Eu sEcurity & dEfEncE policyddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/0/50/29/09/Docs-Bio-CV/... · EUROPOLITIcs The European affairs daily Monday th3 November 2008 N° 3630 36 year New dealS New

EUROPOLITIcs

TheEuropeanaffairsdaily Monday3November2008N°363036thyearwww.europolitics.info

New dealS New daNGeRS

Eu sEcurity & dEfEncE policy

Whether in military aviation or in business aviation, the Dassault Aviation Digital Flight Control System provides unparalleled handling characteristics: exceptionally safe, responsive, precise and flexible for unprecedented flight performance.60 years on, our objective is unchanged: quality “made by Dassault”.

Digital Flight Control System: Piloting the future

www.dassault-aviation.com

sin

gu

lier

- RCS

Par

is 4

92 5

46 5

10 -

© D

assa

ult A

viat

ion

EUROPOLITIcs N°3630Monday3November2008

Sold by subscription only © reproduction strictly prohibited in any language www.europolitics.info

�

Contents N° �6�0

is published by EIS (Europe Information Service S.A.), subsidiary of SIAC groupRue d’Arlon, 53B-1040 Bruxelles

Chairman and Publisher:René-Charles Millet

TELEPHONECentral: +32 2 737 77 00Fax: +32 2 732 66 51Direct lines:Instead of 00, dial the two digits after the person’s name.

E-MAILEditorial staff:[email protected]:[email protected]:fi [email protected]

EDITORIAL TEAMExecutive Publisher &Editor-in-Chief:Pierre Lemoine (20)Editorial Advisors:Marc Paoloni, Rory Watson

Production Editor:Eric Van Puyvelde (22)

Editors:Anne Fekete de vari (18)Julian Hale (08)Tibor Szendrei (33)

Reporters:Dafydd ab Iago (58)Brian Beary (58) Jean Chartier (54)Anne Eckstein (36)Sébastien Falletti (37)Nicolas Gros-Verheyde (42)Ruth Milligan (48)Célia Sampol (60) Marianne Slegers (08)Isabelle Smets (34)Joanna Sopinska (31)Nathalie Vandystadt (45)

Translation:Christina Berta, Aïda Boghossian, Betty Jackson, Michèle Morsa, Ryan Stephens

Agenda, layout and website:Philippe De Clercq (57)Geneviève Jourdain (13)Grégoire Maus (15)Christine Serville (14)

ACCOUNTING: Pascal DuventTel: + 33 1 42 74 28 93Fax: + 33 1 42 47 29 [email protected]

MARKETING/SUBSCRIPTIONSDirector: Frédérique CartonHead of Marketing:Stéphanie Pacchiano (41)Aurélie Aromatario (09)

ADVERTISINGCommercial Director: Jérôme MillanTel: + 33 1 42 74 29 [email protected]:Anne RougéTel: + 33 6 72 43 70 79or + 33 8 72 62 22 47Other countries:[email protected]

PRODUCTIONDirector: Philippe GawsewitchPrinting: Identic, BrusselsEditing System: www.idm.fr

EuropoliticsispublishedinFrenchunderthenameEuropolitique.ISSN 1811-4121

New dealsEditorial...................................................5The.ESDP.in.a.nutshell..........................6 The.structures.of.Europe.of.defence.......8ESDP.operations,.past.and.present.......11Open Forum: European..Gendarmerie.Force,.an.operational..tool.for.the.ESDP......................................14Officer training: Military.Erasmus..to.commence.in.2009............................15Open Forum: Intelligence..cooperation:.The.OSINT.option..........16Crisis management: Seven.capacity.projects.to.reinforce.ESDP....................18Defence markets: Commission..wants.to.facilitate.movement.of..defence.goods........................................20Defence markets: Verheugen..on.strategic.independence.....................21France’s Defence Minister Hervé Morin: Defence.plans..moving.ahead.despite.Irish.‘no’.............22Czech Presidency: Defence..no.priority.for.Prague.............................23

New dangersThe.approaching.revision.of..European.security.strategy...................... 25Open Forum: Whither.the.update..of.Europe’s.security.strategy?.................26Protecting.critical.infrastructures:..An.essential.task.....................................27EU.urged.to.prepare..itself.for.large-scale.cyber.attacks..............28Open Forum: Cyberspace:..A.new.battle.zone..................................29Maritime.surveillance:.Yes.to..coordination,.no.to.integration.................31Open Forum: Maritime.security:..A.big.issue.for.Europe............................33Open Forum: Europe.and..the.militarisation.of.space......................34Kopernikus,..Europe’s.‘Big.Brother’............................36Military.space:..Time.for.Europe.to.choose....................39Open Forum: European.drone..systems:.Interoperability.with..NATO.or.integration.with.the.US?.......40EU.wants.to.tackle.drug..flow.from.West.Africa............................41

pdc

Text Box

Credit photo cover : NH Industries

UNITED STATESCANADA

(1)

Members of EU and NATOMembers of EU but not of NATOMembers of NATO but not of EU Not a member of either NATO or the EUEU candidateNATO candidateDoes not participate in EU military operations

(1)

States participating in European defence

Europolitics map - November 2008 - G. Maus



�

EditorialEuropE of dEfENCE

New deals

The.Georgian.crisis.has.given.a.boost.to. the. European. Security. and. Defence.Policy.(ESDP).and.visibility. that. it.had.not. previously. reached.. For. the. first.time. in. years,. the. theoretical. model.–.often.quoted.in.seminars.and.meetings.on. European. defence. –. has. become. a.reality.. War. has. erupted. in. a. territory.close.to.the.EU.and.other.international..organisations.cannot.intervene:

-.The.UN.is.paralysed.by.its.intergov-ernmental. operation,. with. Russia. and.the. US. at. loggerheads. and. the. Secu-rity.Council.system.including.a.right.of.veto

-. NATO. is. discredited. by. its. almost.belligerent. status.. Dominated. by. the.US,. the. institution. is. very. biased.. And.its. intervention. would. not. be. consid-ered. an. act. that. would. calm. things.down.but.rather.an.act.that.would.create..additional.tension

-.Other.regional.organisations,.such.as.the.Organisation.for.Security.and.Coop-eration.in.Europe.(OSCE).or.the.Coun-cil. of. Europe,. do. not. really. have. the.resources.for.operational.intervention.

