Evaluating Spatial Data Acquisition and Management

African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences ISSN:2657-2664, Vol. 3 No.1 (January 2020)

Evaluating Spatial Data Acquisition and Management Techniques for

Multipurpose Cadastre in Ethiopia and Rwanda

(Preliminary Results)

1Didier Milindi Rugema, 2Tadesse Amsalu Birhanu, 3Gebeyehu Belay Shibeshi 1PhD candidate, Bahir Dar University/Institute of Land Administration, [email protected], Bahir Dar, Ethiopia 2Associate professor/PhD, Bahir Dar University/Institute of Land Administration, [email protected], Bahir Dar,

Ethiopia 3Assistant professor/PhD, Bahir Dar University/Institute of Land Administration, [email protected], Bahir Dar,

Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

Spatial data are a basis in development of multipurpose cadastre. This paper aims

to evaluate spatial data acquisition and management techniques for multipurpose

cadastre in Ethiopia and Rwanda. The research was conducted using a qualitative

research method, a review of existing literature on spatial data acquisition and

management techniques for cadastral purposes. The empirical data have also been

collected. The results reveal that using techniques that are not standard based,

Ethiopia and Rwanda have carried out large-scale mapping under participatory

approach for re-engineering their cadastral systems in short time. However, given

the manner by which the processes have been undertaken, the question comes on

quality of land measurements and the resulting cadastral geodatabases in both

countries, implying reliability of land information. The question also comes on

maintenance of the established infrastructure within available resources in case

of Rwanda, and lack of covering all land types in case of Ethiopia.

Keywords:

Multipurpose cadastre

Spatial data acquisition and

management techniques

Efficient process

Ethiopia and Rwanda

Received in : 18-10-2019

Reviewed in:18-10-2019

Accepted in :30-12-2019

Published in: 30 -01 - 2020

mailto:[email protected]

Rugema et al./Evaluating Spatial Data Acquisition and Management Techniques for Multipurpose Cadastre

African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences ISSN: 2657-2664, Vol. 3 No.1 (January 2020) 196

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and rationale of the study

Land being a natural and scare resource, is affected by competing uses (GIZ, 2012), hence it should

be carefully managed for the benefit of the present and future generations (United Nations Economic

Commission for Europe, 2004). This necessitates collecting detailed information on land not only limited

to determination of boundaries of parcels and associated maps (Williamson, 1985). In this regard,

cadastral systems being an engine of land information to know who owns land on which the activities

occur, while serving for legal protection and investment purposes (Bogaerts & Zevenbergen, 2001), they

have progressively played a multipurpose role including social justice, environmental management and

sustainable development due to evolutionary societal needs (Ting & Williamson, 1999). Modern cadastres

focus on detailed georeferenced information on land at individual parcel level (United Nations Economic

Commission for Europe, 2005), not only for legal and/or fiscal purposes, but also for other purposes

including base mapping, facilities management, value assessment, land use planning and environmental

impact assessment within a framework of multipurpose cadastre (Kaufmann & Steudler, 1998). However,

in many African countries, contrary to traditional land tenure systems, cadastre was introduced following

colonial administration of European law tradition, and this has led to the failures of the systems

(Österberg, 2001). Across Africa, the developments of formal land administration systems encounter

challenges in updating, costs for maintenance and inefficiency due to lack of the financial, human and

technical resources (Burns & Dalrymple, 2006).

Together with non-spatial data associated with a parcel, a map describes a parcel spatially to form

a cadastre (Konecny, 2009). In addressing the challenges encountered in development of modern

cadastres, particularly in land measurements, the fit-for-purpose land administration framework

(Enemark, et al., 2014) was developed. The framework is about cadastral systems in developing countries

developed using affordable spatial data capture methods for establishment and operations, being

inclusive to cover all land types, participatory, achieved in short time within available resources, with

reliable land information and upgradable over time. The spatial data capture methods are mainly the use

of high-resolution satellite and/or aerial imagery, rather than field survey, with the accuracy related to

the issue of using information.

