnologiesandtrainingmethodstoensuresafetystandardsaremetifchlorineisthechosentreatmentintervention.

II.2.WaterandPolitics:LegalReformsandtheNewFrameworkLaw

The2003FrameworkLawforDrinkingWaterandSanitationSector(LeyMarco)mandatedthatthenationalgovernmentalwaterandsanitationbureaucracy(SANAA)undergoaprocessofdecentralizationinordertoimprovethemanagementofwatersystems.Thelawplacedresponsibilityformanagementwithmunicipalities,andSANAAwastobecomeatechnicalsecretarytoanewgoverningbody,CONASA,andanewregulatoryentity,ERSAPS.xviCONASA

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wastotakeontheroleofadministrativemanagementandheadplanning,policy‐making,settingstandardsandfundingresearchintheW&Ssector.Thislawultimatelysoughttoimproveserviceefficiency,coverage,operationandmaintenanceofthesectorbyenablingmunicipalitiestomakethebestdecisionsforcommunitieswithintheirjurisdiction.xvii

Whilethisdecentralizationprocesswastobecompletedby2008,ithasyettobefullyimplemented.Oneofthemainreasonsforthisdelayinservicetransferisthatmostmunicipalitieslackthetechnical,financialoreconomiccapacitytomanagetheirownsystems,andthecentralgovernmentisnotprovidingfundingortrainingforthis.xviiiInaddition,therewasnodirectgovernmentaldecreetotransferadministrativepowertoalternategoverningbodiesandSANAAhasnotwantedtovoluntarilygiveupthisresponsibility.CONASAonlyrecentlyreceiveditsownofficespacein2010,andSANAAstillholdssubstantialpoliticalandinstitutionalpower.xixThereisalsogreatdisjunctionbetweenSANAA,CONASA,theMinistryofHealth(MOH)andothergovernmentalbodiesthatareinchargeoftheW&Ssectors,creatingseriousproblemsincentralsupportforandadministrationofservices.xxResponsibilitiesareparticularlyunclearbetweenMOHandSANAA,makingitdifficultforlower‐leveladministrationstoworkinanefficientmanner.

Inruralareas,thelawsupportedtheformationofcommunitywaterboards(juntasdeagua)aslegalauthoritiesthatcouldindependentlymanagetheirlocalwatersystems.Thislawwasfollowedbythe2006RegulationofWaterBoards,whichcreatednormsandguidelinesregulatingtheformationanddutiesofthewaterboards.Thoughcommunitywaterboardsexistedsincethe1990s,theselawsgrantedthemtheopportunityforlegalrecognition,officialauthority,andownershipoverthewatersystems.Currently,thereareover5,000ruralwatersystems,butonlyafractionofwhichhaveorganizedwaterboards.

Waterboardsshouldconsistof5to7communitymemberswhoserveintheirelectedpositionsfortwo‐yearterms.xxiWaterboardsusuallyconsistofapresident,vice‐president,treasurer,fiscalofficer,twospeakers,and/oralternates.Whilehistoricallythesepositionshavebeenmale‐dominated,womenareincreasinglytakingleadershiproles,andmanyNGOsarehelpingpromotegenderequity.Womenareespeciallyimportantascommunitydecision‐makersbecausetheyareoftenresponsibleforhealthdecisionsatthefamilylevelandareinchargeofraisingchildren.Oneofthekeyrolesoftheboardisincalculatingcommunitywatertariffsandcollectingthesetariffsforsystemoperation,maintenance,andeventually,replacement.

II.3.HonduranAssociationofWaterBoards(AHJASA)

TheHonduranAssociationofWaterBoards(AHJASA)isanon‐profitnon‐governmentalorganization(NGO)thatprovideseducationalandtechnicalsupportservicestolocalwaterboardsforthesustainablemanagementoftheirwatersystems.AHJASAalsoprovideslow‐costlegalandadministrativeassistancetowaterboardsseekingtogainofficiallegalrecognition,whichisimportantforreceivingfundingsupport.Theorganizationwasfoundedin1990asaresultofapartnershipbetweentheInternationalRuralWaterAssociation(IRWA)andAguaParaelPueblo(APP),alocalHonduranNGO.Itwasinitiallyformedby17communitieswhodecidedtoorganizeasanassociation,buthassincegrowntoamembershipofover800communitiesinelevenofeighteendepartments(Atlántida,Colon,FranciscoMorazán,LaPaz,Olancho,Yoro,SantaBarbara,ElParaiso,Valle,Choluteca,andIntibucá)in2009.xxii

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AHJASA’scentralmissionistoempowerwaterboardmembersandcommunitiestoindependentlyandsustainablymanagetheirwatersystemsandprovideefficientandqualitywaterservices.Theassociationguidesitselfbyaparticipatorydevelopmentapproachthatemphasizestheactiveengagementandcollaborationofbeneficiariesinstrengtheningtheiradministrative,financial,andtechnicalskills,findingsolutionstotheirwaterproblems,reducingtheirdependenceonexternalactors,andbecomingprotagonistsoftheirowndevelopmentprocess.AsthedirectoroftheChlorineBankprogramsaidtous,“Ineffect,ifwearesuccessfulatstrengtheningacommunity,thenitmaychoosetopursueitscommunitygoalswithoutembracingAHJASA;thisisariskwerun.”xxiii

Followingtheseprinciples,AHJASAisorganizedasademocratic,“bottom‐up,”membership‐basedstructure.Atitsbasearelocalwaterboardsthatpayasymbolic,three‐lempiramembershipfee($0.16USD).Localwaterboardsarethenorganizedintosector,municipal,and/ordepartmental‐levelassociationswiththeirownelectedboards.DelegatesfromtheseparticipateinanannualgeneralassemblythatelectsaNationalWaterBoardchargedwithdeterminingtheAssociation’spolicydirectivesandsharingbestpracticesandnewtechnologies.Waterboardsfromthelocaltothenationallevelareelectedeverytwoyears.ThemanagementofAHJASAisprimarilytheresponsibilityofthedepartmental(andinsomecasesmunicipal)andthenationalboards.

AHJASAservesitsmissionbyofferingtechnicalandcapacity‐buildingassistanceandfunctioningasadistributionnetworkforwaterdisinfectionproductsandservicesthroughtheChlorineBankprogram.In2009,AHJASAhadanannualbudgetofaboutUS$240,000.Roughlytwo‐thirdsoffundingfortheseactivitiescomesfrominternationaldonorsincludingTROCAIRE,InternationalAid,AlianzaporelAgua,WaterAid,PREVDA,andtheSwedishGovernment,whiletheremainingthirdisderivedfromChlorineBanksalesofwaterdisinfectionmaterialsandservices.Recently,theorganizationhasdecentralizeditsprocessforsolicitingandmanaginggrants,anddepartmentalbranchesofAHJASAarenowreceivinggrantfundingdirectly.

TechnicalAssistance

ThecornerstoneofAHJASA’stechnicalassistanceservicesisitscircuitriderprogram,whichhasbeeninplacesincetheorganization’sfounding.ThecircuitriderprogramismodeledaftertheNationalRuralWaterAssociation’s(NRWA)programintheUS.

CircuitridersaretrainedandemployedbyAHJASAtoprovidetechnicalsupportandeducationintheoperationandmaintenanceofwatersystems,guidanceonmanagementissues,andmotivationforthecommunitytoparticipateindecision‐makingprocesses.Ingeneral,circuitridersworkwithaclusterofabout40to50ruralcommunitiesandregularlyvisitthemtoinspectthefunctionalityofsystems,monitorwaterqualityanddistribution,trainnewwaterboardmembersandpersonnel,reviewfinancialrecords,trackprogress,andaddressanyproblemspresented.Todate,thecircuitriderprogramhashadsuccessinimprovingtheadministrationofwatersystemsbylocalcommunitiesandtheirwaterboards,increasingaccountabilityandtransparency,andeducatingbeneficiariesabouttheimportanceofqualityandsustainablewaterservices.

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Thedeteriorationofthefundingsituationattheendof2009andinto2010duetopoliticalandeconomicturmoilhassignificantlyreducedthenumberofcircuitridersinoperationtoonlyfouratthetimeofthisstudy,downfromeleventhepreviousyear.Inlightoftheselimitations,AHJASAhasidentifiedandtrainedleadersfromlocalcommunitiestoserveassectorcoordinatorsthattakeontheactivitiesofcircuitriderswithintheirdistrictsandworkcollaborativelywiththemandotherlocaltechnicianstoresolveanyemergingproblemsandprioritizevisits.Sectorcoordinatorsworkeitherasvolunteersorarepaid,usuallypart‐time,byAHJASA’sdepartmentalormunicipalassociationwithfundsprovideddirectlybycommunitieswhowanttheadditionalsupport.Therewereabout35sectorcoordinatorsin2009.

CapacityBuilding

AsecondcoreactivitythatAHJASAprovidesisorganizinganumberofworkshops,seminars,andothertrainingeventsdirectedatusers,waterboardsandassociationmembers,andtechnicians(plumbers,circuitriders,andsectorcoordinators).Thesearetailoredtotherespectiveaudience,butusuallyincludemodulessuchas:

o Operation,maintenance,andadministrationofwatersystemso Legalrequirements,duties,andstandardsundertheFrameworkLawo Waterquality,treatment,andmonitoringo Financialmanagement(e.g.bookkeeping,tariffcalculation)o Strategicplanningandevaluationforfinancialandoperationalsustainabilityo Principlesofgoodgovernance,transparencyandaccountabilityo Basicsanitation(e.g.useoflatrines,hygiene)o Environmentalissues,includingwatershedprotectionandclimatechangeo Participatorydevelopmentandleadershipskillso Genderequity

Techniciansusuallygothroughanintensiveformaltrainingandcertificationprocesslastingbetweensixmonthstoayearthatincludesboththeoryandpracticeinthefield.UsersandwaterboardsreceiveformaltraininguponjoiningAHJASAandcanrequestadditionaltrainingwhenneeded(e.g.withtheelectionofnewboardmembers).Trainingandeducationisalsoprovidedmoreinformallytocommunitiesduringvisitsbycircuitriders,sectorcoordinators,orotherAHJASAstaff.

AHJASAalsoorganizesdepartmental,national,andCentralAmericanassembliesforwaterboardrepresentativestoexchangeideas,sharebestpractices,coordinateactivitieslearnaboutnewmethodsandtechnologies,andsetpolicypriorities.Theseassembliescreatealargescale“platformforconscientization”thatextendsthedisseminationofknowledgeandactivities,andalsoincludestheparticipationandcollaborationofanumberofpublicandprivatesectoractorsinvolvedinW&Sissues.

AnIntegrativeApproachforIntensiveAssistance

Recently,AHJASAhaslaunchedanewmodelforprovidingcomprehensive,intensiveassistancetocommunitiesthroughthesaleofcapacityandtrainingservices,whichwouldgenerateasourceofrevenuenotdependentonexternalfunding.One‐yearintegrativeassistancepackets

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arepromotedamongdepartments,associationsandgroupsof8orsocommunities(amaximumof9,000users),whomustraisesufficientfundstopaythesalaryofadedicatedsectorcoordinatorandfortrainings.Thepackagesnotonlyprovidethenormaltechnicalandeducationsupport,butalsoplacemoreemphasisoncommunitydevelopmentandtargettheentirecommunitytoparticipateandbecomeincreasinglyinvolvedinkeyissues.ThisisgoingtobeanimportantnewmodelforAHJASAtotakeaboard,asintensivetrainingoftheentirecommunitycanleadtoincreasedinterestnotonlyinwaterservicesbutincommunitydevelopmentandleadership.Theultimateideaandhopeisfornewleaderstoemergeandrunwaterboardswhilehavingaddedimpactsongovernance,accountability,andtransparency.

ChlorineBankProgram

WaterdisinfectionisanimportantcomponenttoprovidingqualitywaterservicesandisrequiredbylawinHonduras.Lackofaccesstoactualsupplies,products,andservicesforwaterdisinfectionisakeyprobleminpoorqualityofwaterservices.Somecommunitiesmusttravelverylongdistancesandatahighcosttoobtainthesesupplies.Whilecircuitridersandotherprogramscanteachwaterboardsandcommunitieshowtoproperlymanagetheirwatersystems,eventhemostdedicatedeffortslosetheirvalueiftheycannotbuymaterialsneededtotreatthewater.Inordertoaddressthis,AHJASAhasestablishedachlorinebankprogramthatservesasadistributionnetworkforthesegoodsandservicesintoruralareas,withtheobjectivetocreateamarket‐drivendemandforwaterdisinfectionproducts.FollowingAHJASA’sprincipleofreducingdependency,thechlorinebankallowscommunitiestorealizethereisacosttoprovidingqualitywaterandassumetheresponsibilityofthosecostswithintheirtariff.Inadditiontosellingproductssuchaschlorine,chlorinators,residualindicators,accessories,accountingsupplies,thebanksalsoprovidetechnicalassistanceforinstallation,operationofequipmentandmonitoringwaterquality.Thebankistheonlydistributoroftabletchlorine,whichhastobeimported,plusitalsosellssodiumhypochlorite.Thecentralchlorinebank,basedinTegucigalpa,istheprincipledistributor,andencouragestheformationoflocalchlorinebanks,mainlywithinlocalAHJASAbranches,tostrengthenitsreachintoruralareas.Currentlyeightotherregional/municipalchlorinebanksareinoperation,thoughthenumbertendstofluctuateperiodicallywithinterestandfunding.Althoughmembercommunitiesareoftenthemostloyalcustomersasitistheirbank,anyonecanmakeapurchase,andclientsincludeNGOs,municipalgovernments,andnon‐membercommunities.Moreover,thebankofferstechnicalsupporttoeveryonewhohasmadeapurchaseandhasrecentlymadethisarequirementofthesale.

