European Culture: The European Culture: The Question of TurkeyQuestion of Turkey

The Enlightenment, Modernity, and The Enlightenment, Modernity, and European IdentityEuropean Identity

The Enlightenment was a European The Enlightenment was a European philosophical movement which closely philosophical movement which closely coincided with the Scientific Revolutioncoincided with the Scientific Revolution• Both movements emphasized the Both movements emphasized the

role of reason, science and role of reason, science and rationality as a way of rationality as a way of understanding human behavior understanding human behavior and the natural world. and the natural world.

In the political domain the emphasis on In the political domain the emphasis on reason, science and rationality reason, science and rationality emerged as a critique of the religiously emerged as a critique of the religiously dominated, oppressive politics of the dominated, oppressive politics of the middle ages.middle ages.• From this philosophy was born From this philosophy was born

social/political movements like the social/political movements like the American and French revolutions, American and French revolutions, participatory democracies, and the participatory democracies, and the separation of church and state. separation of church and state.

This movement continues to strongly This movement continues to strongly influence European perspectives on influence European perspectives on ‘good governance’ and economic ‘good governance’ and economic policy. Membership into the European policy. Membership into the European Union requires adherence to policies Union requires adherence to policies that reflect Enlightenment thinking. that reflect Enlightenment thinking.

The Birth of the European UnionThe Birth of the European Union The European Union emerged out of the The European Union emerged out of the

European Economic Community (EEC), European Economic Community (EEC), which was formed in 1958. which was formed in 1958. • Its goal was to ensure peace Its goal was to ensure peace

through greater economic through greater economic integration.integration.

• Original countries included: Original countries included: Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, France, Italy, and West Germany. France, Italy, and West Germany. Followed by 5 episodes of expansion Followed by 5 episodes of expansion to include Denmark, Ireland, the UK, to include Denmark, Ireland, the UK, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland, and Sweden.Finland, and Sweden.

In 1992, a treaty enlarging the concept In 1992, a treaty enlarging the concept of the EEC to that of the European Union of the EEC to that of the European Union was signed at Maastricht, Netherlands. was signed at Maastricht, Netherlands.

In 2004 the EU accepted 10 new In 2004 the EU accepted 10 new members: Cyprus (not including the members: Cyprus (not including the Turkish controlled north), the Czech Turkish controlled north), the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Slovenia.

• Romania, Bulgaria, and Turkey have Romania, Bulgaria, and Turkey have formally applied for membership. Their formally applied for membership. Their membership has been frustrated by membership has been frustrated by resistance within Europe and within their resistance within Europe and within their own borders.own borders.

The Goals of the EUThe Goals of the EUEconomic and Social Integration Economic and Social Integration

of Europeof Europe• Through the elimination of Through the elimination of

tariffs and passports people, tariffs and passports people, goods, and money should be goods, and money should be able to easily move throughout able to easily move throughout the European Union.the European Union.

This should lower This should lower transaction costs for doing transaction costs for doing business in the region; business in the region; allow countries with small allow countries with small population growth, like population growth, like France and Germany, to France and Germany, to acquire necessary labor; acquire necessary labor; and to increase income and to increase income equality around the region. equality around the region.

• Through the creation of a Through the creation of a common currency businesses common currency businesses can lower transaction costs can lower transaction costs across Europe, travel between across Europe, travel between countries will become cheaper, countries will become cheaper, and Europe will be able to and Europe will be able to exercise greater global exercise greater global economic influence through economic influence through monetary policies. monetary policies.

Goals of the EUGoals of the EU

To serve as a geopolitical counter To serve as a geopolitical counter weight to the US.weight to the US.

• The United States’ decision to The United States’ decision to preemptively attack Iraq led preemptively attack Iraq led European leaders to adopt a European leaders to adopt a global intermediary and global intermediary and peacekeeping role in order to peacekeeping role in order to curtail the US’s future reliance curtail the US’s future reliance on such military solutions. on such military solutions.

• The North Atlantic Treaty The North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Initially designed Organization: Initially designed to serve as a counterweight to to serve as a counterweight to Soviet Expansion, the end of the Soviet Expansion, the end of the cold war has redefined NATO’s cold war has redefined NATO’s role in global politics. role in global politics.

Original members included Original members included The US, Canada, Western The US, Canada, Western Europe and Turkey.Europe and Turkey.

NATO is considered an NATO is considered an important precursor to the important precursor to the EU. So why has Turkey’s EU. So why has Turkey’s membership into the EU membership into the EU been so contentious?been so contentious?

Assimilation versus AcculturationAssimilation versus Acculturation

In Europe, race and skin color pay less of a role in In Europe, race and skin color pay less of a role in defining difference between people than does defining difference between people than does culture. culture. • Immigrants into EU countries and new members of the EU Immigrants into EU countries and new members of the EU

are expected to assimilate into European culture (i.e. to are expected to assimilate into European culture (i.e. to adopt political, social, and cultural institutions and adopt political, social, and cultural institutions and behaviors born from the Enlightenment)behaviors born from the Enlightenment)

• This means that immigrants and new member countries This means that immigrants and new member countries must abandon ‘traditional’ cultural practices, including must abandon ‘traditional’ cultural practices, including dress, language, religious practices, political systems, and dress, language, religious practices, political systems, and family structure in order to be accepted into European family structure in order to be accepted into European Society. Society.