In this framework, using spatial data acquisition techniques that are not standard based, Ethiopia

and Rwanda have carried out large-scale mapping for their land certification programs to enhance land

tenure security and proper land management. In Ethiopia the program was undertaken in two phases,

first level land certification using local land measurement techniques consisting of rope or tape, and

traditional measurement techniques known as timad, an area of land a pair of oxen can plow per day. The

second level is carried out using modern techniques, mainly ortho-images (Deininger, et al., 2008;


African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences ISSN:2657-2664, Vol.3 No.1 (January 2020) 197

Eversmann, 2019). In Rwanda, the program was undertaken systematically in one phase land tenure

regularisation using ortho-images (Rugema, 2011; Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2016).

The benefits have been evidenced in both countries; Ethiopia (Holden & Tefera, 2008; Deininger,

et al., 2011) and Rwanda (Ali, et al., 2014; Mukahigiro, et al., 2015). However, there is a knowledge gap on

how efficiently spatial data acquisition and management techniques are undertaken in the back-end for

the development of cadastral systems serving for multipurpose. Therefore, this research aims to

investigate how efficiently techniques of acquiring and managing spatial data for multipurpose cadastre

are selected, designed and implemented in the back-end to serve the public in the front-end. Given the

similarities in re-engineering their cadastral systems, the empirical assessment is undertaken using the

cases of Ethiopia and Rwanda when implementing land policies. The cadastral systems in both countries

aim to serve for multipurpose use (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2012b; Shibeshi, 2018).

1.2 Overview on land policies

In Ethiopia, rights to property are stipulated in the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic

of Ethiopia Proclamation No. 1/1995. The rights to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as of all

natural resources, are exclusively vested in the State and in the peoples of Ethiopia. Also all land is a

common property of the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or

to other means of exchange (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1995). Land can be transferred,

through inheritance, by a landholder to members of his family. In addition, peasant farmers, semi

pastoralists and pastoralists with holding certificates can lease land to other farmers or investors from

their holding of a size sufficient for the intended development in such way that shall not displace them.

Also a landholder using his land use right may undertake development activity jointly with an investor

(Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2005). To realize the common interest and development of the

people, no person may acquire urban land other than the lease holding system (Federal Democratic

Republic of Ethiopia, 2011).

In Rwanda, the lack of reliable land registration system was among the factors that was hindering

an efficient land management. In order to bring a rational and planned use of land while ensuring a sound

land management and an efficient land administration, a national land policy was established in 2004 to

guarantee a safe and stable form of land tenure (Republic of Rwanda, 2004). It is an obligation for a person

to register his own land as stipulated in the enacted 2005 organic land law, amended in 2013 (Republic

of Rwanda, 2005; Republic of Rwanda, 2013). This law stipulates that land is public for all Rwandans, and

the State has supreme powers to manage all national land. The right to land is granted by the State in the

form of emphyteutic lease, not less than three years or more than ninety-nine years. Through succession,

gift, inheritance, ascending sharing, rent, sale, sublease, exchange, servitude, mortgage, and any other

transaction within the boundaries of the laws and regulations, rights to land may be transferred between

persons. For the sake of land reserved for agriculture and animal resources, land rights may be



transferred, without prejudice to the provisions of law governing land in Rwanda relating to the area of

the land that cannot be subdivided.

The two countries systems differ mainly in holding right based system for the case of Ethiopia while

Rwanda’s system is emphyteutic lease based.

2. RESEARCH METHODS

To investigate the processes in acquisition of spatial data and development of land information

system, the research was undertaken using a qualitative research method. A review of existing literature

on spatial data acquisition and management techniques for cadastral purposes was carried out with a

particular focus to Ethiopia and Rwanda. The selection of the two countries in Africa is that they have

carried out large-scale mapping for cadastral purposes using surveying techniques that are not

classic/standard based. In addition, the researcher is familiar to the cadastral procedures in the two

countries, and this has facilitated data collection and analysis.

The comparative study allows to see better the implicit foundation of practices and phenomena

and to improve the efficiency by revealing and challenging the less evident assumptions and conceptions

about the World (Azarian, 2011), and in one way or another, a case study collects and analyses empirical

evidence (Yin, 2002). Using a purposive sampling, primary data were gathered from the key informants.