OfAHJASA’stotalbudget,thechlorinebankaccountedforathirdofrevenuein2009,operatingataprofitwhiletherestoftheorganizationoperatedatnetloss.Thechlorinebankisprimarilyfundedbyproductdonationsandsales;verylittleisallottedthroughinternationalfunding.Thecentralbankhasonefulltimestaffmemberinchargeofallbankfunctions:makingsales,administeringinventory,andpromotingtheconcept,promotingproducts,andorganizingtourstoinstallchlorinators.Thebankfacesalotofresourceconstraintsthatlimititsactivities,anditisstilllargelydependentondonationsofproducts,thoughitisnowpurchasinggreaterquantitiesofchlorinethanbefore.

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III.FindingsandDiscussionAccordingtoBrandxxivandreinforcedduringthefieldwork,threefactorsarecriticaltoensurethatruralHondurancommunitiescansustainablyadoptwatertreatmentmethods:

1. Communitiesmustdemandcleanwaterandmakeitapriorityfortheirwellbeing.Thisentailsnotonlyanawarenessofcurrentwatercontaminationbutalsoanunderstandingoftheimportanceofconsumingcleanwaterandhowitaffectsthehumanorganism.Educationofwaterboardsandsimilareducationcampaignsforcommunitiesisofvitalimportanceforthisfirstcomponent.

2. Capacityofcommunitymembersandwaterboardstoadequatelymanagetheirwatersystemsisfundamental.ThecapacityofAHJASAasanorganizationisalsocriticalasAHJASAisinapositiontogreatlyassistcommunitiesbystimulatingawarenesstostrengthenwaterboards,promotetreatmentofwater,andprovidetrainingsforcommunitymemberssotheycanadequatelymanagetheirwatersystems.

3. Theremustbeaconsistentandreliablesupplychaincapableofmeetingthedemandfordisinfectionproductsandaccessoriesatlow‐costtolocalcommunities.Whenthesupplychainbreaksdown,communitiesthathavebeenfaithfullychlorinatingmaylookelsewherefortheirproducts,stopchlorinating,orconsiderothermethodsoftreatment.Chlorinebanksareimportantdistributionnetworksthathaveenabledaccesstowatertreatmentgoodsandservicestoruralcommunities.

Asdescribedearlier,AHJASA’sprogramareaspreciselytargetthesethreecomponentsthrougheducation,technicalsupport,capacitybuilding,andresourceprovision.Inthisregard,theorganizationplaysavitalroleasaproviderofinformationandeducationandafacilitatortoencouragecommunitydialogueandaction.CentraltoAHJASA’ssuccessisacommunityparticipationmodelfocusedonempoweringindividualstochangebehaviorsandtakeresponsibilityforthesolutionstotheirproblems.Thoughultimatelyeachcommunitymustdecidewhethercleanwaterisapriorityitiswillingtopayfor,AHJASA’sinvolvementgreatlyincreasesthechanceitsresidentswillhaveimprovedaccesstocleanwater.

Demand

Aspreviouslymentioned,itisestimatedthatonly14percentofruralcommunitiesdisinfecttheirwatersuppliesandwater‐borneillnessesaretheleadingcausesofmortality.Thisisindicativeofboththelackofaccesstoandlowdemandforcleanwater.Lowlevelsofeducationregardingbasicwatersanitationandtreatmentareevidentinmanycommunities,includingsomeoftheonesvisited,asanimalsareallowedtoroamanddefecatearoundwatersourcesanddrinkfreelyfromthem.Soapwasnotpresentinmanybathroomswithtoiletsandevenlesscommoninlatrines.Contaminationalsohappensduringthetransportandstorageofwater,andwhilemanypersonsinterviewedclaimedtoregularlycleantheirwaterstoragerecipients,itisnotuncommenttoseemosquitoesnearthem.Moreover,manyhouseholdsdidnotusepoint‐of‐usetreatmentmethods(i.e.boiling,liquidchlorine),especiallywhenthecentralsystemsweresupposedlybeingdisinfected.

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Inadditiontoagenerallackofeducationandawarenessabouttheimportanceofcleanwaterfordiseaseprevention,manyinterviewsrevealedsignificantmisperceptionsabouttheeffectsofchlorineandobjectionstoitsuse.Acommoncomplaintwasthebadtasteandodorofchlorineandfearsthatitcausedcancer,hairloss,orwasotherwiseharmful.Whilemanyofthewaterboardmembersinterviewednowchlorinatetheirwatersystems,alladmittedthatitwasaverydifficultandlongprocesstoconvincecommunitymembersoftheimportanceoftreatingwaterandtoovercometheirmisperceptionsaboutchlorine.Thereductionintheincidenceofdiseasesandassociatedmedicalcostswastheprimarymotivatingfactorinmanycommunitiesforcontinuingtochlorinatetheirsystemsanddemandthatitbedonesoregularlyandwithintheappropriatestandards.

Basedonthefieldwork,itisclearthatonlywell‐functioningandmotivatedcommunitiesandtheirwaterboardsconsistentlydemandwaterdisinfectionproducts,namelychlorine.Forthisreason,well‐trainedwaterboardsandparticipatorycommunitiesarecriticaltothelong‐termsuccessofthechlorinebankprogram.AHJASA’strainingandtechnicalassistancearecentralcomponentsnecessarytoincreaseawarenessoftheimportanceofcleanwater,theeffectivenessofchlorineandotherdisinfectionmethods,andcanultimatelydrivedemand.Tothiseffect,circuitridersandothertechnicalstaffarekeyactorstaskednotonlywithensuringthefunctionalityofwatersystems,butwitheducatingcommunitiesandbolsteringparticipation,self‐sufficiency,anddemandforcleanwater.

Onekeydeficiencyinfosteringdemandisthatthechlorinebankcurrentlydoesnothaveanymarketingorpromotionalsupplies(i.e.brochures,pamphlets,posters)ortheadequatefundingtoproducethese.Evenrelativelybasicmaterialscouldbepassedalongtocommunitytreasurerswhoarrivetopurchasechlorinesupplies,whointurncouldpasstheinformationtocertaincommunitymembers.Moreimportantlyperhaps,communitiesthatarenotconsistentlychlorinatingcouldbetargetedforsuchinformationdissemination.Marketingandeducationalcampaignscancreatedemandforwaterdisinfection,dispelmythsandmisperceptionsaboutchlorine,andinformcommunitieswhereandhowtoobtainthenecessaryproducts.

CapacityofLocalWaterBoards

Notsurprisingly,thecapacityoflocalwaterboardsvariesgreatlythroughoutHonduras.AccordingtotheSistemadeInformaciondeAguaRural(SIAR),acentralizeddatabaseofruralwatersystemsandwaterboardsmanagedbySANAA,butnotupdatedsince2002,about35percentofwatersystemsandboardsarecategorizedaswell‐functioning,21percentarecompletelybrokendown,andtherestfallsomewhereinbetween(seeAppendixEforasummarytable).Thoughgreatimprovementstotheruralwatersectorweremadesincethe1980s,HurricaneMitchunderminedmanyoftheseeffortsanddestroyedmanywatersystems.xxv

Thoughinterviewswereprimarilywithcommunitiesthathadwell‐functioningsystems,itwasclearfromtouringneighboringvillagesthatthisistheexceptionratherthantherule.Mostwaterboardsandcommunitiesdonotmanagetheirwaterresourcesinanorganizedorsustainablefashion.Thecalculationandcollectionoftariffsisacentralfunctionofthewaterboardandgeneratestherevenuesnecessaryforthemtopurchasechlorinesupplies.Inmany

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instances,however,tariffsaresettoolowtopayfortheoperation,maintenance,andchlorinationofthesystem,ornotcollectedatall.Povertyandunemploymentarekeyreasons,asmanyfamiliescannotpaythefees,butpoormanagementandleadershiparealsofactors.Poormanagementoftenleadstophysicalbreakdownsofwatersystems,which,inturn,greatlyincreasethelikelihoodoflowornon‐existenttariffcollection.Evenwellorganizedandconsciouscommunitiessometimesfaceareticencetopaymonthlyratesonbehalfofitsmembers,particularlyduringthedryseasonwhenwaterresourcesarelow.Collectionalsopresentsaproblemandmanycommunitymembersareindebt(mora)andsubjecttobeingcutofffromthewatersupply.

ASANAAdirectornotesinarecentreport,“waterboardsarewellsuitedtooperateruralsystemsbutneedsomeformofbackupsupport.”xxviAHJASAprovidesthissupportandthroughitseducationandtrainingprogramshelpswaterboardstoprepareanoperatingbudget,calculatetheappropriatetariff,andsupporttheleadershipinconvincingthecommunityofthenecessitytoagreetopaythetariff.Moreover,itsprogramsemphasizetransparency,accountability,andgoodgovernanceinsustainablymanagingcommunityfunds.

ManyofthecommunitiesthataremembersofAHJASAregularlyreviewtheirtariffsandvotetoincreasetheminordertoproperlyoperatetheirsystems.Insomecases,tariffsarehighenoughtocreateapoolofsavingsthatthecommunitycanuseforlargerrepairsorforthereplacementofthesystemwhenitsusefullifeismet(usually20years).AHJASAwaterboardsarealsomorelikelytoholdregularmeetingsandcommunityassembliestoelectnewmembers,voteontariffsorotherpressingissues,andreportontheuseoffundsandnewprojects.

Moreover,itwasapparentthatproperdisinfectionrequiredsignificanttrainingandregularmonitoringandsupportfromAHJASA.Circuitridersoftenreportedthatplumberswouldstopmonitoringchlorinelevelsifthecircuitriderswerenotcheckingtheirreportsperiodically.Ifwaterboardsregularlychlorinatedtheirwater,utilizationandsalesofchlorine,services,andaccessorieswouldrise.Circuitridersandsectorcoordinatorsarecriticalactorsthatcanfosterdemandthrougheducation,increasethecapacityofwaterboardstoaffordandbuydisinfectionproducts,promotetheChlorineBank,andprovidetechnicalassistanceregardingtheproperoperationofvariousdisinfectionmethods.ThiswouldenhancethesustainabilityoftheChlorineBankbyensuringthatcommunitiesnotonlyinstallchlorinatorsbutthattheyusethemcorrectlyaswell.

SupplyChain—TheChlorineBank

AHJASA’sChlorineBankhasbeeninoperationfornearly10yearsandhasabouteightlocalmunicipalanddepartmentalbranches.Thecentralbankonlyhasonefull‐timestaff,itsdirector,inchargeofallofitsoperationsfromsalestoadministration;atthelocallevel,AHJASAadministrators,circuitriders,orotherstaffsellproductstocustomersandmaintainrecords,butnooneisinchargeofitspromotion,marketing,orstrategicdevelopment.Whilethechlorinebankprogramhasgeneratedsomemodestprofitsthatallowittoremaininoperation,itslimitedhumanandcapitalresourcesanddependencyonthedonationofchlorineproductshaverestricteditsexpansionandoverallsuccessincreatingasustainablemarketforwaterdisinfectionproducts.

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Staffing&Management

ThemostrecentindependentauditofAHJASA’sprogramsandfinancialposition(November2009)foundsignificantdeficienciesinthemanagementofthechlorinebankrelatedtothelackofappropriateadministrativecontrols.Theseincludedpoorrecordkeepingofsaleslogs,highratesofuncollecteddebt,alackofstandardpoliciesregardingsalesandpurchasesoncredit,andnoregularprocessforperiodicinventories,amongothers.Thechlorinebankdirector,whosesalaryismostlycommission‐based,isdriventogeneratesales,markettheproducts,andfrequentlytravelsthroughoutthecountrytodistributesuppliesandattractnewclients.Thesalespartofthejobhasclearlytakenpriorityovertheadministrationofthebank.Thecurrentdirectorhasastrongbackgroundinsalesandhascultivatedimportantcontacts;administrationofthebank’sactivities,however,remainsaweaknessinthebank’soperationsanditcouldgreatlybenefitfromincreasedstaffing.

ThedecentralizedstructureofAHJASAandthelocalchlorinebanksalsomaketheirmanagementmoredifficultandcomplex.Currently,thereisaverylooseandinformalstructureofregionalchlorinebanks,andtheyhavevariedunderstandingsaboutwhattheroleandfunctionofeachbankshouldbeinrelationshiptothecentralchlorinebank.Localbanksneedtobestrengthenedaswellintermsofdedicatedstaff,technology(i.e.thebankinMarcalalackedafunctioningcomputer),andmarketing.RelatedtothisistheabsenceofacentralizeddatabasewithinAHJASAtocollectallthedataregardingclientsservedandproductssold.Somedocumentsandspreadsheetsexist,butthesehavelimitedinformationaboutAHJASAcommunitiesandthereisalackofformalandaccessibleinformationspecificallyrelatedtochlorineproductsales,use,andtrainings.