That. leaves. the. European. Union.. Its.lack. of. unity. in. terms. of. foreign. policy.-.so.often.criticised.-.may.be.an.asset.in.this. case.. Of. course,. the. differences. in.the.positions.of.member.states.make.the.formation. of. a. common. political. posi-tion.more.complex..But.the.diversity.of.views. is. also. a. guarantee. of. impartial-ity. and. creates. a. possibility. for. them.to. be. involved.. Furthermore,. the. EU.has. shown. that. it. has. some. capacity. to.intervene:. military. (Chad),. civil-mili-tary. (Kosovo). and. border. surveillance.

(Moldova-Ukraine).. As. for. its. doctrine.of. peacekeeping. missions. defined. in.Petersberg,.in.the.midst.of.the.Yugoslav.wars,.it.remains.relevant..But.this.ESDP.is.still.missing.some.elements.in.terms.of.capability,. foreseeability. and. command.in. particular,. in. order. to. be. entirely.operational.and.dissuasive.

Suddenly,. the. priorities. presented. at.the. beginning. of. the. French. EU. Presi-dency.in.terms.of.defence.have.become.relevant:

-. updating. the. European. concept. of.security

-.reinforcing.the.‘planning’.and.‘antici-pation’.function.within.the.EU’s.general.army.staff

-. strengthening. and. diversifying. the.possibilities. of. intervention,. both. civil.and. military.. With. the. military. battle.group,. Europe. only. has. one. kind. of.rapid. response. to. crises,. which. is. not.always.appropriate.(and.has.never.been.used)..The.EU.must.therefore.reinforce.its. capacity. to. manage. civil. crises,. its.military. maritime. and. air. capabilities,.and.learn.to.pool.together.its.operations..A. need. all. the. more. important. since.national.budgets.are.strongly.tested.with.the.financial.crisis

-.reinforcing.technological.and.indus-trial.potential..Developing.the.European.defence.industry.is.as.much.a.guarantee.of. independence. as. of. efficiency.. By.developing.common.models.(eg.planes,.armoured. tanks,. transmissions),. they.are. facilitating. the. ‘interoperability’. of.armies,.ie.their.capacity.to.work.together..It.is.not,.in.fact,.just.a.question.of.having.the. technical. capacity. to. intervene. but.also.of.having.a.credible.and.dissuasive.instrument.at.the.political.level..n

By Nicolas Gros-Verheyde

6 Monday3November2008 N°3630EUROPOLITIcs

Sold by subscription only © reproduction strictly prohibited in any languagewww.europolitics.info

The.European.Security. and.Defence.Policy. (ESDP). is. undoubtedly. one. of.the.areas.in.which.the.European.Union.has. made. the. most. progress. in. the. last.ten.years.or.so..

But.this.dynamism.has.been.achieved.at. the. price. of. a.certain. amount.of. discretion. and.‘complexity’..

As. a. high-level. European.diplomat. put. it.when. speaking.to. Europolitics,.“we’ve. tended. to.try. to. carry. out.operations. while.limiting. the. insti-tutions. and. proce-dures. to. the. mini-mum”..

This. has. been.both. for. practi-cal. reasons. –. “not.wasting. any. time”.–. as.well. as. politi-cal.ones.–.member.states,.in.particular.France.and.Britain,.which.were.behind.the.Saint.Malo.dec-laration,. do. not. look. at. the. ESDP. in.exactly. the. same. way.. So. it. was. about.“not. being. confrontational”. and. not.overshadowing.NATO..

Today,. the. ESDP. seems. to. have.proved. its. effectiveness,. with. nearly. 20.operations. and. missions. carried. out. on.three. continents.. But. it. still. needs. to.strengthen. its.political,.operational.and.industrial.instruments..

This. will. certainly. be. the. challenge.for.the.next.ten.years.

A SecurIty ANd defeNce StrAtegyThe. ESDP. has. an. essential. mission:.

being. an. operational. instrument. for.managing. crises. that. take. place. out-side. the.EU,.alongside.other.European.instruments. (diplomatic,.humanitarian,.economic,.legal)..It. is.this.possibility.of.acting.on.several.fronts,.and.with.many.actors,. that. is. both. the. strength. and.weakness.of.the.EU.

At. the. end. of. 2003,. the. EU. adopted.a. common. security. strategy.. Based. on.an. analysis. of. global. challenges. and.the.main.threats.hanging.over.Europe’s.security. (terrorism,. the. proliferation. of.weapons. of. mass. destruction,. regional.conflicts. and. rogue. states),. the. strategy.sets.out.three.aims:

-. facing. up. to. threats. by. carrying. out.a.policy.of.prevention.of.conflicts.based.on. a. combination. of. civil. and. military.means.of.action

-. building. security. in. the. European.neighbourhood. by. being. involved. in.the. Middle. East,. the. Balkans. and. the..Caucasus

-. promoting. effective. multilateralism.by. defending. and. developing. interna-tional. law. in. the. fundamental. frame-work.of.the.United.Nations.Charter.

This. strategy.was. set.out.at. the.Euro-pean.Council.of.12.December.2003,.fol-lowing.several.difficult.months,.marked.by. a. ‘schism’. within. the. EU. over. the.intervention. in. Iraq,. which. was. sup-ported. by. some. countries. (UK,. Spain,.Portugal,. Italy. and. the. Eastern. Euro-pean. countries). and. rejected. by. others.(Germany,. France,. Belgium. and. the.neutral.countries).

the hIgh repreSeNtAtIveOften. dubbed. the. ‘chief. diplomat’.

of. the. EU,. the. high. representative. is. a.little.more. than. that..He. is.at. the.head.of. the.EU’s. foreign.policy.and. its. secu-rity.and.defence.policy..In.this.area,.he.has.the.power.of.initiative,.on.behalf.of.the. member. states. (in. liaison. with. the.European. Commission. for. budgetary.and.economic.matters).

Once.developed,.he.has. the.respon-sibility. for. execut-ing. decisions. that.are. taken. in. this.area..

As. secretary-general. of. the.Council,. he. also.has. control. over.the. administration.of. this. institution,.which. represents.the.member. states.in. Brussels,. for. all.the. political,. eco-nomic. and. legal.decisions. of. the.European. Com-munities.and.of.the.European.Union.

Set. up. by. the.Treaty.of.Amsterdam,.which.came. into.force.on.1.May.1999,.the.post.has.been.held,. since. it. was. created,. by. Javier.Solana,. NATO’s. former. secretary-gen-eral..His. first.mandate.was. renewed. for.five. years. at. the. European. Council. of.June.2004,.until.18.October.2009.

the pScThe.Political.and.Security.Committee.