This approach is suitable for evaluation research and policy analysis by identifying who are involved in

designing, giving, or administering the program or service in question and receivers of the service (Palys,

2008). In qualitative research, the idea is to select purposefully participants or sites that best help the

researcher to realize the research problem and question (Creswell, 2014). The data have been collected

in both countries of the study from the staff working for cadastral offices, specifically the staff responsible

for geographic information system (GIS) for cadastre, surveyors and staff responsible for information and

communication technology (ICT).

Land administration arrangements in the two study countries are different, land administration is

regional state based in case of Ethiopia; while in case of Rwanda, land administration is governed from

central to local offices (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1995; Rwanda Natural Resources

Authority, 2016). Given these arrangements, the empirical data, in Ethiopian case, were collected from

the cadastral office of one of the regional states of Ethiopia, the Amhara National Regional State (ANRS).

This region is among the regional states that have experienced large-scale mapping for the first level land

certification that is prepared using local traditional measurement techniques. The region is also the first

in adopting the most elaborate process in implementing land administration in Ethiopia. Furthermore it

is undertaking the second level land certification after piloting projects to choose suitable modern

surveying and mapping techniques (Deininger, et al., 2008; Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program &



Bureau of Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010; Shibeshi, et al., 2014; Shibeshi,

2018). In case of Rwanda, data were collected from the national cadastral office.

The measurement criteria for analysis are based on the fit-for-purpose land administration concept

(Enemark, et al., 2014) and the ongoing debate on Cadastre 2034 (Lemmens, 2010), the two in the same

line. The latter is about making differences between geographical areas and their respective needs, rather

than one size fitting all. This includes cadastral systems for developing countries developed using light

tools to generate exact data rather than accurate data to respond to the primary need of building land

rights infrastructure. The former includes cadastral systems for developing countries developed using

affordable spatial data capture methods for establishment and operations, being inclusive to cover all land

types, participatory, achieved in short time within available resources, with reliable land information and

upgradable over time.

3. FIT-FOR-PURPOSE LAND ADMINISTRATION FRAMEWORK AND VISION FOR FUTURE CADASTRE

This section aims to investigate the fit-for-purpose land administration framework and the vision

for future cadastre given various contexts. Most cadastral systems tend to be computer-based to allow

not only the integration of maps and registers but also integration with other land information databases

(Kaufmann & Steudler, 1998). Considering a wide-range of humankind to land relations, there is a need

of low cost rapid processes for recording land rights to serve in dealing with rapid urbanization,

informality, and climate change and food insecurity. Such processes need secure and updating

mechanisms to safeguard the sustainability (Molen, 2014).

Modernization being a process and response of social change to achieve intended goals (Tipps,

1973) as a result of technological progress (Inglehart & Welzel, 2007), the third world countries in a

situation of lacking productive investments have to reside on aid, including capital, technology and

expertise from the Western Word (Reyes, 2001; Mergel, 2012). The developments in geo-information and

communication technology (Geo-ICT) have an influence on developments of cadastral systems and

surrounding geo-spatial data infrastructure (Lemmen & Oosterom, 2002). However, the re-engineering

of cadastral and land registration systems using Geo-ICT infrastructure to support various demands

encounters challenges including financial, technical, legal and organizational (Tuladhar, 2003). What is

important is the debate on appropriate cadastral system for individual country conforming to

circumstances and needs, rather than debate on whether cadastral systems are important (Williamson,

1997).

While the concept of fit for purpose land administration (Enemark, et al., 2014) is rooted to geo-

referenced land information framework with the idea of responding to local needs in developing

countries, the acquired spatial data need Geo-ICT infrastructure for the management. Being important to

ease the tasks in cadastral services, Geo-ICT developments need appropriate applications depending on



each country’s context capabilities to assimilate the developed technologies. This calls to rethink on the

fit-for-purpose land administration concept. Should this concept be limited to geo-referenced framework

and with due focus to developing countries or less developed countries? This leads to question where the

first-phase land certification in Ethiopia using traditional land measurements techniques could be

classified; that is fitting-for-purpose at the time it was needed within its geographical context. This signals

the need for comprehensively reframing the concept for different contexts in space and time. What is

important as fit-for-purpose land administration is a cadastral system developed in such way that

responds to the context needs, using available resource capacities, whether being for developing or

developed countries.