Products&Distribution

Havingregular,consistentaccesstotherighttypeandadiversityofproductscanstrengthenthechlorinebank’ssupplychainanddistributioncapabilities.Currently,thechlorinebankdependsheavilyonproductdonationsbyforeigncompanies,especiallysincethetabletchlorinatoritdistributesisnotmanufactureddomestically.However,thesedonationsarenotalwayssufficient,forcingcustomerstowaitforthechlorinebanktoimportadditionalsuppliesthroughouttheyearatahighcost.DonationsofchlorinewillalwaysbeusefulduetoAHJASA’ssmallbudget,butthedrawbackfromthissourceisthattheproductsarenotalwaysthemostneededorappropriateforcommunities’watersystems.Forexample,manycommunitieswerebuyingsmalltabletsfortheirlarge‐tabletchlorinatorbecausethiswastheonlyproductavailableatthetime.Thesecommunitieswereunhappywiththepurchase,asthechlorinedidnotlastaslong,requiredmoremonitoring,andhadhigherresiduals,whichleftabadtastetothewater.

ItwouldbehooveAHJASAtohavedependableandappropriatesourcesofchlorineandregulardeliveryschedules—totheextentpossible—toavoidbuyingproductstosatisfylastminuterequestsfromregionalchlorinebanks.WhileAHJASAfacescertainconstraintstoacquiringlargequantitiesofchlorinesuchaslackoffinancialcapitalandlogisticalarrangements(e.g.trucksfortransport,placestostoretheproducts),AHJASAcanstillimproveitsroleandperformanceaspartofthesupplychainingettingproductstocommunities.Somebasic

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improvementscouldinclude:anorganizedbook‐keepingoperation,tightenedfinances,andcalculatingmorereliableschedulesofwhenvariouscommunitieswillneedproductsinordertosaveontransportationcosts.

Moreover,AHJASAshouldconsiderdiversifyingitsproductbaseinordertoexpanditsclientele.Roughly20percentofruralwatersystemsarecompletelybrokendownandabout22,000otherruralcommunitiesdonothavesystemsatall.Significantcontaminationoccursinthetransportandstorageofwater.Inthesecases,itisnecessarytoprovidecommunitieswithalternativeand/oradditionalmethodsforwaterdisinfectionsuchasceramic(Filtron)orslowsand(Biosand)filtersandliquidchlorine(seeAppendixFforalistofalternativedisinfectionproducts).

Competition

OneoftheprimaryobstaclestosustainabilitynotedbynearlyalltheAHJASAstaffinterviewedisthecompetitionfromotherNGOsorcharitablemissionsthatdonatechlorineproductsinsteadofsellingthemorfromprivatebusinessesthatareabletosellgranularhypochloriteatalowercost.Severalwaterboardsinterviewedmentionedthattheyreceivedonatedchlorineproducts;somementionedthatpoliticiansalsowouldgetinvolvedduringcampaigns,promisingnewsystemsorimprovedservices.Whenproductsaredonated,thereisrarelyasustainededucationefforttocomplementthegifts;moreimportantly,the“free”productscomewithaprice,namelyincreaseddependencyonoutsidehelp.Assomecommunitiesreceivefreechlorine,themembersbecomereluctanttobuythesameproductsdowntheline,evenaftertheyhaverunoutandthedonorshaveleftthecommunity.ThisphenomenonunderminesAHJASA’sandthechlorinebanks’worksignificantly.

CommunitiesthatarecommittedtoAHJASA’sapproachofself‐sufficiencyrecognizethatfreeproductsarenotpartofasustainablemanagementofwatersystems.OthercommunitieswithmoretenuouslinkstoAHJASA,however,weretargetsfordonorNGOslookingtogaininfluenceand(intentionallyorunintentionally)undermineAHJASA’swork.Donationsmadetocommunitiesincreasedependencyonexternalactors,underminethemarketforchlorineproducts,andlowerthevalueplacedonthoseproductsandservicesbylocalcommunities.Undertheseconstraints,thechlorinebankcannotraisethepricesofitsdisinfectionproductstocoveritsoperatingcostsorexpand.However,asAHJASA’sPresident,OmarNunez,suggested,“inthesesortsofsituationsAHJASAmustsimplylettheotheractorsspendtheirmoneyandgiveawaytheirproducts,becausewhentheresourcesrundry,AHJASAwillstillbetheretooffersupportandmoresustainablealternatives.”

IV.CaseStudies:CommunityTypologyinRuralHondurasBelowarefourcasestudiesthathighlightsomeofthespecificissuesthatcommunitiesarefacing.Thefieldworkandresearchrevealedthatcommunitiescouldbebroadlydistinguishedbasedontwokeyfactors:management(ledbythewaterboard);andwaterresources.Examplesofbothgoodandpoormanagementandadequateandpoorresourcesareaddressed.

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LasTranquitas,LaPaz:Adequateresourcesandmanagement

Thetreasurerofthiswater‐board,ManuelRodrigo,helpedexplainaboutsomeofthedynamicsofthewater‐boardandthecommunityofLasTranquitas.Theentirecommunitymeetseverymonthoftheyeartodiscusswater‐relatedissues;thewater‐boardchargesafineof50lempirastoanymemberwhodoesnotattendthemonthlymeeting,encouragingattendanceanddrivinghomethemessagethatthewater‐boardtakescommunityinvolvementseriously.Rarelydocommunitymembersfailtopaythe25‐lempiramonthlyfeetothewater‐board,andifnecessarythewater‐boardwillthreatentocuttheconnectionofahouseholdthatisnotpaying.Thefactthatwaterismostlyabundanthelpsencourageconsistentpayment.Allhouseshaverunningwaterintheirhouse,andthesystemiswellmaintainedandregularlychlorinated.Overtheyears,thiscommunityhasbecomeaccustomedtochlorineasthetreatmentmethod,andManuelstatedthatpeoplemightevencomplainiftheydonotsenseatraceofchlorineinthewater,thoughthisrarelyhappensastheplumberregularlychecksthecommunityforadequatechlorinelevels.Notonlydidwater‐boardmembersreceivetraining,butalsothewholecommunityreceivedsomesortoftrainingandeducationpresentationfromAHJASA,andsincethen,knowledgeandawarenesshavebeenpassedaroundthecommunity,resultinginstrongunityandconsciousness.Thewatersourceistwokilometersawayfromthewatertank,andthecommunityhasmadesurethesourceandiswellprotected.Whilethecommunityhasmaintainedthewatersourceandsystemwellovertheyears,thetankandpipesthatsupplythetownarereachingtheendoftheirlife‐span;anewsystemwillcost200,000lempiras(~$10,000US),andthecommunityhasonlymanagedtosave120,000lempiras.“Whenthesystemisruined,”Manuelexplained,“wewillgototheothersource,”referringtoasmallerwatersourceaboutakilometerawayfromthetown.Thissourcewouldnotbeconnectedinanywaytopeople’shomesanditwouldbenecessarytotransportwaterincontainers.Inonesense,LasTranquitasisfortunatetohaveplentyofwaterresourcesinthenearbyarea—othercommunitiesfaceseriouswatershortages.ThepeopleofLasTranquitashavebeentakingcareofthisothersource,anticipatingthedaythatthecurrentinfrastructuregivesway.Agoalforthefutureistodoublethemonthlytarifftobeabletosaveupforfuturerepairsandreplacements,butthisgoalisbynomeanscertain.WhileLasTranquitashasawellfunctioningsystem,thetariffremainslowduetoseasonalityanduncertaintyofincome.Thecoffeeharvestsuppliesalargeportionofmostresidents’income,whichintotalisasmallamount;mostresidentshavelessthantwoacresoflandandmanyhouseholdstrytorentorborrowlandtogrowmaizeorbeansduringotherpartsoftheyear.Cashincomeisscarceformostresidents,andpaying50lempiraspermonthwouldbedifficultformany.WhatLasTranquitasdoeshaveisasolidconsciousnessoftreatingthewaterandasenseofitsvalue;thisisperhapsthemostimportantaspectforhavingasuccessfulwater‐managementsystem.Manuelandothermembersofthewater‐boardcreditedthetrainingprovidedbyAHJASAwithinstillingthecommunitywithaconsciousnessoftheimportanceofcleanwaterandmaintainingtheirwatersystems.DonJoseIrene,thecircuitriderforLasTranquitas,iswellknowninthecommunityandpleasedwithitsself‐sufficiency;henolongerdoesanydirecttrainingforthecommunity—thewaterboardandplumbertrainmembersasneeded.Higherincomesandincreasedfundsforthewaterboardinordertoreplacetheaginginfrastructurearetheprimarilyneedsforsystemimprovements.

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PiedrasBlancas,Valle:Poorresources,poormanagement

ThiscommunitystandsinstarkcontrasttotheseeminglyharmoniousTranquitas.Perhapsagooddealoftheinitialperceptionofcontrastisduetothetremendousdifferenceinterrain.Nacaomeislocatedinthesouthwesternpartofthecountry—alreadyadryregion—anditexperiencedamarkeddecreaseofrainduringthepastrainyseasonandissufferingfromdireshortagesofwater.WearrivedtoPiedrasBlancas,inthedepartmentofValleandsatinonacommunitymeeting.Jorge,oneofthecircuitridersfortheregion,wasofferingthecommunitytheopportunitytoacquirefiltersforwaterpurificationonthehouseholdlevel;heencouragedthemtoconsider,asacommunity,theneedforcleanwaterandthechancetobuythequalityfiltersatasubsidizedrate.Duringinformaldiscussionsafterthemeeting,wefoundoutthatthiscommunityhadbeenusingchlorineyearsagobutwasnotcurrentlyusingit.Jorgeexplainedtousthathehadurgedthemtoconsiderusingitagainonseveraloccasions,butthathewasnowfocusingonothermethodstogetthemtotreatthewater—thusthefilters.Weleftthetownwithaprofoundsenseofuncertainty.Whyhadthetownrejectedchlorine?Whywasthewater‐boardsopoorlyorganized?Theanswerstotheabovequestionshavealottodowiththecommunityorganizationandwatersystemmanagement.Thewater‐boardhashadfrequentturn‐overandfewregularmeetings;AHJASAcircuitridershadvisitedthetownregularlyyearsagobutinthepastcoupleofyearcircuitridershadnotbeenabletovisitPiedrasBlancasconsistently,andthetownceasedusingchlorine—“ittastedbad…itwasdifficulttogetandexpensivetobuy.”Wouldconsistentcircuitriderattentiontothisvillagehaveledtocontinuedchlorinatingbythecommunity?Perhapsnot,buttheattituderelatedtowatertreatmentcertainlywouldnotbeanyworsethanitisnow.Thiscommunityhasaweakwater‐boardandlittlecommunitycohesion;misinformationaboutchlorineseemstoberampantandconsciousnessofcleanwater’simportanceisquitelow;cleanwaterdoesnotappeartobeapriorityforthiscommunity.Improvementsintheirdrinkingwatermustsurgefromwithinthecommunity…butsomeoutsidesupportmayhelpspursuchchange.

LaLlave,Valle:Poorresources,goodmanagement

ThiscommunityhasanelectricpumpthatwasbuiltwithfundsfromtheTexacooilcompanyandisfunctioningquitewell.Overtheyears,the42householdsofthiscommunityhaveagreedtoraisethemonthlyrateinordertoincreasesavingsforfuturereplacementcostsandgeneralmaintenance.Intheyear2000themonthlyfeewasat60lempirasandacoupleofyearslaterthecommunitydecidedtoraiseitto85permonth;themonthlyratenowstandsat120lempiras.Currentlythewater‐boardhas47,000lempirassavedup(approximately$2,400),whichisearmarkedforcoststothewatersystem.Thepresidentofthiswater‐board,DonBenitohasbeeninvolvedinthecommunity’swatersystemsformanyyearsandtakesprideinhavingitfunctionwell.Thewater‐boardrecentlyraisedmoneyseparatelyfromthemonthlyuserfeesinordertoinstalleighttrashcansinandaroundthecommunity,andthecommunityhasadditionalplansforreforestationprojects.Thiswater‐boardandcommunityareworkingtobecometrulyself‐sufficient,withagoalofbeingabletoaffordanewwatersystemintheyearstocome.LaLlavehasa20‐yearplanthatincludesenvironmentalgoalssuchasreforestationandextensiveanddetailedrepairschedulesforthewatersystem’sdifferentparts(pump,watertank,pipes,etc).The20‐yearplanalsoincludesadministrativetasksandoversight,trainings

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andmeetings,andself‐evaluations.Forthetimebeing,thecommunityappearstobecommittedtomaintainingtheirwatersystem.BenitocreditsAHJASA’stechnicaladvisors,thecircuitriders,withhavingprovidedimportantaccesstotrainingsandinformation.HerecallsthatsomeforeignerscametovisitthetownwithAHJASAsomeyearsagotostresstheimportanceoftreatingthewater,explainingtothecommunitythatwealthiercountriessuchastheUnitedStatesusechlorinetotreattheirwater.ThisparticularpresentationandAHJASA’sguidanceovertheyearsmadeadifferenceinchangingtheperceptionofthecommunitymembersandinstillingaconsciousnessofthevalueofcleanwater.AHJASAconsistentlygivesadvicetoLaLlavewater‐boardmembersabouthowtokeepthesystemingoodshape,andmostimportantly,AHJASAhasofferedcommunitymemberschancestoreceivetrainings.Theseeducationopportunitiesaredirectlyresponsibleforcommunityinitiativesforreforestationandgarbagecleanup.UnfortunatelyLaLlaveisforcedtopaycommercialratesfortheelectricitythatpowersthepump,buttheyareadialoguewithmunicipalofficialstotrytochangethis.“Wearepayingasmuchasthreetimeswhatnon‐commercialuserspay,andwearenotcommercial,”Benitoexplainedtous.Butfarfromdistraught,hewasmorematter‐of‐factaboutthesituationandconfidentthattheycouldarrangesomething.