(PSC). is. where. the. Common. Foreign.and. Security. Policy. (CFSP). and. there-fore. the. EU’s. defence. policy. is. forged..Made.up.of.27.EU.ambassadors,.it.is.the.equivalent.of.Coreper.(the.Committee.of.Permanent.Representatives). in. the.area.of.CFSP..This.is.where.the.27.member.states.try.to.seek.agreement.on.


The ESdp in a nutshell

© N

GV



�

ues. as. sensitive. as. the. independence.of. Kosovo,. sanctions. against. the. presi-dent.of.Belarus.or.negotiations.with.Iran.on.the.nuclear.dossier..This.is.where.all.the. generals,. EU. heads. of. mission. or.special. representatives. back. from. mis-sion,. report. back. to.. This. is. where. EU.civilian. and. military. missions,. such. as.the. mission. of. observers. in. Georgia. or.the. military. operation. in. Somalia,. are.put.together.

Formally. set. up. by. the. Treaty. of. Nice.(signed. on. 26. February. 2001,. entered.into.force.on.1.February.2003),. the.PSC.is.chaired.by.the.ambassador.of.the.coun-try. which. has. the. Presidency. of. the. EU.(France. in. the. second. half. of. 2008,. the.Czech.Republic.in.the.first.half.of.2009).

JoINt ActIoNAny. operation. (civilian. or. military).

requires. the.unanimous.political.agree-ment.of.the.member.states,.defining.the.mandate,. the. objective. and. appointing.a. head. of. the. operation.. The. agree-ment. is. formalised.via.a. legal.decision,.a.joint.action,.decided.unanimously.and..published.in.the.Official.Journal.

fuNdINg: AtheNA or the eu budgetEU.military.operations.are.financed.by.

each.participating.country..But,.in.order.to.ensure. that. there. is. some.solidarity,.a.“mechanism.for. the.management.of. the.financing.of.common.costs.for.EU.opera-tions.with.military.implications.or.in.the.area. of. defence”. (known. as. the. ‘Athena.mechanism’).was. set.up. in.March.2004.(and. regularly. reviewed,. the. last. time.being.in.early.2007)..

All. the. member. states. (except. Den-mark).contribute.to.certain.expenditure,.strictly.defined,.according.to.a.fixed.coef-ficient.depending.on.their.gross.national.product..

However,.this.funding.only.corresponds.to.one-sixth.or.one-fifth.of. the.real.costs.of.an.operation.

Civilian. missions. tend. to. be. financed.more.from.the.Community.budget.(exter-nal. policy). –. with. a. part. often. coming.from.member.states.or.non-EU.countries,.via.contributions.in.terms.of.personnel.or.equipment.

the peterSberg tASkSAdopted.in.1992,.in.the.middle.of.the.

war. in. Yugoslavia,. at. an. informal. meet-ing.of.WEU. foreign. affairs. and.defence.ministers.at.the.castle.of.Petersberg.(near.Bonn),.they.set.out.the.EU’s.area.of.inter-vention..

These.tasks.are.now.in.Article.17.of.the.EU’s. Treaty:. “humanitarian. and. evacu-ation. missions,. missions. to. keep. peace.and.missions.of.combat.forces.to.manage.crises,. including. missions. to. restore.peace”..

The. future. Lisbon. Treaty. adds. to. this.list. some. missions,. which. are. already.underway,.such.as.advisory.missions.and.military.assistance.missions.

cIvIlIAN or mIlItAry mISSIoNSThe. ESDP. covers. military. operations.

and.civilian.missions.. In.both.cases,. the.aim.is.to.achieve.security.in.the.country.(or.zone).concerned:.by.peacekeeping.or.by.training,.restructuring.and.assisting.the.existing.forces.that.constitute,.for.a.state,.the.very.essence.of.its.sovereignty.(police,.justice,.customs,.army,.borders)..The.dis-tinction.between.the.two.may.sometimes.not.be.obvious..Use.of.the.term.‘civilian’.or.‘military’.is.chosen.for.reasons.that.are.as. much. political. as. operational.. Thus,.in.a.‘civilian’.mission,.military.personnel.can.be.present.(eg.in.Kosovo.or.Guinea),.carrying. and. using. weapons. can. be.authorised.(in.Kosovo,.a.reserve.force.of.500.mobile.gendarmes.and.carabinieri.is.expected.to.be.deployed)..These.missions.are.deployed.in.war.zones.(eg.in.Iraq.or.Afghanistan).

mIlItAry coNceptSThe. military. traditionally. works. on.

the. basis. of. different. options. for. action..Various. ‘concepts’. have. therefore. been.developed. by. the. EU’s. Military. Staff.since. 2000,. especially. after. the. military.operation. in. Congo. in. 2003,. with. most.having. been. updated. in. 2008:. military.planning. at. the. political. and. strategic.levels. (September. 2001);. force. genera-tion. (September. 2002);. military. rapid.reaction. (January. 2003);. strategic. trans-port. and. movement. (February. 2006);.framework. nation. (July. 2002);. global.planning. (November. 2005);. support. for.

the. host. country. during. operations. to.manage. crises. (June. 2006);. reception,.staging,. onward. movement. &. integra-tion. (RSOM&I,. September. 2006);. bat-tlegroups. –. tactical. groupings. (October.2006);.medical.and.health. support. (July.2007);.maritime.rapid.reaction.(Novem-ber.2007);.air.rapid.reaction.(December.2007);. military. information. (February.2008);. military. command. and. control.(June. 2008);. geospatial. information;..Network.Enabled.Capability.(NEC).

the rApId reActIoN forceDating. back. to. a. Franco-British-

German.initiative.in.2004,.after.the.Arte-mis.operation.in.Congo,.the.1,500-strong.tactical.groupings.(more.often.known.as.‘battlegroups’). are. the. EU’s. light. rapid.reaction.force..

With.at.least.1,500.personnel.and.tac-tical.and. logistics. (such.as.air. transport).support. to. be. autonomous,. they. must.arrive. on. the. ground. no. more. than. 15.days. after. a. crisis. management. concept.has.been.approved..

They. can. carry. out. their. mission. for.between.one.and.four.months.

Two.GT1500.groupings.are.on.standby.every.half.year..In.the.second.half.of.2008,.a. group. led. by. Germany. (plus. France,.Spain,. Belgium. and. Luxembourg,. five.countries. that. form. the. Eurocorps). and.another.by.the.UK.are.on.standby..