In the vision for Cadastre 2034 (Lemmens, 2010), it is discussed that developing countries need

object survey (3 dimensions) in urban areas and general boundaries in rural areas, whereby in both areas

what is most important is societal needs, and the technology to come next. The argument in this research

is that taking into account the comprehensive fit-for-purpose land administration; the vision for Cadastre

2034 needs reconsideration. The object survey would not be the focus for urban areas in developing

countries given that its implementation would need advanced technologies while different contexts may

not be able to assimilate. Being important, the object survey would not necessarily focus on standard

survey technologies to represent different strata of land rights.

4. TECHNIQUES OF SPATIAL DATA ACQUISITION AND MANAGEMENT FOR MULTIPURPOSE

CADASTRE IN ETHIOPIA AND RWANDA

4.1 Techniques of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system

In Ethiopia and Rwanda, land registration was undertaken in a participatory process with

involvement of local people in indentification and demarcation of parcel boundaries in the presence of

owner of a parcel in question, owners of neighbouring parcels and local land committees. Accordingly, the

latter consists of the land use and administration committees (LACs) in Ethiopia and the land adjudication

committees (LACs) in Rwanda (Deininger, et al., 2008; Rugema, 2011).

4.1.1 Techniques of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system in case of

Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, land measurements for land certification was undertaken in two phases with due focus

to rural areas, and not covering all regions (Deininger, et al., 2008; Bezu & Holden, 2014). The first phase

rural land certification was introduced in 1998 in one of the regional states of Ethiopia and it was

introduced in other three regions in subsequent years to enhance land tenure security and land use



productivity (Muchomba, 2017). With rapid and low costs methods, more than 20 million rural land

parcels were registered over the period of 2 to 3 years. To do so, land measurement techniques consisted

of rope or tape, and traditional measurement techniques known as timad, an area of land a pair of oxen

can plow per day (Deininger, et al., 2008; Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program & Bureau of

Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010).

To address measurement limitations, the second phase land certification was introduced to

complement the first phase. Pilot programs were carried out to add geographical locations and sizes of

individual farm plots using modern technologies including Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS),

satellite imagery or orthophoto (Bezu & Holden, 2014). The second level land certification was introduced

in the ANRS as continuation of the first level land certification, aiming at establishing a well-functioning

multipurpose cadastre, within a framework of progressive land administration system (Shibeshi, 2018).

In 2002, the pilots of developing land administration system were undertaken in two kebeles (sub-

districts) in two different zones of the ANRS of Ethiopia (administratively Ethiopia divided in regions,

zones, woreda/districts, and kebele/sub-districts). Following the paper-based system for administering

land information in the ANRS, a computer-based land information system was developed. The

Information System for Land Administration (ISLA) was developed by a hired expert, starting in 2003,

and it was operational in 2004. The system was decentralized and operating at woreda administration

offices in the region, starting from the two pilot areas, and later expanded in other woredas. In 2010, the

system was running in 40 of the 130 woredas of the region (Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program &

Bureau of Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010); and currently, it is running in

118 woredas. The ISLA was developed to computerise and update the textual data of the first level land

certification (Shibeshi, 2018); it was developed on PostgreSQL (Postgres) to be linked to parcel

geometries in GIS. The local in-house ICT staff administer the system. The geodatabase, in the second

phase, is generated using Quantum GIS (QGIS). In separate platforms, the textual and spatial databases

communicate through holding parcel number. Currently, an upgrade is ongoing to integrate textual and

spatial databases in one platform, the National Rural Land Administration Information System (NRLAIS).

4.1.2 Techniques of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system in case of

Rwanda

In Rwanda, under land tenure regularization (LTR) program, land registration was undertaken

systematically using ortho-images (Rugema, 2011; Nkurunziza, 2015). In the names of their land holders,

all national land parcels have been mapped and formally registered. The Land Tenure Regularization

Support System (LTRSS) was developed to support the LTR program. The LTRSS containing the textual

information while Geographic Information System (GIS) was supporting spatial information of land

parcels; the two systems linked by the unique parcel identifier (UPI). A web based Land Administration

Information System (LAIS) was developed to support mainly in the maintenance of land certification,



while also supporting land administration and management (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority,

2016); the information contained in LTRSS was migrated to LAIS (Sagashya, 2013b).