SantaAna,FranciscoMorazan:Adequateresources,poormanagement

Thistownof500familieshaswaterconnectionstomostofthehouses,butthewaterpressureisquitepoor,andmoresignificantly,thequalityisterrible.NowaterboardexistsinSantaAnaandtheyhavenoaffiliationwithAHJASA.Thewatersystemisgravity‐fedandreliesontwodifferentsourcestoreachallhouses,thoughneithersourceprovidescleanwater.Wevisitedoneofthesourcesupseveralkilometersawayfromthetowncenter.Itwasarathersmallpondwithaconcretebottom;roughly10meterssquaredsurfaceareaandmerely29inchesdeepatthetimewevisited.Thewaterwasagreenishbrownwithpoolsofgrassandmuckonthesurface.Therewerecowsandafewhorsesgrazingonthedustybitsofgrasssurroundingthewatersource,andtherewasnotevenafencetokeeptheanimalsfromapproachingtheliquid.Dagoberto,thetown’snewplumber(fontanero),saidthatthefirstpriorityshouldbetoexpandthewatersourcewithmachinerytoallowforagreaterquantityofwater,andofcourse,hesaidshakinghishead,itmustbefencedofffromthelivestockandotherwiseprotected.Therewerefewtreeswithin100metersofthedirtypool,andDagobertoalsomentionedplantingtreesasacriticalactivity.Weweresurprisedthatthiswatersourcefornearlyhalfofthetownwassopoorlycaredfor.Dagobertoexplainedthatthepoliticianshadnotseenwaterasapriorityandthattheyclaimednottohaveenoughmoneytofixupthesystem.Indeedthenewlyelectedmayor,withwhomwevisitedthewatersource,madenumerouspleastousforoutsidefunds.“Surely,”hesaid,“thegovernmentsoftheUnitedStatesandKoreacanhelpus,whoarepoorandneedy,withsomefunds.I’msurethatyoumustknowsomeonewhocanhelpus.”Itoccurredtous(andofcourseDagoberto)thatputtingafencearoundthewatersourcetofendoffthesurroundinglivestockwouldbeagoodstart,andthatshouldnotrequireforeignassistance.SantaAnawasunfortunatetohaveaseriesofpoliticianswhodidnotinvestinthewatersystem.Dagobertowasinanunenviablesituationofimprovingthewatersystemwithlittlefundsorpoliticalsupport.Thecurrentmayorappearedtobeinterestedinashort‐termsolutionforthewaterpressureproblem,buthadlittleinterestinlarger‐scaleprojectsrelatedtoquality.“Wedon’thaveanymoney,”hesaid,“thereislittlethatwecandoatthemoment.”

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SuchanattitudeisanathematoAHJASA,anditwasstrikingtovisitsmallandruralcommunitiesoperatingindryareasthathadbetterqualitywaterthanthetownofSantaAna,whichfacednoproblemsofscarcity;SantaAna’swaterproblemsweremorecloselyrelatedtoineptitude,corruption,andlackofpoliticalwill.

V.ChallengesSubstantialproblemsexistatthecommunitylevel,atanorganizationallevelforAHJASA,andtherearealsosignificantandlargestructuralproblemsthatareatanationallevelnottomentionataregionalandgloballevel.

V.1.Community‐levelIssues

Severalimportantissueswithincommunitiesthatcontributetothelackofwatertreatmentandconsequentlythelackofdemandforchlorineproductshavealreadybeentoucheduponinthisreport.TheproblemsdiscussedinthissectionbuilduponsuchcoreproblemsandarewidespreadinruralHondurasbutnotnecessarilytrueforeverycommunity.

Acorecommunity‐levelproblemisthegenerallackofincomeinmosthouseholds.Withlowincomestobeginwith,manypeopleareunwillingtopayamonthlyfeeforwateriftheyarenotconvincedoftheimportanceoftreatingthewaterandtreatingitspecificallywithchlorine.Ifahouseholdtrulybelievesthatwatershouldbeaprioritythenitcanusuallycomeupwiththemonthlyfeeforthewater‐board,andlikewisethehouseholdwouldsupportincreasesinthetariffiftheyfeelthatsuchmeasuresarenecessarytomaintainthewatersystem.AHJASA(andotherorganizations)hascomparedwateruserfeestotheamountofmoneythataveragehouseholdsspendonCoca‐Cola,emphasizingthatinmostcasesthewaterfeeisnotprohibitivelycostly;ratherbycuttingbackoncertainproductslikesoftdrinks,householdscanpaythewaterfeewithoutproblem.However,thepovertyofmanycommunitiesshouldnotbeminimized.Lackofstablejobsforcommunitymembersisaseriousconstraint.Evenincoffeegrowingregions,coffeeproducersaresmallandhaveaccesstoonlyafewacresofland,ifthat.Therevenuefromthecurrentcoffeeharvestmostlydoesnotlastuntilthenextharvest,andpeopleoftenturntosubsistenceagricultureorwagelaboriftheyareableto.Thereismuchfinancialuncertaintyincommunities,andwhilethemonthlywater‐feesmaynotbethathigh,itisstilldifficultformanyhouseholdstopaythefeesonatimelybasis.

Duetothedifficulteconomicclimateincommunities,migrationinsearchofworkiswidespread.CommunitymembersgotoTegucigalpaorothercitiestolookforwork,andmanyarewillingtoriskadifficultandcostlyjourneynorthtotheUnitedStates.Thisprevalenceofmigrationcanbeaquitesignificantfactorinacommunity’scohesionandorganizationbecauseinmanycasespotentialcommunityleadersandkeyhouseholdmembersaresimplynotpresent.Ononehandremittancescanplayanimportantroleinprovidingmoneytofamilies,butontheotherhandtheabsenceofpeoplecanleadtoshortagesofmotivatedandmobilizingindividualsandevenshortagesofmanuallabor.Peoplerarelyleavetheirtownsbecausetheywantto;rathernecessityseemstobetheprinciplemotivation,andunfortunatelytherearenoguaranteesthatanemigrantwillbesuccessfulinfindingajobonceabroad.

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V.2.OrganizationalLevelIssuesforAHJASA

AHJASAissubstantiallylimitedinitsoperationsduetoalackofpersonnelandlackoffinancialresources.Somecircuitridersvisitdozensofcommunitieseachmonthandarenotabletocovereventhebasiccostsoftheirmotorcyclewiththesalarythattheyreceive.Additionalcircuitridersandsupporttocommunitieswouldbesignificant.ItisworthmentioningthatAHJASAdoesanadmirablejobofstayingincontactwithcommunitiesandprovidingtechnicalsupportwiththeresourcestheyhave.However,manyofthestrongestprogramsthathavebeenorcurrentlyareinplace,suchascommunityparticipationprogramsinNacaome,relyonexternalfunding,whichcanleadtorapidclosuresorunfinishedprojects.ItcanbehighlyfrustratingforbothAHJASApersonnelandbeneficiarycommunitieswhenaninterestingandsuccessfulprojectceasestofunctionduetolackoffunds.

Thechlorinebankusedtobetreatedasaseparatecommercialventureandwouldsellchlorineproductstoarangeofactors,notfocusingoncommunitiesinparticular.Infact,formanyofthechlorinebanksthemostconsistentcustomerswerenotusingthechlorineforthetreatmentofcommunitywatersystems,butratherforpoolsandcommercialenterprises.Thenewstrategyofthechlorinebanksistoonlysellproductsalongwithaccompanyingservicesofcapacitystrengthening,targetingneedycommunities.Thepreviousbusinessapproachofsellingproductstoanyonedidnotreinforcetheimportanceoftreatingwaterconsistently;manyofpreviousclientswenttothechlorinebanksbecausetheseweretheonlysuppliersofsuchproductsandiftheclientscouldgetitelsewhereforcheaper,theycertainlywoulddoso.ThestrengthofthechlorinebankprogramistheknowledgeandexperienceofAHJASAandtheabilitytoprovideeducationandtrainingtocommunitiessothattheycanimprovetheirwaterquality.Thenewapproachofjoiningchlorineproductsandeducationandcapacityservicesisapromisingone.

AHJASAhaslargelyrefrainedfromcooperatingwithandreachingouttootheractorsinthefield.Thiscanleadtomissedopportunitiesandincreasedinefficienciesintheirwork.EvenwhileAHJASA’smethodsandthoseofotherNGOsareslightlydifferent,therhetoricofallinvolvedisstrikinglysimilar;reflectingcommonlyagreeduponbestpracticesthatstresscommunitydevelopment,sustainability,andtransparency.AHJASApridesitselfondemandingself‐sufficiency,andthisisnodoubtaworthygoal,yetAHJASAitselfisafarcryfromself‐sufficientandreliesonoutsidedonationsforsomeoftheirkeyprogramsevenasAHJASAcriticizesotherorganizationsforbeingoverlydependentonoutsidedonors.Increasedcommunicationamongtheactorswouldcertainlyleadtosomeheateddiscussions,butitcouldalsoresultinbettercoordination,action,andincreasedefficiency.

V.3.National‐level/StructuralIssues

Someoftheproblemsatthecommunityandorganizationallevelarealsorelatedtolargerproblemsthataffecttheentirenationandregion.Acommunitycannotexclusivelyresolveitseconomicwoes.Asmuchasthecentralgovernmentwouldliketocreatejobsthroughoutthecountry,itisnotasimpletask.TheHondurangovernmentisalsosubstantiallyconstrainedbyitsdebtandlackoffinancialresources.Whilesomeareoptimisticaboutthenewgovernment’s

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planforwaterandsanitation,itremainstobeseenhoweffectivelytheLoboadministrationwilladdresswaterissuesandhowhighaprioritywaterwillbe.

Inadditiontomacro‐economicproblems,thereareenvironmentalprocessesthataffectwater.Thecoffeeprocesscanleadtocontaminationofwaterinthewashingofthecoffee.ThecommunityofHipericonisquiteworriedaboutthepasturelandneartheirwatersource,andinSantaAnathecattleliterallydrinkfromthewatersource.Toacertainextenttheseproblemscanbemitigatedatthelocallevelwithnegotiationstoacquirethelandsurroundingawatersource,butsuchnegotiationscanbecostly,andtherealityisthatmanywatershedslackidealprotectionduetodeforestation.Thegovernmentcouldstepintoresolvesomeoftheseissuesbutitwouldseemhighlyunlikelythatthecurrentgovernmentattemptstoaddressunequallandtenureissues,currentunsustainableagriculturalpractices,andcertainotherman‐madesourcesoflanddegradationanytimesoon.

Climatechangeisalsohuman‐produced,butitismuchmoredifficulttoaddressthemainsourcesofthisphenomenon,particularlywithonlylukewarmresponsesfromthehighestpollutingcountriesintheworld.Honduras,likemanydevelopingcountries,isvulnerabletothenegativeeffectsofchangesintheworld’sclimateandneitherthegovernmentnorindividualcommunitieshavethepowertostopthesechanges.Theydohavethepowertoplanaheadforadaptationandmitigationstrategies,however,andcommunitiessuchasLaLlavearealreadyintheprocessofacting,evenifitisinsmallsteps.WhetherornotthecurrentdryconditionsinsouthernHonduras(andmuchofCentralAmerica)areadirectresultofclimatechangeisdebatable,butassessingblamefordroughtconditionsisnotasimportantasrespondingeffectivelytosuchadverseconditionsandpreparingforsimilarconditionsinthefuture.Therainscannotbebroughtbyforce,andonecanonlyhopeformoreprecipitationinthecomingyears.

VI.RecommendationsBasedonin‐depthconversationsandcommunity‐levelobservations,theresearchteam’srecommendationsarebelow.TherecommendationsareaimedatboththeChlorineBankandAHJASAmorebroadly.Theyarelistedinorderofimportance,leadingwithwhatweconsidertobethemostpotentiallyeffectiveandfeasibleactions.

WedonotclaimthatalloftheserecommendationsareoriginalorhavenotbeenconsideredbyAHJASAalready,butweseethebelowoptionsasfeasibleandimportantstepsthatmustbeconsideredinordertoincreasetheeffectivenessofthechlorinebankprogramandAHJASA’soperationsingeneral.

1) InvestinbuildingtheChlorineBank’scapacitytomeetitsobjectives.Thisisamultifacetedeffortthatwillrequiresustained,long‐terminvestments.Specificactionstotakeinclude

a. IncreasestaffatthecentralAHJASAofficesdedicatedtotheChlorineBank.Itisclearthatonepersoncannothandleallthefunctionsrequiredtomakethisasustainableeffort:sales,marketing,administration,andtechnicalassistance.Inthiscase,afulltime,administratorcouldmonitorthefinancialprogressoflocalbanks,reducedefaultsand

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uncollecteddebts,assistwiththepreparationofmarketingandpromotionalmaterials,andwouldallowthedirectortofocusonexpandingtheclientbaseandmakingsurethattechnicalassistancewasprovidedtoallcustomers.

b. RaisefundstosupporttheoperationandexpansionoftheChlorineBank.Currentlytheprogramreliesonproductsalesandproductdonationstogeneraterevenueandveryfewgrantfundsareallocatedtosupportitsgeneraloperation(i.e.topurchaseavehicleorcomputer).

c. Conductaseriesofstudiesineachdepartmentand/ormunicipalitythathasalocalchlorinebanktoassessdemandfordisinfectionproducts,thecapacityoflocalwaterboardstomeetthatdemand,andthetypesofdisinfectionproductsmostadequateforthatregion.