In. the. first.half. of. 2009,. two.Mediter-ranean. groups. will. be. on. standby:. the.first.one.led.by.Italy.(plus.Spain,.Portugal.and.Greece);.the.second.by.Greece.(plus..Bulgaria,.Cyprus.and.Romania).

The.battlegroups.have.not.so. far.been.used..

A.debate.has.started.about.making.the.concept. more. flexible,. having. a. strate-gic. reserve. of. personnel. or. a. precursor.element. for. deployment. during. a. mili-tary. operation. (until. the. proper. force..generation.process.is.carried.out).

force geNerAtIoNThis.is. the.process. that.allows.the.EU.

to.establish.the.amount.of.forces.that.the.member.states.are.ready.to.provide.for.a.military.operation.outside.the.EU..

Without. “significant. offers. from.member. states. an. operation. cannot. be.

� Monday3November2008 N°3630EUROPOLITIcs


1. polItIcAl, legISlAtIve ANd legAlThe EU Council of MinistersThe.defence.ministers.meet.four.times.

a. year,. twice. during. each. half-yearly.Presidency.. One. is. informal. and. gener-ally.held.in.the.country.holding.the.Presi-dency;.the.other.is. formal. and.takes. place. in.Brussels.with.the.foreign.ministers.(usually. in. May.and.November)..There.is.no.offi-cial.Council.for-mation. for. the.defence. minis-ters.alone.

These. meet-ings. gener-ally. provide. an.opportunity. to.review. opera-tions. in. prog-ress. and. the.d e v e l o p m e n t.of. European.defence. capa-bility. (means)..The. meeting. is. chaired. by. the. minister.from. the.country.holding. the.EU.Presi-dency.. It. is.usually. twinned.with.a.min-isterial.meeting.of.the.Steering.Board.of.the.European.Defence.Agency.for.formal.approval.of.certain.budget.decisions.

The European ParliamentA. Defence. and. Security. Subcommit-

tee.has.been.set.up.in.the.European.Par-liament’s. Committee. on. Foreign. Affairs.(chaired. by. German. MEP. Karl. Von.Wogau,.CDU-EPP)..In.the.name.of.dem-ocratic.representation,.it.provides.follow-up.of.ESDP,.conducts.hearings.of.differ-ent. officials. and. experts. and. publishes.reports.on.security.and.defence.subjects..The. European. Parliament’s. power. is.limited:.it.is.simply.informed.of.military.operations..This.situation.irritates.MEPs,.who.expressed.their.discontent.in.a.reso-lution. adopted. on. 23. October. (on. the.operation.in.Somalia).

Parliament. is. not. totally. powerless,.however.. It. must. be. ‘consulted’. on. the.

orientation. of. the. CFSP.. The. Union.Presidency. must. also. “ensure. that. the.European. Parliament’s. views. are. taken.duly. into. account”.. Above. all,. Parlia-ment. has. the. power. to. pass. the. EU’s.external.relations.budget,.which.finances.ESDP.civilian.operations..This.gives.the.EP.considerable.leverage..It.also.has.the.

power. to.express. its.opinion.(in.co-deci-sion).on.directives.or.decisions.that.regu-late.the.defence.industry.market.

There. is. also. a. Western. European.Union. (WEU).Assembly. -. the. remnants.of.this.organisation.that.merged.with.the.EU.-.but.its.powers.are.very.limited.(reso-lutions.and.reports).

The European CommissionThe. European. Commission. usually.

has. no. power. of. initiative. on. defence..However,. through. its. preparation. of. the.EU.budget.and.various.economic.instru-ments. (such. as. the. stability. instrument.and.the.neighbourhood.policy),.it.is.a.key.player.in.crisis.management..Several.units.in. the. Directorate-General. for. External.Relations. (DG. Relex). monitor. all. these.issues. (defence,. crisis. management,. sta-bility).. The. Commission. also. has. two.direct. intervention. tools:. humanitarian.aid. (managed.by.ECHO). the.European.Union. is. the. world’s. leading. donor. of.humanitarian.aid.and.the.civil.protection.

mechanism.(CPM)..For.the.opening.up.of.defence.markets,.the.Commission.has.the. usual. arsenal. of. legislative. initiative.and. internal. market. control. (infringe-ment.procedure)..Its.role.should.be.stron-ger. once. the. two. directives. (public. pro-curement.and.transfer.of.defence-related.products). are. adopted.. These. subjects.

are. monitored.by. DG. Inter-nal. Market. and.DG. Enterprise,.r e s p e c t i v e l y ,.headed.by.Com-missioners.Char-lie. McCreevy.and. Günter..Verheugen.

The EC Court of Justice

Like.the.other.C o m m u n i t y.institutions,. the.Court. of. Justice.is. not. empow-ered. to. control.military. opera-tions. directly..Its. president.may.nonetheless.

be. called. to. the. rescue. in. case. of. a. dis-pute.over. the.appointment.of.arbitrators.charged. with. working. out. amicable. set-tlements. for. injury. caused.by.European.Union.troops.in.a.non-EU.state.(a.matter.generally.treated.in.status-of-forces.agree-ments.or.SOFA).

The. Court. has. full. competence. for.internal.market.matters,.in.particular.for.controlling.the.use.member.states.make.of.Article.296.EC.Treaty.(national.secu-rity. reservation. for. application. of. Euro-pean.rules).

2. AdmINIStrAtIve ANd mIlItAryThe Council SecretariatThis. body. is. the. administrative. main-

spring.for.preparation.of.all.decisions.by.the. high. representative. or. the. Political.and. Security. Committee. (PSC).. Issues.are. handled. at. the. External. Relations.Directorate-General. (DG. E,. headed. by.Britain’s.Robert.Cooper). in. two. specific.directorates:. defence. matters. in. DG. E8.


The structures of Europe of defence

© N

GV



�

(directed. by. Claude-France. Arnoudt,.France). and. civilian. crisis. management.in. DG. E9. (headed. by. Mika-Markus..Leinonen,.Finland).

The EU Military Committee (EUMC)

This.is.the.highest.military.body.in.the.EU..It.is.composed.of.the.military.chiefs.of.staff.of.each.EU.coun-try. (except. Denmark),.who. are. represented. by.their. military. representa-tives.(MilRep)..

It. issues. recommenda-tions.and.opinions.to.the.Political. and. Security.Committee. (PSC). on.military. issues. as. varied.as.the.crisis.management.concept. (a. document.drawn.up.prior.to.launch.of.an.operation),.estimates.of.costs.of.operations.and.exercises,. and. military.relations. with. applicant.countries,. non-EU. states.and. international. organi-sations..