Initially, a hired software developer developed the first version of the LAIS as textual database on

PostgreSQL (Postgres). This version had issues of duplication and/or missing of parcel numbers due to

the lack of integration of spatial part, developed in ArcGIS 9.3.1, with textual part, and automatic

generation of UPI. Land transactions in GIS were generated by uploading to LAIS an updated shapefile

(geometries and attributes, UPIs); the parcel numbering generated manually by GIS staff. To upgrade the

system, a hired GIS developer, in collaboration with the previous hired developer on the textual part,

developed a dockable window as an extension to ArcGIS 9.3.1 to connect to textual database (LAIS).

However, the two platforms are not integrated; the spatial component platform developed on SQLServer

with SDE requires pushing, through web services, spatial information to textual component platform

developed on Postgres. In this communication, malfunctions of spatial transaction processes between the

two platforms compromise the system. Different efforts have been made to upgrade the system and solve

technical issues; however, by solving some issues, other issues come up and they keep circling. From the

start, the system developed by outsourced developers was deployed on production without a deep

analysis on its stability, and it was not fully tested to see if it responds to all transactions processed in it.

Other mechanisms are going on to upgrade the system.

4.2 Process of selecting and designing spatial data acquisition techniques

4.2.1 Process of selecting and designing spatial data acquisition techniques in case of Ethiopia

To develop the spatial component in Ethiopia, the pilots for the second level land certification were

introduced to add a geo-referenced information. The computerized system in the second level

certification is expected to make easier the updating and management of land records. Whereas the

USAID-funded Ethiopia Land Tenure and Administration Program (ELTAP)/which became, at a later

stage, Ethiopia Land Administration Program (ELAP), used handheld-GPS, the SIDA-funded program:

Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program (SARDP) used total station and high precision GPS. The

Finland-funded project: Responsible and Innovative Land Administration (REILA) used ortho-

images/aerial photographs and satellite images (Bezu & Holden, 2014; Persha, et al., 2017). These

techniques differ in their positional accuracy, requirements for training, speed and costs (Sida-Amhara

Rural Development Program & Bureau of Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010).

Following the results from trials, the ortho-image method is adopted for the wide-area

implementation at regional scale. The program is supported by different partners, including REILA, the

U.K. funded project: the Land Investment for Transformation (LIFT) Project and World Bank funded-

project: the Sustainable Land Management Project (SLMP). From 2012 to 2014, REILA project undertook

trials in five regions, including Amhara Region, and the LIFT project took over for scaling up the program

(Eversmann, 2019). The project is operating in four regional states, including the Amhara Region (Hailu,



2016), and designed for 5.5 years, starting in March 2014, under which about 14 million parcels are

expected to be completed for second level certification (Lapper, 2014). In parallel, the REILA project is

also involved as an actor in scaling-up the method in its areas of operations, including the ANRS

(Eversmann, 2019).

4.2.2 Process of selecting and designing spatial data acquisition techniques in case of Rwanda

To undertake the LTR program in Rwanda, the pilots were carried out in 2007 in four areas using

ortho-images, Quickbird satellite images (Rugema, 2011; Nkurunziza, 2015). Following the completion of

the LTR trial phase, a strategic road map (SRM) was prepared. This included the analysis of process and

results, and calculations of the requirements including, but not limited to, work rates and costs (Sagashya

& English, 2009; Nkurunziza, 2015). The analysis from the trial phase showed that countrywide

implementation could run at the highest speed in more than 10 years for the estimated 7.9 million parcels

using ortho-images (Republic of Rwanda, 2007). However, at a later stage the implementation plan was

changed to 5 years (Government of Rwanda, 2008) and on ground more than 10 million parcels were

mapped and registered (Sagashya, 2013a; Sagashya, 2013b).

Using mainly aerial photos and satellite images in the remaining areas, the countrywide

implementation started in June 2009, and a support team joined in July 2010 (Sagashya, 2013a; Sagashya,

2013b). The demarcation and adjudication of parcel boundaries was completed in June 2012, with 10.3

million parcels (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2012a). The LTR pilots and national roll-out were

mainly supported by the U.K. Department for International Development (DFID)-funded project, the

National Land Tenure Reform Programme, NLTRP (Sagashya & English, 2009; Nkurunziza, 2015);

whereas, in addition to Government of Rwanda, other donors contributed also during country-wide

implementation, and some other contribution of land owners (Sagashya, 2013a; Sagashya, 2013b).