Conversely, in the US and Canada the norm for new Conversely, in the US and Canada the norm for new immigrants is acculturation; that is enough adoption to the immigrants is acculturation; that is enough adoption to the host culture for members of minority groups to function host culture for members of minority groups to function effectively and be self-supportingeffectively and be self-supporting

Turkey and EuropeTurkey and Europe Turkey emerged as an independent Turkey emerged as an independent

nation in 1923, following the nation in 1923, following the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire disintegration of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. after World War I.

Mustafa Kemal Mustafa Kemal • Ataturk “Father of the Turks”: Ataturk “Father of the Turks”:

Powerfully influenced by his experience Powerfully influenced by his experience in Europe. Believed that the in Europe. Believed that the predominance of religious (Islamic) predominance of religious (Islamic) thinking in Turkey inhibited its progress thinking in Turkey inhibited its progress toward becoming a modern state. toward becoming a modern state.

• Under his authoritarian rule Turkey Under his authoritarian rule Turkey sought to create a secular Islamic sought to create a secular Islamic society. society.

• Military empowered to ensure that Military empowered to ensure that Turkey resists becoming an Islamic Turkey resists becoming an Islamic state and retains its secular traditions.state and retains its secular traditions.

With a population of over 71,000,000 With a population of over 71,000,000 people, 99% of whom are Muslim, people, 99% of whom are Muslim, Turkey is the largest secular Islamic Turkey is the largest secular Islamic state in the world. state in the world.

Despite many historical, political and Despite many historical, political and social similarities with Europe, there is social similarities with Europe, there is still strong resistance among some still strong resistance among some Europeans and Turks to Turkey’s Europeans and Turks to Turkey’s integration in the EU. Why? integration in the EU. Why?

Issues facing TurkeyIssues facing Turkey The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK).The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK).

• 20% of Turkey’s population is Kurdish20% of Turkey’s population is Kurdish• Efforts to create an autonomous Kurdish Efforts to create an autonomous Kurdish

state has occupied much of the militaries state has occupied much of the militaries energies, especially since the US invasion energies, especially since the US invasion of Iraq.of Iraq.

• Fighting with PKK guerillas has cost the Fighting with PKK guerillas has cost the lives of some 30,000 people.lives of some 30,000 people.

• Human rights abuses in this war are cited Human rights abuses in this war are cited as reason to exclude Turkey from the EU. as reason to exclude Turkey from the EU.

Northern Cyprus: 1974 Turkey Northern Cyprus: 1974 Turkey intervened to prevent the Greek take intervened to prevent the Greek take over of Cyprus. Southern Cyprus is a over of Cyprus. Southern Cyprus is a member of the EU. Turkey is the only member of the EU. Turkey is the only country it he world to recognize “The country it he world to recognize “The Turkish Republic of North Cyprus”. Turkish Republic of North Cyprus”. Human rights abuses in Cyprus are Human rights abuses in Cyprus are cited as a reason to exclude turkey cited as a reason to exclude turkey from the EU. from the EU.

There have been three military coups in There have been three military coups in Turkey since its independence (1960, Turkey since its independence (1960, 1971, 1980) in each case the military 1971, 1980) in each case the military has stepped in to end perceived threats has stepped in to end perceived threats to Turkey’s secular traditions. to Turkey’s secular traditions.

• This is viewed by some as forced This is viewed by some as forced assimilation into European cultureassimilation into European culture

EU membership EU membership Several European leaders, Nicolas Several European leaders, Nicolas

Sarkozy being one, have strongly Sarkozy being one, have strongly resisted Turkey’s membership into the resisted Turkey’s membership into the EU because Turkey’s Muslim majority is EU because Turkey’s Muslim majority is not compatible with what it means to be not compatible with what it means to be European.European.• The French have banned the The French have banned the

wearing of headscarves in public wearing of headscarves in public places, but not crosses. Turks have places, but not crosses. Turks have also banned headscarves. also banned headscarves.

Many European Union members can be Many European Union members can be accused of the same human rights accused of the same human rights violations as Turkey. Thus denying violations as Turkey. Thus denying membership may have more to do with membership may have more to do with perceived cultural differences between perceived cultural differences between Christian Europe and Muslim Turkey.Christian Europe and Muslim Turkey.• In short, their may be a strong In short, their may be a strong

perception in Europe that there is perception in Europe that there is something fundamentally something fundamentally incompatible between the European incompatible between the European identity, born out of the identity, born out of the Enlightenment, and the Muslim Enlightenment, and the Muslim faith. faith.

• Forced secularization in Turkey is Forced secularization in Turkey is perceived by some as a threat to perceived by some as a threat to Muslim identity Muslim identity

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions

In the of the debate over headscarves, what In the of the debate over headscarves, what are the similarities and differences evident are the similarities and differences evident between the tenets of European between the tenets of European Enlightenment and the ban on headscarves Enlightenment and the ban on headscarves in Turkey?in Turkey?

Is it possible to balance the tenets of Is it possible to balance the tenets of European assimilation with democracy in European assimilation with democracy in Turkey?Turkey?

What is the relationship between increased What is the relationship between increased poverty and ethnic/religious nationalism in poverty and ethnic/religious nationalism in Turkey? Turkey? • Are there parallels in Europe? Are there parallels in Europe?