The. EUMC. also.finalises. the. different.concepts.of.military.action..Its.chairman.a.military.chief.of.staff.is.appointed.by.his.peers.for.three.years..The.EUMC.is.cur-rently.chaired.by.French.General.Henri.Bentegeat.

Created. at. the. Helsinki. summit,. on.10.and.11.December.1999,.it.was.made.official. by. a. Council. decision. of. 22..January.2001.

The Military Staff of the European Union (EUMS)

The.EUMS.is.the.source.of.the.Union’s.military.expertise..It.has.three.main.func-tions:.early.warning,.situation.assessment.and. strategic. planning. for. European.Union. missions.. It. is. also. tasked. with.implementing. policies. and. decisions..In. that.connection,. it.contributes. to. the.drafting,.evaluation.and.review.of.objec-tives. in. terms. of. military. capabilities..The. Military. Staff. has. been. headed. by.British. General. David. Leakey,. since. 1.March.2007..It.is.made.up.of.around.200.people,.most.of.whom.are.seconded.from.member.states.

The. question. of. strengthening. the.EUMS. to. transform. it. into. a. com-mand. centre. capable. of. managing. EU.

military. operations. is. on. the. agenda..There. is. no. consensus. so. far,. however,.between. states. supporting. the. idea.(France,.Belgium.and.others).and. those.with. misgivings. (particularly. the. UK,.but. also. the. Czech. Republic),. because.they. fear. that. such. a. move. will. create..competition.with.NATO.

The military operations centre (or headquarters)

Based. in. the. EU. Military. Staff,. the.European. Union. Operations. Centre.(EU.OpsCentre).can.begin.planning.EU.civilian.or.military.operations.within.five.

days.following.a.decision.by.the.Council.of.Ministers..To.date,.it.has.never.served.as.such..In.contrast,.a.monitoring.unit.is.active.24.hours.a.day.and.could.serve.as.the. embryonic. version. of. this. operating.headquarters.(OHQ).

Five.other.operating.headquarters.exist.in. the. member. states. and. can. be. acti-vated.with.the.agreement.of.the.country.concerned:. Paris. Mont. Valrien. (France.activated. for. the. EUFOR. Chad. opera-tion),. Potsdam. (Germany. activated. for.EUFOR. Congo),. Northwood. (United.Kingdom.activated.for.the.Somalia.anti-

piracy. operation),.Rome. (Italy). and.Larissa. (Greece)..The. NATO. Gen-eral. Headquarters.(Shape,. based.in. Mons,. Bel-gium). is. also. acti-vated. for. ‘Berlin.Plus’. operations.(Althea. in. Bosnia-.Herzegovina).

The civilian crisis manage-ment staff head-quarters (CCPC)

Its. official. title.is. Civilian. Plan-ning. and. Con-duct. Capability.(CPCC). but. this.centre. is. in. fact.

a. real. civilian. crisis. management. staff.headquarters.. Its. 60-odd. staff. members.manage. all. EU. civilian. missions.. The.CPCC. is. headed. by. a. Dutch. national,.Kees.Klompenhouwer,.appointed.in.May.2008,. who. is. the. authority. in. charge. of.all. civilian.operations..All.heads. of.mis-sion. receive. instructions,. advice. and.technical.support.from.him..The.civilian.operations.commander.also.has.a.general.mission.of.ensuring.proper.and.effective.implementation. of. Council. and. PSC..decisions.

The Situation Centre (SitCen)Attached.directly.to.the.high.represen-

tative,. the. European. Union. Situation.Centre. (SitCen). provides. intelligence,.analysis.and.warning.capacity.24.hours.a.day,.seven.days.a.week..

It.plays. the.role.of.a.European.intelli-gence. service. even. though. its. resources.are. limited.. Using. both. public. and.classified. information. provided. by. the.member. states. and. EU. institutions,. it.provides. ongoing. monitoring. of. current.events. as. well. as. analyses. or. medium-term. assessments. of. all. geographi-cal. or. thematic. issues. with. European..

Parliament is not totally powerless. It must be

‘consulted’ on the orientation of the CFSP.

The Union Presidency must also

“ensure that the European Parliament’s

views are taken duly into account”

© N

GV

british general david leakey, chief of the military Staff of the eu



implications.. It. is. directed. by. Britain’s.William.Shapcott.

3. eu AgeNcIeSThe European Defence Agency

(Brussels)Created. in. anticipation. of. the. EU.

Constitution,.in.July.2004,.the.European.Defence.Agency.is.one.of.the.most.recent.ESDP. creations.. Its. role. is. to. serve. as. a.link.between.operations.and.the.industry..It.optimises.the.technological.and.indus-trial.aspects.of.national.defence.industry.policies. in.order. to. respond.more. effec-tively.to.European.needs..

The. agency. also. works. on. ad. hoc.projects.financed.by.the.member.states,.such.as. the.Franco-British. initiative. for.the.modernisation.of.helicopters.

Its. operating. budget. is. fairly. limited.and.established.year.to.year,.which.rules.out. any. medium-term. programming.

allowing. a. genuine. European. defence.research. and. technology. policy.. The.EDA.(www.eda.europa.eu).is.directed.by..Germany’s.Alexander.Weis.

The European Union Satellite Centre (Torrejon)

The. Union’s. Satellite. Centre,. set. up.in. 2001. in. Torrejn. de. Ardoz. (Spain),.took. over. the. operations. of. the. WEU.Satellite.Centre.. It.provided. images. for.the. United. Nations. mission. in. DRC.(MONUC).and.the.EUFOR.Chad.mili-tary.operation..

One.of.its.experts.is.a.member.of.the.United. Nations. fact-finding. mission.on. the. drones. shot. down. in. Georgia.(before. the. war. was. triggered).. The.centre. (www.eusc.europa.eu). is. headed.by.Frank.Rainer.Asbeck.of.Germany.

The European Union Institute for Security Studies (ISS, Paris)

The.ISS.succeeded,. in. January.2002,.the. WEU. Security. Studies. Institute.. It.serves.as.the.university.centre.for.research.and.debate.on.EU.security.issues..