To respond to the urgency of land tenure challenges, the government insisted on the necessity of

accelerating the nationwide LTR program by registering 50% of plots by the end of the first year. This

required reviewing the initial draft of the SRM, which was proposed to start with hotspots and to

gradually extending the program nationwide over the period of 15 to 20 years (Nkurunziza, 2015). The

SRM was adjusted for one-off investment with optimum conditions to speed up and complete the LTR in

shortest time as possible to avoid inequalities to citizens in accessing the new system (Sagashya & English,

2009). Having the LTR completed in short time, the number of parcels registered was far greater than

what was expected to be met in longer period using the same methods and techniques. However, this

brings the question on how efficiently the process was undertaken during countrtywide implementation.

4.3 Process of implementing spatial data acquisition



In case of Ethiopia, the wide-area implementation for second level certification is ongoing; and in

case of Rwanda, the LTR was completed in 2013, currently undertaking maintenance of land records

and the holding infrastructure.

4.3.1 Spatial data acquisition process

To undertake the acquisition of spatial data in Ethiopia and Rwanda, ortho-image maps are

prepared, printed and taken to the field. The boundaries of parcels are delineated over maps in

participatory approach. The tools are easy for use by local people on site. The post-processing is

undertaken in the office by scanning and geo-referencing field maps, and the boundaries of parcels are

then on-screen vectorised. This results in generating geo-referenced cadastral data; however, the way the

processes are undertaken need a particular attention.

4.3.2 Capacity building for cadastral surveying

In both countries, Ethiopia and Rwanda, local people trained as para-surveyors to carry out

demarcation of parcel boundaries are given on job-training, 2 weeks in case of Ethiopia (Eversmann,

2019) and two to four weeks in case of Rwanda depending on adaptability of the trainee to work

independently (Rugema, 2011).

In case of Rwanda, at the start of the LTR national roll-out, this procedure was implemented as

designed. However, at a later stage, the practice changed; in different areas, the training was carried out

only within some hours within one day and let the trainee to start working independently on the same

day.

Ethiopia, building on pilots and Rwandan experiences, is undertaking the second level land

certification program using aerial imagery under participatory approach (Lapper, 2014). Considering the

Rwandan case experiences, an attention needs to be paid on how, in case of Ethiopia, the processes for

spatial data acquisition in field are properly undertaken in practice compared to how they are formally

designed, including the training of para-surveyors for the sake of capacity building in acquiring spatial

data.

4.3.3 Quality assurance and performance evaluation

The LTR in Rwanda was undertaken under tight deadlines and performance targets (Nkurunziza,

2015); however, this has affected quality assurance. The evaluation of work progress was focusing on

numbers for both data collection in the field and post-processing in the office; that is number of parcels

demarcated and vectorised per day; implying the staff to focus on quantity.



Following the way, in different cases, the para-surveyors were trained, they have undertaken

parcel boundaries demarcation while lacking capacity needed to carry out cadastral survey. This includes

image interpretation and basic map reading skills, namely map orientation, map scale and map legend. In

addition, in most cases, a para-surveyor was targeting to report a large number of parcels demarcated per

day, and delineating boundaries of parcels on map just to fulfil the number of landowners in place. In

principle, as designed, a para-surveyor was supposed to go around each parcel boundary, indentify and

demarcate boundaries on map as shown on ground by landowners in the presence of owners of

neighbouring parcels and LAC.

For some particular areas, such as inside a forest or any other type of flora within which there are

different pieces of land belonging to different subjects/landowners, and in which it is difficult to

distinguish boundaries between each land holding, land was measured and was supposed to be measured

by using a tape measure. In these areas, it becomes difficult to identify and distinguish the boundaries on

image as shown on ground because of the coverage from canopy. Doing so with a tape measure, a map

scale was applied on image map in accordance to the measurements done on ground. However, in line

with maximizing the daily output, and given that it is time consuming to apply a tape measure for each

parcel boundary for such difficult areas, the tape measure was dropped down to speed up the field wok.

In measuring land, the maximum a para-surveyor could do is to try delineating the boundaries over the

canopy appearing on the image but without justified features distinguishing the drawn boundaries

compared to the ground.