Basedonthesestudies,createbusiness,marketing,andeducationplanstoguidethestrategicexpansionofChlorineBankcustomers,products,andservices.ThesestudieswouldallowtheChlorineBanktobettertargetitsproductsandtailoritsmarketingcampaignstospecificcommunitiesaswellasenablelong‐termplanningofthedifferenttypesandquantitiesofproductsneeded.Thiswouldrequiresignificanthumanandcapitalresources,anditcouldalsobeagoodprojectforuniversitystudents,PeaceCorpsvolunteers,orothersimilargroups.AHJASAwouldbenefitfromtheadditionalsupportprovidedbyaPeaceCorpsvolunteerandtheteamismakingeffortstolinkbothgroupstothatend.

2) CreateandimplementmoreformalpoliciesandstructurestoenablegoodsupervisionandoversightoflocalChlorineBanks.AHJASAshoulddevelopanoperationalmanualwithspecificguidelinesandrequirementsforboththecentralandlocalchlorinebanks.

3) IntegratethechlorinebankprogramanditsobjectivesmorefullyinallAHJASAprojects.Waterdisinfectionandchlorinationshouldbemadeapriorityinallassistanceandeducationactivities.

4) StimulatedemandforcleanwaterbymarketingChlorineBankproductsandservicesaswellaseducatingcommunitiesabouttheimportanceofcleanwater.AHJASAcouldworkinpartnershipwithmunicipalitiesandNGOstolaunchlocalcampaigns,aswellasuseitspositionandnetworkinthewater&sanitationsectortoadvocatethecurrentgovernmenttolaunchanationalcampaign.

5) PromotethetechnicalassistanceservicesofferedbytheChlorineBankandAHJASAasacompetitiveadvantageagainstcompetitionfacedbydonatedorlower‐costproducts.

6) DiversifytheChlorineBank’sproductbase.Chlorinationremainsthemosteffectivedisinfectionmethodforcentralizedwatersystemsandshouldcontinuetobeprioritized.However,communitiesshouldbeeducatedaboutthecostsandbenefitsofeachmethodandgiventheoptiontochoosewhichmethod,ifany,theywanttoadopt.ThiswillincreasethelikelihoodthatcommunitieswillchooseandmaintainamethodthatmeetstheirneedsandunderminesthemisperceptionthatAHJASAstaffmembersare“chlorinesalesmen.”IncreasingthevarietyofproductssoldbytheChlorineBankwillnotonlyincreasesales,but

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alsoexpanditscustomerbaseandabilitytoreachouttocommunitiesthatdonothavewatersystems.Inthelongrun,thesecommunitiescanbesocializedtoAHJASAandeventuallybecomemembers.

7) Securemoreregularaccesstochlorineandotherwaterdisinfectionproductstoimproveitssupplychain.TheChlorineBankshouldlocatedomesticsuppliersormanufacturersofdisinfectionproductsandnegotiatecontractswithfavorableterms.Ifaproductneedstobeimported,asisthecasewiththetablet‐fedchlorinators,theChlorineBankshouldalsoidentifyapreferredprovider(andcustomsagent)andorderbulkshipments(possiblyoncredit)inordertoreducethetransportationandothercostsassociatedwiththeimportationofgoods.

ThefollowingaremoregeneralrecommendationsthataredirectedatimprovingAHJASA’scapacitiesmorebroadly:

8) Createacentraldatabaseinwhichtosystematicallycollectinformationaboutthecommunitiesbeingserved(includingAHJASAmembersandnon‐members)anddevelopa“reportcard”methodofevaluatingtheperformanceofwatersystemsandwaterboardsusingthisdata.

Thedatabasecouldresemble(butimproveupon)theSIARusedbySANAA,andincludedatasuchasthepresenceandtypeofsystem,thewaterboard(i.e.tariff,elections,generalcapacity),trainingsheld,participationinotherevents,communityproblems,naturalresourceandwatershedmanagement,etc.Thedatacouldbecollectedprimarilybycircuitridersandothertechnicians,butcompiledinacentralizedsystemthatcanbeaccessedandsharedacrossalllocalAHJASAbraches.

Thisinformationcanalsoenablethecreationofa“reportcard”togradesthefunctioningofwatersystemsinlocalcommunities,bothintermsoftheactualsystemandthecapacityoflocalwaterboards.Failingornear‐failingsystemscouldbegivenpriorityattentionwhilethosereceivingan“A”canbehonoredatdepartmentalornationalassembliesandusedasexamplestosharetheirexperiencesandbestpracticeswithcommunitiesthatarenotfaringaswell.

Havingastandardizedwaytoreportactivitiesandmonitortrendsandprogresscangreatlyfacilitateproblemanalysis,strategicplanning,andtheabilitytotargetcommunitiesaswellashelpAHJASAandtheChlorineBankinfundraising.

9) Increaseoutreachtowomenandyouth.WhileAHJASAhasgenderequitymodulesinitstrainingandcapacitybuildingprogramsandhastargetedwomeninpreviousprojects,itshouldcontinuetodoso.

10) CoordinateandcollaboratewithNGOs,governmentofficials,municipalities,andotheractorsinvolvedinwater&sanitation.Increasedcollaborationwithorganizationsthatareworkinginthesamecommunitiesandmunicipalitiescanincreaseefficiencyoftheworkdoneandreducecompetition.AHJASAhasmoreincommonwithotheractorsthanitsometimesbelieves.

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VII.ConclusionItisimportanttorecognizetheexcellentworkthatAHJASAanditsChlorineBankprogramhavedoneovertheyears.Thereisroomforimprovementonmanylevels,butAHJASA’smethodology,commitment,andeffortareallstrengthsthatcontributetothemuch‐neededsupportthatitprovidestomanyruralcommunitiesinHonduras.AHJASAinvolvementincommunitiesdirectlycorrelateswithimprovedmanagementofcommunitywatersystems.Forthisreason,AHJASAmustbetakenasaseriousactorintheW&Ssectorwiththepotentialtotransformcommunities.

LimitationsoftheStudy

Thisstudyinvolvedsubstantialresearchandpreparation,butcouldhavebenefitedfromalongerperiodinwhichtoconductfieldwork.ItwouldhavebeenusefultovisitagreaternumberofcommunitiesandfortheresearchteamtoindependentlyidentifyvillagestovisitratherthanrelyingentirelyonAHJASAstafftoplanthese.TheteamrecognizestheprobablebiasintroducedbybeingaccompaniedbyAHJASAstaff,especiallyintheinterviewstowaterboardmembers.However,theirpresencewasnecessaryinordertoreachmanyofthesemembers.

Moretimewouldhavealsoallowedtheteamtoconductthecommunitysurveys,asinitiallyintended,andgatherquantitativedatatosupportthefindingsandrecommendations,aswellastocreateabaselineforfutureevaluationsofprogrameffectiveness.Moreover,developingrapportwithagroupofcommunitieswouldhaveallowedmorein‐depthinsightsaboutAHJASA’sworkandtheW&Smorebroadly.

LanguagewasanotherlimitationastwoofthefourgraduatestudentsinthegroupdidnotspeakSpanish.WhiletheyperformedinterviewsinEnglishandconductedimportantparticipantobservationatfieldsites,havingadditionalSpanish‐speakerscouldhavehelpedwiththeresearch,conductinginterviews,andmaximizingthetimespentinthefield.

NextSteps

InadditiontopassingonthecontactsmadethroughtheinterviewprocesstoAHJASAandtheNewForestsProject,theteamhascontactedPeaceCorpstofacilitatetheprocessofrequestingavolunteerforAHJASACentraltohelpoffsetstaffingissuesandprovidebetterintegrationwithinthedevelopmentcommunity.

Ultimately,thesuccessofthewatersectorinHondurasdependsfirstandforemostuponpeopleprioritizingcleanwaterfortheircommunities.Wherethereisawill,therecanbeaway,asmotivatedcommunities—evenofscarceresources—canmakealothappen.AHJASAhasaroletoplayinthisandcangreatlyassistcommunitiesinprioritizingcleanwaterandmakingaccesstothispreciousresourceareality.

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BibliographyAHJASA.PerfilInstitucional.2009.OrganizationaldocumentprovidedbyAHJASAstaff.

AHJASA.InformedeAuditoriaConsolidadoparaelperiododel30Noviembredel2009.OrganizationaldocumentprovidedbyAHJASAstaff.

AHJASA.PlandeNegocioBancodeCloro.2006.OrganizationaldocumentprovidedbyAHJASAstaff.

Brand,Anthony.“MeetingDemandforAccesstoSafeDrinkingWater:Low‐costPumpAlternativesforRuralCommunitiesinHonduras.”WaterandSanitationProgram.(2004).

Brand,Anthony.“TechnologiesAppliedforDrinkingWaterTreatmentinRuralCommunities.”WaterandSanitationProgram.(2004).

CIAWorldFactbook–Honduras.Retrievedfromhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the‐world‐factbook/geos/ho.html.

ChlorineChemistryFoundationandAmericanChemistryAssociation.DrinkingWaterChlorination:AReviewofDisinfectionPracticesandIssues.AmericanChemistryCouncil.(2006).

Dunlevy,KristinaM."WhatisSocialMarketing(Really)?."MondayDevelopments,November1,2009.FrankFragano,CarlosLinares,HaroldLockwood,DanielRivera,AndrewTrevett,andGuillermoYepes.“CaseStudiesonDecentralizationofWaterSupplyandSanitationServicesinLatinAmerica.”UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment.Washington,DC.2001.

FreshwaterActionNetworkCentralAmerica."WaterBoardsofCentralAmerica:AssessmentofLocalManagementofWaterResources‐AComparativeStudy."

HealthcareWithoutHarm."Chemical‐basedTechnologies:ChlorineandNon‐ChlorineBasedSystems."InNon‐incinerationMedicalWasteTreatmentTechnologies:AResourceforHospitalAdministrators,FacilityManagers,HealthCareProfessionals,EnvironmentalAdvocates,andCommunityMembers.WashingtonDC:HealthcareWithoutHarm,2001.61‐68.

Heireli,Urs.“MarketingSafeWaterSystems:WhyitissoHardtoGetSafeWatertothePoorandSoProfitabletoSellittotheRich.”SwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation.(2008).

RAS‐HON.“TecnologiasApropiadasdeSuministrodeAguaySaneamientoRural.”Fasciculo3.SereOroAzul.(2005).

Rivera,C.Javier.“Kampala,UgandaInternationalSymposiumonSustainableRuralWaterServices—ServiceDeliveryModel.”RAS‐HON,Honduras.(2010).

Sano,Yoshiko."WaterManagementDecentralizationinRuralHonduras.”Workingpaper.(2009).

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Trevett,AndrewF.,RichardC.Carter,andSeanF.Tyrrel."WaterQualityDeterioration:AStudyofHouseholdDrinkingWaterQualityinRuralHonduras."InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalHealthResearch14,no.4(2004):273‐283.

UNDPHumanDevelopmentReport.Retrievedfromhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/.

UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment.BuildingInfrastructureforDevelopmentTogether.Washington,DC.2006.

Vargas,G.Carmen.“FailuresandProblemsofRuralDisinfection.”(n.d.).

Virjee,Kameel."LeveragingPrivateSectorFinanceforRuralPipedWaterInfrastructureinKenya:TheUseofOutput‐BasedAid."OBApproaches,October2009.

WaterforPeople.WaterforPeople‐HondurasCountryStrategy2007‐2011.2006.

WaterforPeople.Monitoringreport:Honduras2009.2009

WHOStatisticalInformationSystem.WorldHealthStatistics2005.Retrievedfromhttp://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/en/.

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Appendices

AppendixA—FieldworkSiteVisits

Communitiesvisited:

LasTranquitas,LaPazHipericon,LaPazJuancho,VallePiedrasBlancas,ValleSantaCruz,ValleLasAradas,ValleElGuayabo2,VallelaLlave,ValleSantaAna,FranciscoMorazanMoroceli,Paraiso

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AppendixB—ListofIntervieweesandCommunities

Interviews

AHJASA‐CentralOffices

OmarNunez,PresidentNoraHernandez,ChlorineBankDirectorArmandoLeninHernandez,ProjectFacilitatorWendyColindres,NationalAssemblyCoordinatorHenrySalgado,IndependentAuditor

AHJASA‐Marcala,LaPaz

JoseIreneHernandez,CircuitRiderDaniaDiaz,ChlorineBankvendor

AHJASA‐Nacaome,Valle

AdaLuzRamirez,AdministratorMelvinOmar,ProjectCoordinatorJorgeAlbertoBonilla,CircuitRider

GovernmentOfficials

LuisRomero,CoordinatorfortheTechnicalSecretariat,CONASAJavierRivera,DevelopmentDivisionDirector,SANAA

MunicipalOfficials

RigobertoVillatoro,Mayor,MarcalaJuanCarlosPonce,Mayor,SantaAna

NGOs

JacoboNunez,AguaParaelPueblo(APP)DanielSmith,AguaParaelPueblo(APP)DianaCalix,ADECOscarArmandoAndino,WaterfortheWorldPaulEarwaker,WaterfortheWorldBelkisRodriguez,SavetheChildrenGerardoMartinez,CAREMauricioCruzMerino,USAID

WaterBoards

Variousmembersofthelocalcommunitiesvisited

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AppendixC—InterviewQuestionnaireswithtranslations

1.WaterBoards/Juntasdeagua

• Whenwasthiswaterboardcreated?Cuandoseestablecióestajuntadeagua?