The. institute. conducts. research.and. analyses. on. strategic. geographi-cal. zones. such. as. the. Middle. East,.Kosovo,.Iraq,.relations.with.Russia.and.the. United. States. and. battle. groups..Its. studies. are. often. published. in. the.‘Cahiers. de. Chaillot’.. The. ISS. (www.iss.europa.eu). is. directed. by. lvaro. de..Vasconcelos.of.Portugal.

The European Security and Defence College (Brussels)

Operational.since.1.January.2006,.the.European. Security. and. Defence. Col-lege. (ESDC). has. the. aim. of. forging. a.common. defence. and. security. culture.among. the. member. states. through.common.training..

Such.training.in.all.areas.of.the.ESDP.targets.players. (diplomats,.military. staff.and.others)..

The. ESDC. does. not. have. its. own.structure. (such.as. instructors.and.class-rooms). but. is. based. on. a. network. of.European.security.and.defence.training.institutions..Coordination.is.provided.by.two.people. in. the.Council’s.Secretariat.General. (alumni. network. and. adminis-trative.support)..

The. idea. of. giving. the. college. more.means,. such. as. a. permanent. struc-ture. and. classrooms,. is. still. under..discussion..n

The European Defence Agency is one of the most

recent ESDP creations

Slow developmentAfter the failure of the EuropeanDefence Community (EDC) due torejection by France, in 1954, foreignpolicywasconspicuousbyitsabsenceduring Europe’s early years and nota-bly in the Treaty of Rome (1957). Itemergedontheagenda inJune1970,when the foreign ministers of the sixmember states proposed to developEuropean political cooperation (EPC).Thiscooperationgrewslowly,conven-ing more meetings, establishing theEuropeannetworkofdiplomatic infor-mation (COREU), but remained veryinformal.WiththeadventoftheSingleAct, in 1986, and theTreatyofMaas-tricht, in1992,itwasgivenaminimallegalandinstitutionalbasis.Itsnewformprovedinsufficient,how-ever,asdemonstratedbytheconflictsin Yugoslavia in the first half of the1990s.TheEuropeans’obviousfailure(especiallyinCroatiaandBosnia)wouldspurallfuturereforms.Inthemidstofconflict, the WEU (Western EuropeanUnion)ministersthereforedrewupthebroad outlines of European defencepolicy. These ‘Petersberg tasks’ werewritten into the Treaty of Amsterdam(1997), which created the function ofhigh representative to coordinate theCommon Foreign and Security Policy.Thatposthasbeenheldsince1999byformerNATOSecretary-GeneralJavierSolanaofSpain.A Franco-British initiative in Saint-Malo(December1998)reallytriggeredEuropean defence policy, calling forthe Union to be given “the capacity

for autonomous action, backed up bycrediblemilitaryforcesandthemeansto decide to use them”. These objec-tives were agreed by the 15 heads ofstate and government at the CologneEuropean Council (June 1999). TheyendorsedinHelsinki(December1999)thestructureofaEuropeanrapidreac-tion force capable of deploying up to60,000troopsin60days.The Treaty of Nice (2000) added deci-sion making structures such as thePoliticalandSecurityCommittee(PSC),made up of the EU’s ‘security’ ambas-sadors,andtheEUMilitaryCommittee,composedofmilitarychiefsofstaffortheirrepresentatives.Europeandefencepolicy was declared operational at theLaeken-Brussels summit (2001). AEuropean security strategy was drawnup(2003)inacontextofEuropeandivi-sion over the American intervention inIraq. An agreement (known as ‘Berlin-Plus’)wassignedwithNATOtoensureEUaccesstotheAtlanticorganisation’smeans during military operations(March2003).Thefirstexternalopera-tionsthenbegantobedeployed(Mace-donia,Bosnia,Indonesia,Congo).The European Defence Agency wascreated (in July 2004) with the aimof developing industrial cooperationand strengthening the capabilities ofthe different member states. An EUmilitary staff was put in place andgiven an operations centre in 2007.The crisis management headquartersandtheCivilianPlanningandConductCapability (CPCC) centre followed in2008.



11

To. date,. some. 20. military. or. civil-ian. operations. have. been. or. are. being.deployed.in.Europe,.Africa,.Asia.and.the.Middle.East..They.include.different.types:.monitoring-surveillance. (Balkans,. Indo-nesia,. Georgia),. border. posts. (Rafah-Pal-estine,.Moldova-Ukraine),.police.training.and. reinforcement. (Afghanistan,. Bosnia,.Congo,. Palestine),. reform. of. security.forces. (Congo,. Guinea). and. rule. of. law.(Iraq. and. Kosovo).. The. missions. vary. in.size,.number.of.participants,.duration.and.intensity.of.action..Although. the.EU.ini-tially. relied. more. heavily. on. means. pro-vided. by. NATO. or. other. organisations,.today. it. has. become. more. autonomous.and.deploys.more.staff.for.longer.periods.

NINe operAtIoNS completed•. EU Monitoring Mission, Balkans.

(December. 2000-December. 2007).. An.ESDP.mission.before.the.term.existed,.the.EUMM.was.charged.with.ensuring.stabil-ity.in.the.region,.focusing.on.three.aspects:.borders,.the.return.of.refugees.and.ethnic.issues..It.succeeded.the.first.EC.monitor-ing. mission,. present. in. the. region. since.July. 1991. (in. Croatia. primarily).. It. was.based.in.Sarajevo.but.extended.to.all.states.in.the.area.(Albania,.Bosnia,.Macedonia,.Montenegro,. Serbia-Kosovo).. With. 120.international.observers.(unarmed.military.staff).and.75.local.staff,.it.was.directed.by.Irish.diplomat.Antóin.Mac.Unfraidh.and.subsequently.by.Maryse.Daviet.(France).

•. Concordia military operation, FYROM (March-December. 2003).. The.EU’s.first.military.action,.Concordia.took.over. from. the. NATO. Allied. Harmony.operation. from.18.March.2003,.with. the.aim.of.guaranteeing.the.security.required.for. implementation. of. the. Ohrid. Agree-ment..Its.staff.included.400.troops.from.26.countries.(13.European).under. the.com-mand.of.German.Admiral.Rainer.Feist.as.D-Saceur. (NATO.deputy. supreme.allied.commander. Europe).. The. troops. were.commanded. first. by.French.Major.Gen-eral.Jean-Pierre.Maral.and.later.by.Portu-guese.Major.General.Luis.Nelson.Ferreira.dos.Santos.(EUROFOR).