The quality assurance measures were in place for the post-processing of the spatial component,

like working map scale for vectorisation process, checking and corrections of topology errors. However,

the realisation of these measures was contrasted by other requirements during LTR national roll-out. The

smallest working map scale for vectorisation was supposed to be 1:500 in order to visualize well in

boundaries of parcels on a scanned-georeferenced map. Though there was no target fixed as daily

minimum production, due to performance evaluation criteria focusing mainly on quantity (number of

parcels vectorised per day by one individual), in different cases the GIS staff opted to vectorise parcel

boundaries at a smaller scale to reduce the time spent in post-processing and achieve as many parcels as

possible.

The speed and accuracy were among guiding principles of the LTR program in Rwanda (Rwanda

Natural Resources Authority, 2012a), and the aim of the nationwide LTR was to maintain the quality of

process used in pilot phase (Nkurunziza, 2015). However, the implementation of these processes during

national roll-out diverted from proper/smooth land demarcation and post-processing while bringing the

question on effects on quality of the acquired spatial data.

In Ethiopian case, similar issues are questionable following the working environment used to

complete the coverage in case of Rwanda. Using a surveyor as standard criteria for Ethiopian case, the

calculations show that, using ortho-image method, one surveyor can measure 40 parcels per day,



fieldwork and office work inclusive (Shibeshi, 2018). This calls to a critical attention while scaling-up the

second level land certification designed for a number of parcels in the same range and time for completion

as in the case of Rwanda. Following the current design for completion, it may be tricky to undertake the

program by practically focusing on both quantity and quality of products delivered and/or to be delivered,

for both spatial data acquisition and post-processing vectorisation.

4.4 Spatial data capturing of public land

In case of Ethiopia, the focus of land certification in both phases, first and second levels, does focus

on rural farming land to benefit farmers; therefore not focusing on public land. The cadastral geodatabase

contains information on acquired spatial data, mainly rural land beloging to farmers.

In case of Rwanda, by focusing on all land types during initial spatial data acquisition for LTR

program, the wetlands spatial layer that was previously acquired by the public agency responsible for

environmental management in Rwanda was directly applied to cadastral geodatabase for issuance of land

certificates while implementing environmental policy. However, originally, the intention of generating

this wetland layer was for the general protection of environment with the accuracy that was not focusing

on cadastral use. This layer was generated on deskwork using remote sensing techniques with low-

resolution image. In different places, the wetlands layer was inaccurate to cadastral use. To address issues

that were raised by owners of the affected parcels, other versions of wetlands were generated also on

deskwork using remote sensing techniques, and later on, other versions included field checking. Each

version generated, in both initial data acquisition and maintenance of land register, was applied to the

cadastral geodatabase; however, the problem of inaccuracy for cadastral use persisted. The correction of

wetlands’ boundaries were demarcated on field maps (ortho-image maps) according to the observations

of field teams, and they were post-processed in the office for vectorization. Despite this field checking, the

field teams did not go along and around of each wetland boundary.

For land certification, since the LTR period and currently during maintenance of land register, the

wetlands layer was merged to the existing lakes’ layer, each applied with buffer distance as defined in the

environmental law. The spatial layer of lakes as existed in base map could have been well corrected over

the orthophotos used during LTR period given how the borders of lakes are well visible over these high-

resolution images. However, the corrections of this spatial layer of lakes were undertaken using a map

scale that is not sufficient to visualize well in lakes’borders for accurate vectorisation. Like in vectorization

of parcel boundaries, the use of small scale to the large appropriate one was applied to minimize the time

spent in correcting inaccuracies in the existing spatial layer of lakes while intended for cadastral use.

4.5 Maintenance of land measurements



While the second level land certification is undergoing in Ethiopia, land transactions are also

happening on ground for the already completed areas. This needs to update these changes, including

spatial changes. Acccording to the regulations on land measurements in Ethiopia, and specifically in the

ANRS, all rural land holdings have to be measured and mapped by the competent authority, using

traditional way or modern tools (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2005; Council of the Amhara

National Regional State in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2006; Council of the Amhara

National Regional State in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2007). The combination of

methods is recommended for the maintenance of land measurements to update the cadastral

geodatabase; the methods including RTK GNSS ground survey and remote sensing tools (Shibeshi, 2018).