• Howmanymembersareonthewaterboardandwhatpositionsdotheyoccupy(iePresident,VP,Secretary,Treasurer,other)?Cuantosmiembrosformanpartedeestajuntayqueposicionesocupan(ej.Presidente,Vice‐Presidente,Secretario,Tesorero,otros)?

• Howarethemembersselected(iearetheyelectedbythecommunity,appointed)?Howoftenarenewmembersselected?Whenandhowwasthisprocesscompletedlast?Comoseseleccionaalosmiembros(ej.elegidosporlacomunidad,nombramientosdirectos)?Cadacuantotiemposeseleccionaanuevosmiembros?Hacecuantotiempoycomosecompletolaultimaselección?

• Howoftendothemembersholdmeetings?Doallmembersattendthesemeetings?Cadacuantotiemposereúnenlosmiembrosdelajunta?Asistentodoslosmiembrosalasreuniones?

• Aremembersofthecommunityincludedinthemeetingsordoesthewaterboardeverhavepublicmeetings?Seadmitelaasistenciadelosmiembrosdelacomunidadalasreunionesoseconducealgunavezreunionespublicas?

• Pleaseexplainbrieflywhatthemaingoalsandobjectivesofthewaterboardisandwhatitsprincipletasksare:Expliquebrevementecualessonlasmetasyobjetivosdelajuntadeaguaeidentifiquecualessonsustareasprincipales:

• Approximatelywhatistheannualbudget?Cualeselpresupuestoanualaproximadodelajunta?

• Howwaswatermanagedbeforethewaterboardwascreated?Comosecondujoelmanejodelaguaantesdelacreacióndelajunta?

• Whenwasthewatersystembuiltinthecommunity?Whobuiltit?Cuandoseconstruyoelsistemadeaguaenlacomunidad?Quienlaconstruyo?

• Howmanyyearsisthewatersysteminfrastructureexpectedtolast?Planstoreplace?Cuantosañosdevidaútilseleasignaalainfraestructuradelsistema?Hayplanesparareponerlo?

• Howisthewatersystemmaintained?Whoisresponsible?Whatarethesuppliesnecessaryformaintenance?Comosemantieneelsistemadeagua?Cualeslapersonaresponsabledelmantenimiento?Cualessonlosproductosnecesariosparasumantenimiento?

• Howoftendoesthewatersystemneedtoberepaired?Whorepairsit?Whopays?Whatarethemostfrequentrepairs?Conquefrecuenciaesnecesariorepararelsistemadeagua?Quienlorepara?Quieneselencargadodepagarlascuentas?Cualessonlasreparacionesmasfrecuentes?

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• Approximatelyhowmanyhouseholdsreceivewater/areconnectedtothewatersystem?(notconnected?)Aproximadamentecuantoshogaresrecibenagua/estánconectadosalsistemadeagua?Cuantosnoestánconectados?

• Docommunitymemberspaytousethewater?Quienpagalacuenta/elcostodedestribuciondelagua?Pagacadamiembrodelacomunidadporelusodelagua?

• Howmuchisthefeetousewater?Howisthefeecalculated?Isthefeesufficientenoughtocoveryourexpenses?Cualeslacantidadfijadaparaelusodelagua?Dequemanerasecalculaestacantidad?Esestacantidadsuficienteparacubrirlosgastosdelajunta?

• Whatisthepaymentamountandhowisthisestablished?Cualeslacuotadepago,ycomoseestableceestacuota?

• Arethereanyrulestousewater?Whatarethey?Howaretheseestablishedandhowaretheyenforced?Whataretheuserregulations?Existennormas/regulacionesestablecidasparaelusodelagua?Cualesson?Dequemaneraseestablecenycomoselashacerespetar?Haynormativasparaelusuariosobrecomousarelagua?

• Doesthecommunityhaveadequateaccesstowaterthroughouttheyear?Tienelacomunidadunfácilacceso(accesoadecuado)alaguadurantetodoelano?Cuentanconsuficienteaguaparaproveerserviciodurantetodoelano?

• Incaseofdrought,howdoesthecommunityobtainwater(ie‐privateprovider,howmuchdoesthiscost?)Tienensuficienteaguadurantelatemporadaseca/reporadasdesequia,yquehacenpararesolveresteproblemaycualeselcosto?

• Whatisthesourceofwaterforthecommunity?(Surfaceorsubterranean?)Isthistheonlysource?(askfordetails)Cualeslafuentedeaguaparaestacomunidad?(Subterranioodelasuperficie)Eslaúnica,ohaymas?(detallesdecadafuente)

• Isthereanyprotectioninplaceforthewatersource?Howarecontaminantskeptoutofthesource?Dequeformaseprotegenla(s)fuente(s)deagua?Comoseevitaquequedecontaminada?

• Isthewaterbeingtreated?How(whatsystemofchlorination)?Seledatratamientoalagua?Dequemanera(cualclorinadorseusa)?

• How/wheredoyouobtainthesuppliestotreatwater?Como/dondeobtieneUd.losproductosparatratarelagua(clorogranuladooentableta)?

• Isthewaterbeingtested?Howoften?Seconduceexámenesperiódicosdelagua?Cadacuantotiempo?

• Isthewatersafetodrink?Howdoyouknowthatitis?ConsideraUd.apta/seguraelaguaparaelconsumo?Comosabequeesasi?

• Whatneedstobedonetomakethewaterappropriatefordrinking?Quemedidassepuedetomarparaasegurarlapurezadelaguadebeber?

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• Issafedrinkingwaterapriorityforthewaterboard?Thecommunity?Quetanimportante/prioritariaesladesinfeccióndelaguaparalajunta?

• IsthewaterboardamemberofAHJASA?EslajuntadeaguamiembrodeAHJASA?

• Ifso,whattypeofsupportdoesitreceivefromthismembership?Deserasí,quetipodeapoyorecibeporsermiembro?

• Areyousatisfiedwiththelevelofsupport?EstaUd.satisfecho(a)conelniveldeapoyoquerecibe?

• WhatothertypesofservicesorsupportwouldyouliketoreceivefromAHJASA?Queotrotipodeserviciosoapoyo/ayudadesearíaUd.recibirdeAHJASA?

• DoyoureceiveanysupportfromSANAAoranyotheragencies?RecibeUd.ayuda/apoyodeodealgunaotraentidadgubernamental?

• Doyouhavearelationshipwithorreceivesupportfrommunicipalorothergovernmentleaders?MantieneUd.algunarelacionconorecibeapoyo/ayudadealgunfuncionariomunicipalodelgobierno?

• Inthelongterm,whatchangeswouldyouliketoseeforthewatersysteminyourcommunity?Quecambioslegustaríapresenciarenelsistemadeaguaensucomunidadalargoplazo?

• Whattypeofexternalsupportdoyouneedtoachievethis?QuetipodeapoyoexternonecesitaUd.paralograrlo?

2.ChlorineBankPersonnel

• Whenwasthebankfounded?Cuantohacequeseestablecioestebanco?

• Howlonghaveyouworkedhere?DesdecuandohaestadoUd.trabajandoaquí?

• Whopaysyoursalary?Quienpagasusalario?

• Howmanyotherpeopleworkhere,andwhataretheirpositions?Whopaystheirsalaries?Cuantasotraspersonastrabajanaquiycualessonsusposiciones?Quienpagasussalarios?

• Arethereotherchlorinebanksinthisarea?Existenotrosbancosenestazona?

o Wherearetheylocated?o Dondeestanubicados?o Whomanagesthem?o Quienlosmaneja?o Aretheyregionalbanks?Municipal?District?o Sonbancosregionales?Municipals?delDistrito?

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• Arethereanyprivateproviderswhoselltheseproductsnearby?Hayalgunproveedorprivadoquevendaestosproductosenlazona?

• Doesthebankofferanyotherservicesasidefromsellingtheseproducts?(Giveexample:repairs,assistance,training?)Ofreceelbancoalgunotroservicioademasdevenderestosproductos?(Ayudanreparar,entrenar,ofrecerayudadeotraforma?)

• Haveyoureceivedanytrainingformanagingthebankand/orsellingproducts?Whatkind?Harecibidoalguntipodecapacitacionparamanejarelbancoy/ovenderlosproductos?

o Enqueconsistiolacapacitacion?• Howmanyproductsdoyouhaveinyourinventoryatthemoment?

Concuantosproductoscuentaensuinventarioalmomento?• Howdoyourestockandgetnewshipmentsofproducts?Howfrequently?Howlong

doesittaketorestock?Whatarethetransportcostsetc.?Dequemanerareponeuobtieneunanuevaremesadeproductos?(BancoCentral;proveedoresprivados)

o Conquefrequencialohace?o Quetiempoletomaentreunpedidoylaentregadelosproductos?o Cualessonsusgastosdetransportey/uotroscostosrelacionados(vinculados)?

• Whatkindsofproductsdoyousellandwhatquantityofthem?Whatproductssellthebestandhowmuch?Dodifferentclimaticseasonshaveanyinfluenceonproductsales?Quetipodeproductosvendeyenquecantidad?

o Queproductossonlosdemayorventa/maspopulares?o Existenvariacionesdetemporada(climaticas)queejerzanalgunainfluenciaenla

compradelosproductos?o Enquetemporadasevendenmasproductos?Menos?

• Whoareyourprincipleclients?Quienessonsusprincipalesclients?(ej.quemunicipalidades,juntas,organizacionesnogubernamentales)

• Doreceiveanycomplaintsabouttheproductsorprices?Explain?Enalgunoscasospresentanquejaslosclientesporlosproductosolosprecios?Explique.

• Whatistheprocessforobtainingandprovidingtheseproducts?(Needpermitsetc.)?Cualeselprocesoparaabastecersedemercaderia/mercancia?(ej.haynecesidaddetenercredenciales,llenarformularios,etc.)

• Doyouundertakethedeliveryofproductstothecommunitiesordothecommunitiesneedtotransportthemfromthebank?RealizaUd.laentregademercanciaalascomunidadesonecesitantransportarlosellasmismasdesdeelbanco?

• Doyouthinkthatthebankoffersalloftheproductsneededbythecommunityorarethereotherimportant/necessaryproductsnotcurrentlyofferedbythebank?Creeustedqueelbancoofrecetodoslosproductosnecesitadosenlacomunidadoserá

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quehayalgunosproductosimportantes/necesariosquenoelbanconoofreceactualmente?

• Areyouawareofcommunitymemberswhotreattheirwateratthehouse‐holdlevelinadditiontothecommunitysystem?Howdotheytreatit?Sabeustedsialgunaspersonasleaplicanuntratamientoadicionalalaguaqueconsumenensuhogar?Dequeformasetrataelagua?

• Whatproductsdohouseholdsuse(ifany)tofurtherpurifytheirwater?Cualesproductsseusanenhogaresparaadicionalmentepurificarelaguaqueocupan?

• Wheredotheygettheseproducts?Isthereademandformoresuchproducts?Dedondeconsiguenestosproductos?Hayunademandapormasproductosasi?

• Wouldthechlorinebankconsiderprovidingtheseproducts?(Oringreaterquantity?)Considerariaelbancodeclorodeofrecersemejantesproductos?(Masdeellos…)

• Doesthebankoffercreditforanyproducts?Areloansrepaidontime?Ofreceelbancoproductosacredito(alfio)?Lepaganatiempolosprestamos?

• Howmanyclientshavenotpaidtheirdebts?Cuantosclientesestánatrasadosenelpagodesuscuentas?

• Whatisthenetprofitforthebank?Aretheearningsenoughtocoverthecostsofrunningthebank?Cualeslaganancianetadelbanco?

o Cualeseldesgloseentregananciasygastos?o Eslagananciasuficientecomoparacubrirtodoslosgastosdelmanejodel

banco?• Inyouropinion,whatisthefutureofthebank?Whatchangesareneeded?• Cualcreequeeselfuturodelbanco?Exitoso,incierto,fracaso?

o Quecambiosrecomendaríausted.Queesnecesarioparamejorarelbanco?• Whatisthebank’spublicitystrategy?Isiteffective?Howcanitimprove?Whatneeds

tobedonetoattractnewcustomers?Cuentanconalgunaestrategiademercadeo?

o Esestamaneraefectiva?Comosepodriamejorarla?o Comohacenparaatraeranuevosclientes?

• DoyouhavecloserelationshipswiththeWaterBoards,municipalities,villageleaders,etc?MantianeUd.relacionesconlasjuntasdeagua,municipalidades,lideresdelpueblo,etc.?

• Whatpercentageofcommunitiespurifytheirwateronacommunitylevel,inyourestimate?Allofthem?Ensucriterio,cualeselporcentajedecomunidadesquepurificansuaguaenelniveldelacomunidad?Todas?

• Inyouropinion,whatarethemostimportantfactorsthatinfluencethedecisiontobuychlorineproducts?Whatareobstaclesthatpotentialclientsface?Ensuopinion,cualessonlosfactoresmasimportantesqueinfluyenenladecisiondecomprarelcloro?

o Cualessonlosobstaculosqueexperimentansusclientes?

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• Whatarethemainchallengestothebank’seconomicsuccess?Cualessonlosprincipalesdesafiosqueenfrentanalbanco?