•. Artemis military operation, Congo (June-September. 2003).. Serious. unrest.

erupted. in. Ituri,. a. province. in. eastern.Congo,. in. 2003.. The. town. of. Bunia. was.besieged..The.EU,.pending.the.arrival.of.a.larger.United.Nations.force,.and.taking.over.from.750.blue.helmets,.deployed.a.force.of.2,200. troops,. mostly. from. France. (1,700).and.Sweden..This.first.operation.outside.of.Europe. was. completely. autonomous. and.did.not.use.any.NATO.means.

•. EUPOL Proxima police mission, FYROM. (December. 2003-December.2005).. Taking. over. from. the. Concordia.military. operation,. this. police. mission.aimed. to. ensure. stabilisation. of. the. situ-ation.and.consolidation.of.the.rule.of.law.through.the.development.of.a.professional.police.force.meeting.European.standards.in.certain.priority.areas.(borders,.law.and.order,. combating. corruption. and. organ-ised.crime)..The.mission’s.approximately.200.police.were.commanded.by.German.Police. Brigadier-General. Jürgen. Scholz..A. smaller. mission. of. around. 30. police,.EUPAT,.followed.in.June.2006.

• EUJUST Themis rule of law mis-sion, Georgia. (July. 2004-July. 2005).. At.the. initiative. of. Lithuania,. this. mission.provided.support. for. the.reform.of.Geor-gia’s.judicial.system.to.bring.the.structures.inherited.from.the.Soviet.system.into.line.with.Western.standards..It.was.headed.by.French. judge. Sylvie. Pantz.. The. action.was. continued. with. the. creation. of. a.small.support.team.(that.still.exists.today).charged. with. assisting. the. authorities. on.rule.of.law.issues.and.border.control..The.team.works.at.the.office.of.the.EU.special..representative.in.Georgia.

•. EUPOL police mission, Kinshasa, Congo (February.2005-June.2007)..Set.up.to.support.police.reform.in.the.Congo,.this.mission. trained. a. specialised. integrated.police. unit. (IPU). charged. with. protect-ing. transition. players. and. it. contributed.to.international.assistance.and.security.for.the.2006.elections.

•. EU support mission for the Afri-can Union (AMIS), Darfur (June. 2005.-.December.2007)..With.a.staff.of.around.50.people.(military.and.police),.this.civil-ian. and. military. action. provided. support.for. the. African. Union. troops. deployed.in. Darfur.. The. EU. –. like. NATO. –. also.provided. strategic. transport. aid.. It. was.directed.by. the.Special.Envoy. to.Sudan,.

Torben. Brylle.. The. UN-African. Union.hybrid.mission.(UNAMID).then.took.over.the.task.

•. Aceh Monitoring Mission (AMM) – Aceh, Indonesia. (September. 2005. –.December.2006)..In.the.wake.of.the.Hel-sinki.Agreement.between.the.Indonesian.government. and. the. GAM. rebel. group,.which.put.an.end.to.a.30-year.conflict,.the.EU.deployed.a.mission.in.charge.of.moni-toring. the. disarmament,. demobilisation.and.reintegration.process..The.250.observ-ers.were.headed.by.Dutch.diplomat.Pieter.Feith.(currently.head.of. the.EU.Civilian.Office.in.Kosovo).

.•. Operation EUFOR, Democratic Republic of Congo. (April-November.2006).. The. second. military. operation. in.this. country,. following. on. the. heels. of.Artemis,. this. mission. aimed. to. provide.security. for. the. election. process.. Around.500. troops,. mostly. French,. German. and.Spanish,. were. commanded. by. German.Lieutenant-General. Karlheinz. Viereck.from. the. headquarters. in. Potsdam. (Ger-many).and.by.French.Lieutenant-General.Christian.Damay.in.Kinshasa.

IN progreSS - cIvIlIAN mISSIoNS•.EU police mission (EUPM), Bosnia-

Herzegovina. (January. 2003-December.2009)..Forming.part.of.the.United.Nations.police.mission.in.this.country,.the.aim.is.to. create. a. “unified,. independent. and.depoliticised”. Bosnian. police. force. and.to. strengthen. the. professional. compe-tence. of. police. (senior. officials,. training.and. recruitment),. notably. in. combating.organised.crime.and.corruption,.thanks.to.the.creation.of.a.government.agency.spe-cialised.in.these.matters..The.mission.has.a.staff.of.around.400.people.(including.180.European.experts).and.is.commanded.by.German. Police. Brigadier-General. Stefan.Feller,.who.took.over.on.1.November.from.his.Italian.colleague,.Vincenzo.Coppola.

•. EU security sector reform mission (EUSEC), DR Congo. (June. 2005-June.2009).. Launched. in. support. of. reform.of. the. Congolese. army. and. the. national.reconciliation. process,. this. mission. has.implemented. several. projects:. reform. of.the. military. payment. chain. –. to. guaran-tee. more. effective. payment. of. salaries,. a.key. element. in. combating. corruption. -


ESdp operations, past and present



biometric.census.of.troops.(with.ID.cards.that.are.impossible.to.forge.and.checks.of.ranks).and.organisation.of.a.rapid.reaction.force..The.resumption.of.hostilities.in.the.province.of.North.Kivu.(near.Rwanda).has.complicated. the.mission.. It.has.a. staff.of.around.40.and.is.commanded.by.French.General.Jean-Paul.Michel.

•. EUJUST LEX rule of law mission, Iraq (July. 2005-June. 2009).. Set. up. in.the.framework.of. the.EU.programme.for.Iraq. presented. in. November. 2004,. the.mission. provides. training. for. the. Iraqi.criminal. justice. system. (police,. judicial.

and. penitentiary). either. in. the. country.or. in. EU. member. states.. To. date,. it. has.trained.around.1,750.people..With.some.30. experts. in. Brussels. and. Bagdad,. it. is.directed.by.Stephen.White.(UK).

•. EU border assistance mission (EUBAM), Moldova and Ukraine.(November. 2005-November. 2009)..Although. it. is. not. formally. an. ESDP.mission,. EUBAM. is. closely. related. to.the. ESDP. given. its. mandate. –. to. con-tribute. to. the. training. and. restructuring.of.the.border.guard.and.customs.services.of. these. two. countries,. shaped. by. their.

common. . history. in. the. ex-USSR. -. and.its. context.. The. mission. is. deployed.along. the. border. between. Ukraine. and.Transnistria,. the. eastern. part. of. Mol-dova. that. broke. away. from. that. country.in.1992.and.declared. its. independence,.which. has. not. been. recognised. by. any.state.in.the.international.community,.not.even. Russia,. which. maintains. a. ‘peace-keeping’. contingent. there.. There. was. a.real.risk.of.the.development.of.a.zone.of.lawlessness.open.to.mafias.and.trafficking.of. all. kinds.. EUBAM. has. a. staff. of. 200.(including.130.EU.experts).and. is.com-



1�

manded. by. Hungarian. Major-General.Ferenc.Bánfi.