To ensure that land measurements are well maintained, the measurement requirements need to be

practiced from the beginning of maintenance phase, noting that remote sensing tools need to be updated

according to the pace of land cover changes in a given area for easy use in image interpretation.

In Rwandan case, the maintenance of land measurements is undertaken using RTK GNSS ground

survey under Rwanda Geodetic Network (RGN) working in Continuous Operating Reference Stations

(CORS). This facilitates not only in updating but also in upgrading land measurements, while also

facilitating in coordination of using the same geographic coordinates system for different surveying and

mapping activities on the national territory. However, some issues are present. There is insufficient local

resources capacity to maintain the infrastructure (RGN/CORS), particularly in situation of some stations

failing to operate; hence, requiring to wait for external technical support. Other issues are present in skills

for some RGN users for post-processing when off RTK. Also, for a while, before the establishment of

RGN/CORS, different surveying activities, mostly by private surveying and mapping companies, were

undertaken using handheld GPS despite informational and instructional procedures on accuracy

required, surveying instruments to be used, including GNSS, total stations and photogrametric techniques,

as well as availability of control points (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2012b). There were no

enforcement and inspection mechnisms in place.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Spatial data acquisition for the development or re-engineering of cadastral system is important to

nourish land information that serves for multipurpose use. Using the cases of Ethiopia and Rwanda, this

paper aimed to investigate the knowledge gap on how efficiently spatial data acquisition and management

techniques are undertaken in the back-end for the development of cadastral systems serving for

multipurpose use. To do so, the paper assessed how efficiently techniques of acquiring and managing

spatial data for multipurpose cadastre are selected, designed and implemented.

Ethiopia has elaborated land administration system in two phases, first level land certification

using traditional land measurements techniques, and second level land certification using modern



surveying techniques. Rwanda has embarked on land tenure regularisation program using modern

surveying techniques from the beginning. Both countries adopted the ortho-photo based method for

spatial data acquisition for re-engineering their cadastral systems. This method is used in the second level

land certification to complement first level land certification in case of Ethiopia, and land tenure

regularisation in case of Rwanda. The tools used in this method are familiar and easy to use by local people

and this allowed the two countries to undertake participatory large-scale mapping for land certification

programs at high speed. It is however worth not undemining the benefits of local land measurement

techniques for first level land certification in the Ethiopian context.

However, the question comes on the quality of the spatial data initially acquired for land tenure

regularisation program in case of Rwanda to represent boundaries of parcels, given the manner by which

the processes were undertaken during national rollout implementation to meet the program design, in

particular the time set to complete the coverage. The same question comes in the case of Ethiopia while

undertaking the second level land certification, given the number of parcels for coverage and time set for

completion, which is similar to the case of Rwanda.

The question also comes on maintenance of the developed infrastructure for land information

system within available resources in case of Rwanda, and lack of covering all land types in case of Ethiopia.

A major remark in this research is the due consideration needed on the design of the selected techniques

for re-engineering cadastral systems which ensures that the implementation is undertaken smoothly by

maintaining the quality of the initially acquired data. The same remark comes on processes to be

undertaken before and during development of the infrastructure to hold land records (land information

system) in such way that ensures its stability.

Given the points discussed in this study, further research are needed to assess the impacts resulting

from how the processes of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system have been

undertaken in Ethiopia and Rwanda and, development of model for effective processes.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to acknowledge the DAAD NELGA for funding this research. The acknowledgment

is also addressed to the staff of cadastral offices in Ethiopia and Rwanda for providing information for the

realization of this study.

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7. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Cadastre: record of land information at parcel level.

Efficient: (in line with cadastre), developing a cadastral system that provides land information

responding to local context needs, in time and space, and manageable over time using available

resources.

Spatial data: relating to data determining absolute and/or relative position of physical features on the

surface of the spheroid, to represent position of physical features on the Earth surface.

Technique: (in line with cadastre), method and tools in acquiring and managing land information.



Vectorisation: generating vector data (spatial features with their attributes for

identification/description, like shapefile) to represent physical features on the Earth surface with their

discrete boundaries, like parcel boundaries in cadastre including individual plots, ecosystems and

infrastructure.

Documents

Evaluating Spatial Data Acquisition and Management