• Whatcanbedonetoimprovethecommunitywatersystem?Quemedidassepuedetomarparamejorarelsistemadeaguadelacomunidad?

• Inyourview,whatshouldtheprinciplefunctionofAHJASAbe(relatingtoCBs)?Ensucriterio,cualdeberiaserlafunciondeAHJASAconrespectoalbancodecloro?

• Inyourview,whatshouldthemainfunctionofthegovernmentbe(relatingtoCBs)?Ensucriterio,cualdeberiaserlafunctiondelgobiernoconrespectoalbancodecloro?

3.GovernmentOfficials–SANNA/CONASA

• HowwellhastheLeydeMunicipalidades(decentralization)workedsinceitsimplementation?

• ¿Cómoevaluaríaustedlaleydemunicipalidadesdesdequesepromulgó,yquéresultadoshatenido?

• Whatneedstohappenforthisprocesstosucceed?• ¿Quéhacefaltaparaqueestaleyyesteprocesoselleveacabo?• ArewatersystemsinruralHondurasontherighttrack?• ¿Diríaustedquelossistemasdeaguaencomunidadesruralesvanporbuencamino?• Arethemunicipalitiesadequatelymanagingcommunitywatersystems?• ¿Consideraquelasmunicipalidadesestánadministrandolossistemasdeaguadeuna

formaapropriada?• Howwellarewaterboardsfunctioning?Shouldtheyexist?• ¿Quétanbienfuncionanlasjuntasdeagua?¿Funcionabienelsistemaydebeexistir?• Whatwouldhappenifwaterboardsdidnotexist?Whatalternativesystemmightwork

forsmallcommunities?Mediumsizedones?• Quepasaríasinoexistieranestasjuntas?¿Quéalternativaspodríanserfactiblespara

comunidadespequeñas?¿Ylasmedianas?• Whatisyouropiniónabouthowwaterboardsworkinmediumsizedcommunities?Do

theyworkbetter,aswell,worse,ormuchworse?• Cualessuopiniónsobrelafuncionalidaddelasjuntasencomuniadadesmedianas?

Indiquesi:funcionanmejorqueellaspequeñas,funcionanigual,funcionanpeor,apenasfuncionan,nofuncionanprácticamentenada.

• WhatsupportdoesSANAAprovidetomunicipalitiesorwaterboardsonaregularbasis?• ¿QuéapoyobrindaSANAAalasmunicipalidadesolasjuntasdeaguayconqué

frecuencia?• HowwelldoestheTOMsystemwork?Howcanitbeimproved?• ¿CómocalificaríaelsistemaTOM,ycómopuedemejorarseesteservicio?• WhatisyouropinionofAHJASAanditswork?Isiteffective?• ¿CómocalificaríalaefectividaddeltrabajodeAHJASA?Seriabeneficiosomas

colaboracion?Yquéhacefaltaparamejorlacolaboraciónentreambos?• (HowcanAHJASA’soperationsbeimproved?)• Ensuopinion,comosepodríamejorarelfuncionamientodeAHJASA?• Iswaterqualityaseriousissueforruralcommunities?

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• ¿Eslacalidaddeaguaunproblemaseriaparacomunidadesrurales?• Ischlorinethebestwaytotreatwaterinthecommunities?• ¿Eselusodeclorolamejorformadetratarelaguaencomunidades?• Whatcanbedonetoimprovethewaterqualityinadditiontothetreatmentthatthe

watercurrentlyreceives?• ¿Apartedeltratamientoqueseleestádandoactualmentealagua,quemaspuede

hacerseparamejorarlacalidaddelaguaenlacomunidades?• Isitpossibletoreplacethenecessarywaterinfrastructureincommunitiesthatneed

suchworkdone?• ¿Quétanfactibleesreemplazarlainfraestructuranecesariadelaguaenlas

comunidadescondeficiencias?• Whatarethemostimportantactorsinkeepingcommunitywatersystems

functioning?Andwhoisbestpreparedtoresolveseriousproblemsthatthecommunityfaces?

• ¿Quiénessonlosactoresmásimportantesparamantenerelsistemadeaguacomunitaria?¿Ycuálesactoresestánenunamejorposiciónpararesolverproblemasgraves?

• Whatchangesneedtohappeninthenext10yearsforincreasedfunctionalityofwatersystemsinruralareas?Isthislikely?

• ¿Quécambiossenecesitanenlospróximos10añosparaquehabitantesruralestenganmejoressistemasdeaguaensuscomunidades?¿Esposiblelogrartalescambios?

4.Municipalities:

• HowhastheLeydeMunicipalidadesworkedsinceitsinception?• ¿Cómoevaluaríaustedlaleydemunicipalidadesdesdesuincepciónyquéresultadosha

tenido?• WhatkindofsupportdoyoureceivefromSANAA?• ¿QuétipodeapoyoproveelSANAAasumunicipalidad?• Whatarethemunicipality’sprinciplegoalsrelatingtowatersystems?Haveyoumet

thesegoals,whyorwhynot?• ¿Quétanprioritariossonlossistemasdeaguaruralesparalasmunicipalidades?¿Han

cumplidolasmetasparadichossistemas?¿Porqué(no)?• Whatactivitiesdoyoudoonaregularbasistosupportcommunitywater

systems?Waterboards?• Dequeformaapoyanlasjuntasdeaguayquepapeltienenlasmunicipalidadesen

mejorarlossistemasdeaguacomunitarios?• Whatdothecommunitiesdotoimprovetheirwatersystems?• ¿Cuálessonlasactividadesprincipalesdelascomuniadesencaminadasaapoyarel

manejodesistemasruralesdeagua?• Wouldyouliketoprovidemoresupport?Inwhatway?Howwoulditbepossible?• ¿Austedeslesgustaríabrindarlesmásapoyoalasjuntasdeagua?¿Dequé

forma?¿Cómoseríaposible?• Howwellarethewaterboardsworking?Aresomebetterthanothers?

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• ¿Cómocalificaríaustedelniveldefuncionamientodelasjuntasdeagua?¿Hayunasquefuncionanmejoresqueotras?¿Porqué?

• Howwouldyoucharacterizethequalityofwaterinmostcommunities?Drinkable?• ¿Cómocalificaríalacalidaddelaguaenlamayoríadelascomunidadesrurales?¿Es

aptaparabeber?• Ifthewaterisnotcleanenoughtodrink,whatislacking,howcanthisbeaccomplished?• ¿Sielaguanoestabientratada,quehacefaltaparalograrunaaedcuadapurificación

delamisma?• Whatplansdothemunicipalitieshavetoreplacecommunitywaterinfrastructure?• ¿Cuálessonlosplanesdelasmunicipalidadesreponerlainfraestructuraexistentedelos

sistemasdeagua?Consideranecesariorenovarlossistemas?• Doyouforeseeanychangestothedisinfectionsysteminplace?• ¿Prevéustedalgunoscambiosenelsistemadedesinfecciónqueactualmenteexiste?• Ifthemunicipalitieshadmorefunds,whatprojectswouldyouworkon?Wouldyou

providegreatersupporttowaterboards,orfocusonlargersystems?• ¿Quetipodeproyectosemprenderianlasmunicipalidadesencasoquecontaranconmas

recursoseconomicos?¿Lesbrindaríanmásapoyoalasjuntasdeaguaoimplementaríanotrossistemas?

• WhatisyourassessmentofAHJASA’swork?• CualessuopinionacercadeltrabajoquerealizaAHJASA?• WhatcommunicationdoyouhavewithAHJASA?• ¿EstántrabajandoencoordinacionconAHJASA?• WouldclosercollaborationwithAHJASAbebeneficial?• ¿QuétanbeneficiososeriatrabajarmasestrechamenteencolaboraciónconAHJASA?• Whatchangeswouldyouliketoseehappeninthenext10yearsrelatingtocommunity

watersystems?• ¿Cuálescambiossonnecesariosenlospróximos10añosparamejorarlossistemasde

aguadelascomunidadesrurales?

5.NGOs(various):

• Whatworkdoyouprimarilydointhecommunity/country?(focusonwaterandsanitation)

• ¿Quétrabajorealizasuorganizaciónenlacomunidad,elpaís?• Whatisyourimpressionofthecommunitiesyouworkin?Participation?Attitudes?• ¿Cuálessuimpresiónacercadelascomunidadesdondetrabaja?¿Entérminosde

participación,interésporpartedelosbeneficiarios?• Havemunicipalities,othergovernmentactorsbeenactiveinruralcommunities?In

whatways?Whichactors?• ¿Dequéformatrabajanlasmunicipalidadesyotrosactoresdelgobiernoenlas

comunidadesrurales?¿Cuálesactoresdelgobiernohantenidomásinfluencia?• Whatisyourassessment/impressionofwaterqualityinruralcommunities?Drinkable?• ¿Cuálessuimpresióndelacalidaddelaguaenlascomunidadesrurales?¿Esaptapara

elconsumo?

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• Doyouseeacorrelationbetweenwaterqualityandhealth?• ¿Creeustedquehayunarelaciónentrelacalidaddelaguaylasalud?Explique.• Isitnecessaryforhouseholdstopurifytheirwaterinadditiontothecommunity

system?Whatwaysexisttopurifywateratthehouseholdlevel?• ¿Creequeesnecesariotratarelaguaaniveldedomicilioensistemasdeaguaquetratan

lamisma?¿Quéopcionesexistenparapurificarelaguaalniveldelacasa?• Haveyoucollaboratedwithanycommunitywaterboards?Experience?• ¿Hacolaboradosuorganizaciónconalgunajuntadeagua?¿Cómofuelaexperiencia?• Whatisyourimpression(ifany)ofwaterboards’andmunicipalities’influenceon

improvingwatersystems?• ¿Cómocatalogaríalaeficaciadelasjuntasdeaguaenlapurificacióndelagua?¿Cuáles

suopiniónacercadelaefectividaddelasmunicipalidades?• (HaveyouheardofAHJASA?)HowwouldyouassessAHJASA’swork?Whathaveyou

heardaboutthem?• (HaveyouworkedwithAHJASA?)Whatisthenatureofyourcollaborationwith

AHJASA?Howhasitworked?• ¿HacolaboradodealgunaformaconeltrabajodeAHJASA?¿Enquétrabajaronycómo

describiríalainteracción?• (HowcouldAHJASA’sworkbeimproved?Whatobstaclesarepresent?)• CualserialaformaenqueAHJASAmejorarasutrabajo?Queobstáculoshay?• Whatisyourrelationshipwiththegovernment?Howhaspoliticalturmoilaffectedyour

workandthatofotherNGOs?• ¿Quétipoderelacióntienen(hantenido)conelgobierno,ycómoleshaafectadosu

trabajolasituaciónpolítica?Explique.• Isthegovernmentcooperative?Supportive?Neutral?Notveryvisible?Etc.• Comodescribiriaalgobiernoenrelaciónasutrabajoenaguaysaneamiento?• Whatchangeswouldyouliketoseeinyourrelationshipwiththegovernment?Howcan

theenvironmentinHondurasimproveinordertobenefitruralcommunities?• ¿Quécambiosseriannecesariosparamejorarsurelaciónconelgobierno?¿Quélehace

faltaparaquemejorenlossistemasdeaguaruralesyelbienestargeneraldeloshabitantes?

6.CircuitRiders

• Howlonghaveyouworkedasacircuitrider?• Porcuantotiempohaustedtrabajadocomocircuitrider?• Whatisyourprofession/areaofexpertise?• Didyouneedtoreceiveanytraining?Whatdidthisconsistof?• Recibioustedalgunentrenamiento?Enqueconsistioesteentranamiento?• Whatdoyoudoduringanormalvisittoacommunity?• Enqueconsisteunavistanormalaunacomunidaddelasquevisita?• Whatarethemostfrequentproblemsyouseewiththewatersystems?• Cualessonlosproblemasmascomunesqueustedveconlossistemasdeagua?• Whatarethemostcommonrepairsthatneedtobemade?

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• Cualessonlosreparosmascomunesquesenecesitan?• DoyoueverhelpservicethosecommunitiesnotaffiliatedwithAHJASA?• AlgunavezlehabrindadoayudaoservicioaunacomunidadnoafiliadaconAHJASA

usted?• Howmanytownstoyouvisitinanaveragemonth?• Masomenos,cuantascomunidadesvistaustedduranteunmes?• Howmuchtimedoyouspendonaverageineachtown?• Enpromedio,cuantotiempopasaustedenunavistaaunacomunidad?• Ifyouhadlesscommunitiestovisit/monitor,whatmorewouldyoubeabletodo?• Situvieramenoscomunidadesquevisitar,comocambiariasutrabajo,quemashariaen

cadacomunidad?• Areyouaffiliatedinanywaywiththemembersofthetownsyouvisit?(Doyouhave

personaltieswithtownmembers?)• Inyouropinion,domostcommunitieshaveaccesstopotablewater?• Ensuopinion,tienenlamayoriadelascomunidadesacesoaaguapotable?Deque

calidadeselaguaengeneral?• Onaverage,howmanyofthecommunitiesyouvisitproperlymaintaintheir

chlorinators?• Aproximadamente,cuantasdelascomunidadesqueustedvisitaadequatamente

mantienenelsistemadedesinfeccioncomunitario?• Whatarethebiggestproblemsyouseeinthemaintenanceofthechlorinators?• Cualessonlosproblemasdestacadosqueustedobservaenlaformademantenerel

sistemaexistente?• Iftheremaintenanceisneeded,howdoyouseethewaterboardsresolvethoseissues?• Silacomunidadnecesitamantenimientodelsistema,comoresuelveesto?• Whatisyourassessmentofhowwellthewaterboardsfunctionineachcommunity?• Comocalificariaustedelniveldefuncionamientodelasjuntasdeaguaencada

comunidad?• Whatarebiggestchallengesfacingthewaterboards?• Cualessonlosdesafiosqueenfrantanlasjuntasdeagua?• Inyourvisitstothecommunities,doyouprovidetechnicaltrainingtothewaterboard

members?plumbers?others?• Durantesusvisitasalascomunidades,ofreceustedentrenamientotecnicoaalgunos

actorescomunitarios?• Doyoupromotethechlorinebank?AnyofAHJASA'sotherservices?• Promueveustedelbancodeclorodealgunaforma?• DoyoubelievethattheCircuitRiderprogramisthemosteffectivewayofproviding

supporttoeachtown?• CreeustedqueelprogramadeCircuitRidereslaformamaseficazdeapoyarcada

comunidad?• Ifyouhadachance,isthereanythingyouwouldliketochangeintheCircuitRider

program?Whatwouldyouliketochange?• SipudieraustedcambiaralgodelprogramadeCircuitRider,queseria?

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AppendixD—SampleSurvey

WATER&SANITATION‐COMMUNITYSURVEY

A.GENERAL‐WATERSUPPLY&SANITATION1)Areyouconnectedtoyourcommunity’swatersystem?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

1a)Ifnot,whatisthesourceofyourwater?Well 1–1b)Wellhaspump?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)NA‐99

Stream 2Other________________________(77)NA(99)

1c)Ifnot,howdoyoutransportyourwater?Metalbucket 1Plasticbucket 2Claybucket 3Other____________________(77)

2)Doyouknowwhatyourcommunity’ssource(s)ofwateris(are)?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

2a)Whatarethey:

3)Howfarawayisyourhouseholdfromthenearestwatersource?(orcommunitysourceiftap)

_______km_______metersDK_____(88)4)Inwhatwaysdoyougenerallyusewater?[MARKALLTHATAPPLY]

Cropirrigation 1Gardening 2Laundry 3Cooking 4Drinking 5Bathing/washing 6Toilet/latrine 7Other____________________(77)

5)Doesyourcommunityhaverulesregardingwaterusage?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

9a)Whatarethey? ___________________6)Doyouhaveenoughwaterthroughouttheyear?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

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6a)Ifnot,forhowlongareyouwithoutenoughwater?__________days/weeks/months

7)Howdoyoustorewater?Metalbucket,covered 1Metalbucket,uncovered 2Plasticbucket,covered 3Plasticbucket,uncovered 4Claybucket,covered 5Claybucket,uncovered 6Donotstorewater 7Other______________________(77)

8)Doyouevercleanitemsusedtotransportorstoreyourwater?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

8a)Ifyes,howdoyoucleantheseitems?Rinsewithwateronly 1Washwithsoap 2Usechlorinebleach 3Other______________________(77)

9)Doyouhavetopayforyourwater?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88) 9a)Howmuch? permonth 9b)Doyoufeelthisfeeis… Toohigh 1 Afairprice 2 Toolow3 DK 88 NR/NA 99

9c)Areyoualwaysabletopaythefees?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88) 10)Isyourwaterbeingtreated?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

10a)Howmuchdoyoutrustthistreatmentiseffective?Extremely 1Somewhat 2Alittle 3

Notatall 4DK 88

NR/NA 9911)Doyouuseanywaterpurificationmethodsinyourhousehold?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

11a)Ifso,whichones?[MARKALLTHATAPPLY] Chlorineproducts 1

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Boiling 2Filtration 3Solar 4

Nomethodused 5

11b)Ifyouhavetopurchasesuppliestotreatyourwater,wheredoyoupurchasethem?11c)Howmuchdotheycost?11d)Howsatisfiedareyouwiththis/(these)method(s)?

Completely 1Satisfied 2Notverysatisfied 3Dissatisfied 4DK 88

NR/NA 9912)Howimportantishavingcleanwaterforyourhousehold? Extremely 1

Somewhat 2Alittle 3

Notatall 4DK 88

NR 9913)Doyouhaveatoilet/latrineinsideyourhome?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

13a)Ifnot,whatdoyouuse?_______________________(NA‐99)14)Weallknowthatmanypeopleusesoapandmanydonotwhilewashinghands.Howoftendoyouusesoapwhenyouwashyourhands?Wouldyousayyouusesoap…

Always 1Mostofthetime 2Someofthetime 3Rarely 4

Never 5DK 88

NR 9915)Whenwasthelasttimesomeoneinyourhouseholdwasill?16)Howoftenisoneormoreofyourfamilymembersill?

Always 1Mostofthetime 2Someofthetime 3Rarely 4

Never 5

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DK 88 NR 99

17)Whatisthemostcommonillness?_________________________DK_____(88)18)Areyouinterestedinlearningmoreaboutwatertreatmentinprotectingyourhouseholdfromillness?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)B.AHJASA,WATERBOARDS&CHLORINEBANKS19)Doesyourvillagehaveajuntadeagua?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)

19a)Areyouamember?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)(NA‐99)19b)Doyouknowanymembers?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)(NA‐99)

19c)IsyourjuntaamemberofAHJASA?YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)(NA‐99)19d)Doesyourjuntahaveopenmeetingsforanyonetoattend?

YES_____(1)NO_____(2)DK_____(88)(NA‐99)19e)Howcomfortabledoyoufeelvoicingyourconcernstoyourwaterboard?

Extremely 1Somewhat 2Alittle 3

Notatall 4DK 88

NR/NA 99

20)Howwelldoyoufeelwaterissuesareresolvedinyourneighborhood/community?Extremely 1Somewhat 2Alittle 3

Notatall 4DK 88

NR/NA 9921)Howdoyougenerallyresolveyourwaterissues?[MARKALLTHATAPPLY] Ignoretheissue/noaction 1 Talkwithneighbors 2 Talkwithwaterboardmember 3 TalkwithAHJASAmember 4 Talkwithothergov’tmember 5

DK 88 NR/NA 99

Other______________________(77)

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C)DEMOGRAPHICS22)Howoldareyou?______years 23)Gender:Male1Female2Other3

24)MaritalStatus

Single 1Marriedorlivingwithyourspouse/partner 2Other(widower,divorced,etc.) 3

25)Howmanypeople(children,relatives)areinyourhousehold?

*definitionofhouseholdcouldbehowmanypeoplesleepinyourhouse

Ages:________________________________________

26)Whatisthehighestlevelofeducationyouhavecompleted?

Collegedegree 1Somecollege 2Completedhighschool/diploma3Somehighschool 4ElementarySchool 5DidnotfinishElementarySchool6DK 88NR 99Other______________________(77)

27)Whatisyourcurrentoccupation?

10Profesional11Empresario,trabajoporcuentapropia,autónomo12Vendedor13Agricultor14Trabajodeconstrucción15Maestro16Desempleado17Jubilado77Other

28)Whatisyourhousehold’sannualincome?

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Lessthan1,000lempiras(<$50) 1Between1,000and2,000lempiras($50‐100) 2Between2,001and4,000lempiras($100‐200) 3Between4,001and10,000lempiras($200‐500)4

Morethan10,000lempiras(>$500) 5Morethan20,000lempiras(>$1,000) 6DK 88NR 99

29)Whatwouldyousayarethetopthreeprioritiesforyourhousehold’swellbeing? a____________________________ b____________________________ c____________________________30)Isthereanythingelseyouwanttosharewithus?

[ENDOFSURVEY]

Date_____________________ Time______________________Location________________________________

Interviewer______________________________

Enteredby_______________________________

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AppendixE:CategoriesofWaterSystemsinHonduras

CATEGORY DESCRIPTION EXAMPLEOFMEASURESTOTAKE

A35%Thesystemworksfine,chlorinationisinpractice,thewaterboardmeetsregularlyandiswellorganized.There’satariffandbaddebtsaremoderate.

Praisethegoodwork,encouragetheWaterBoardtocareforthestatusofthesystem

B28%Thesystemisworkingbutitshowsadministrativedeficiencies.Investmentsarenotneededtoimprovethesystemcategoryto“A”.

WorkwiththeWaterBoardtocorrecttheadministrativedeficiencies

C14%Thesystemworkstotallyorpartiallybutitshowsadministrativeandphysicaldeficiencies.Investmentsarerequiredtoimprovethesystemcategoryto“A”.Thecommunitycanaffordrepairingcosts.

ReorganizetheWaterBoardReinforcetrainingandeducationIdentifydeficienciesandcorrectiveactionsSupervisereparationworks

D21%Thesystemisbrokendowninphysicalandadministrativetermsthatthecoststocorrectsuchdeficienciesarebeyondthecapacityofthecommunity.

TheTOM,willnotdedicatemuchtimetothissystemsincelittlehecandotoimprovethesituation

Source:JavierRivera,SANNAandLuisRomero,CONASA;modifiedtoincludetwosetsofdata.

AppendixF.Non‐Chlorine‐BasedDisinfectionMethodsForHouseholds

SolarDisinfection(SODIS):Throughheat,lightandultra‐violetrays,thismethodkillsover99.9%ofmicroorganismsusingwater‐filledplasticbottlesthataresetinthesunforsixhours.Timeisafactorinthisprocess,andcanbeaninhibitor,butthisisbothacheapandeffectivemethodforcleaningwateratthehouseholdlevel.OnehealthissuenotcommonlyconsideredwhenusingthismethodisthedangerofreusingplasticbottlescontainingBiphenylA(BPA).Thesetypesofplasticsaremeanttobeone‐time‐useandshouldnotbereusedmorethanafewtimestoavoidhealtheffectsassociatedwithBPAexposure.TheUSFoodandDrugAdministrationexpressesextraconcernforinfantsandchildren.xxvii

CeramicFilters:Aceramicfilterdeviceisfittedintoacontainermainlyconsistingofabucketorsimilarwithaspigot.Whilethismethodisshowntoreduceorganismsby98.99%,thefiltersrequirereplacementovertimeandarequiteexpensiveasimporteditems.Forhighlyturbidwater,itispossibletostrainawayhelmintheggs(worms)andsomelargerorganismsbyusingacloth,foldedmultipletimesandheldoverawatercontainerspoutafterallowingthewatertosettleforsometime.Thisisobviouslynoteffectiveforsmallerorganisms,butcanbeafirststepifthereisnothingelse.

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AppendixF.WHO'sClassifiedWaterSourceTypesandDescriptions

ImprovedSource UnimprovedSource

Pipedwaterintodwelling,yardorplot UnprotecteddugwellPublictaporstandpipe UnprotectedspringTubewellorborehole CartwithsmalltankordrumProtecteddugwell TankertruckProtectedspring Surfacewater(river,dam,lake,pond,stream,

canal,irrigationchannel)Rainwatercollection Bottledwater• Improveddrinkingwatersourcesaredefinedintermsofthetypesoftechnologyandlevels

ofservicesthataremorelikelytoprovidesafewaterthanunimprovedtechnologies.• Unimprovedwatersourcesareunprotectedwells,unprotectedsprings,vendor‐provided

water,bottledwater(unlesswaterforotherusesisavailablefromanimprovedsource)andtankertruck‐providedwater.

• Reasonableaccessisbroadlydefinedastheavailabilityofatleast20litersperpersonperdayfromasourcewithinonekilometeroftheuser'sdwelling.

• Sustainableaccesshastwocomponentswithrespecttowater:onestandsforenvironmentalsustainability,theotherforfunctionalsustainability.Theformerinsistsonenvironmentalprotectionthroughlimitingextractionofwatertoacapacitybelowwhatisactuallyavailable.Thelatterreflectsprogramsustainabilityintermsofsupplyandmanagement.

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Endnotes iCIAWorldFactbook–Honduras.Retrievedfromhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the‐world‐factbook/geos/ho.html.iiUNDPHumanDevelopmentReport.Retrievedfromhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/.iiiWaterforPeople.WaterforPeople‐HondurasCountryStrategy2007‐2011.2006.ivWHOStatisticalInformationSystem.WorldHealthStatistics2005.Retrievedfromhttp://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/en/.vUNICEF&WHO.WhyChildrenAreDyingandWhatCanBeDone2009,WHOSIS2000vihttp://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp2000.pdfviiWaterforPeople.WaterforPeople‐HondurasCountryStrategy2007‐2011.2006.viii(SourceWSPNewRoles)ixBrand,Anthony.“TechnologiesAppliedforDrinkingWaterTreatmentinRuralCommunities.”WaterandSanitationProgram.(2004).xDrinkingWaterChlorinationxiInterviewwithCARExiiIbid.xiiiClmanufacturerpaper,CAREinterviewxivBrand,Anthony.“TechnologiesAppliedforDrinkingWaterTreatmentinRuralCommunities.”WaterandSanitationProgram.(2004).xvIbid.xviSano2009.xviiEHPxviiiWaterforPeople.WaterforPeople‐HondurasCountryStrategy2007‐2011.2006.xixCONASAinterviewxxEHPxxiEHPreportxxiiAHJASAPerfilInstitucional2009xxiiiInterviewNoraHernandezxxivBrand2004xxvRivera2010xxvi Ibid.xxvii http://www.fda.gov/downloads/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/UCM197778.pdf