•.EUBAM border assistance mission, Rafah.(November.2005-November.2008)..Implemented. following. the. agreements.between.Israel.and.the.Palestinian.Author-ity,. this. border. assistance. mission. at. the.Rafah.crossing.point.was.quick.to.experi-ence. the. political. change. following. the.victory.by.Hamas.in.the.elections.in.Janu-ary.2006.and.the.boycott.of.Gaza.by.Israel..Between. June. 2006. and. June. 2007,. the.crossing. point. –. which. is. usually. closed.–.was.opened.on.an.exceptional.basis.on.several. occasions,. allowing. 165,000. to.cross. the.border.. In. . June.2007,. the.mis-sion. was. suspended. until. further. notice..The.EU.is.“prepared.to.redeploy.its.staff.at.the.Rafah.crossing.point.as.soon.as.condi-tions.allow”..With.a.staff.of.27,.the.mission.is. commanded.by. Italian.General.Pietro.Pistolese.

•. EU police mission (EUPOL COPPS), Palestinian Territories (since.January. 2006).. Put. in. place. as. part. of.the.EU’s.drive. to.help.Palestine. improve.its. state. structure,. EUPOL. COPPS. was.originally.intended.to.strengthen.the.Pal-estinian. police. force. with. organisational.assistance.at.both.local.and.central.level,.maintaining.law.and.order,.and.providing.training.and.equipment..Since.May.2008,.the.mission.has.gradually.extended.to.the.criminal. justice. system. (courts,. prosecu-tors. and. penitentiary. system).. Its. staff. of.around.30.(police.and.civilian.experts).is.commanded.by.Colin.Smith.(UK).

•. EUPOL, DR Congo (July. 2007-June. 2009).. Taking. over. from. EUPOL.Kinshasa,. the.EU.police.mission.aims. to.develop. an. organised. crime. unit. and. a.command. centre. in. the. capital. to. facili-tate. interaction. between. the. police. and.the. judicial. system..EUPOL.is. staffed.by.around. 40. criminal. justice. experts. from.nine.member.states,.as.well.as.Switzerland.and.Angola,.and.is.commanded.by.Adilio.Custodio.(Portugal).

•. EUPOL, Afghanistan (June. 2007-June. 2010).. Forming. part. of. the. inter-national. community’s. drive. to. stabilise.Afghanistan,. the. police. mission. aims. to.strengthen. the. Afghan. police. in. rule. of.law. (criminal. investigations,. training,.border.management)..It.is.continuing.the.

work. begun. by. the. German. Police. Proj-ect.Office.(GPPO).and.has.a.staff.of.230,.which.will.rise.to.400.following.the.deci-sion.by.the.defence.ministers.in.May.2008..The. mission. is. commanded. by. Danish.Police. Commissioner. Kai. Vittrup,. who.took. over. from. German. General. Jürgen.Scholz.in.October.2008.

•.EULEX, Kosovo (February.2008-Feb-ruary.2010)..This.rule.of.law.mission.took.over. from. the. United. Nations. mission.(UNMIK).to.help.consolidate.rule.of.law.(justice,.police,.customs).at.a.difficult.time,.ie.as.the.former.Serb.province.declared.its.independence..Serbian.and.Russian.hos-tility.delayed.deployment,.which.resumed.during.the.summer.of.2008.and.should.be.completed.at.the.end.of.the.year..In.time,.EULEX. is. expected. to. be. comprised. of.around. 3,000. people. (1,900. EU. nation-als. and.1,100. local. staff):. police. (around.1,400,. including.400. to.500. in.charge.of.maintaining. order),. judges. (200. to. 300).and. a. small. customs. unit. (around. 20.people)..It.is.the.biggest.EU.civilian.mis-sion..Twenty-six.member.states.are.partici-pating.along.with.four.non-EU.countries.(Switzerland,.Norway,.Turkey.and.United.States)..It.is.commanded.by.former.French.General.Yves.de.Kermabon.

• EU SSR security sector reform mis-sion, Guinea-Bissau. (June. 2008-June.2009).. The. mission. aims. to. help. the.reform.of. the. security. sector. (police,. jus-tice,. army),. begun. by. the. government.with. the. support. of. international. organi-sations.. Made. up. of. about. 40. people.(21. international. specialists. and. 18-19.locals),.it.is.run.by.Spanish.General.Juan..Esteban-Verastegui.

•.Monitoring Mission (EUMM), Geor-gia (October.2008-October.2009)..Put.in.place. urgently. after. the. ceasefire. agree-ments. signed. between. Russia. and. Geor-gia,. under. the. auspices. of. the. European.Union. –. the.Medvedev-Sarkozy. six-point.plan.–.the.mission.was.deployed.in.record.time.in.late.September.to.replace.Russian.troops. in. the. ‘secure. zone’,. on.Georgian.territory,.at.the.border.with.South.Ossetia.and.Abkhazia.(Georgian.provinces.which.have. been. de. facto. autonomous. since.1992,.which.declared.their.independence.during.the.conflict,.but.this.has.only.been.recognised. by. Russia. and. a. few. other.

countries)..The.mission.will.last.one.year..It.is.made.up.of.240.people.and.is.run.by.German.diplomat.Hansjörg.Haber.

mIlItAry operAtIoNS•. Althea, Bosnia-Herzegovina. (since.

December.2004)..The.EU.took.over.from.the. NATO. SFOR. force,. present. in. the.country. since.December.1996,. following.the. Dayton. Agreements.. Planned. to. stay.in.place.“as.long.as.necessary,”.it.has.pro-gressively.decreased.its.manpower.–.from.7,000. to. 2,500. –. and. the. closure. of. the.mission.is.debated.at.member.state.level..Implementing.the.‘Berlin.Plus’.agreement,.the. operation’s. headquarters. is. ensured.by. NATO. (Shape). in. Mons. (Belgium)..The. force. is. run. by. Spanish. General.Ignacio.Martin.Villalain.(who.succeeded.the. German. Rear. Admiral. Hans-Jochen..Witthauer).

•. EUFOR Chad-Central African Republic. (15. March. 2008-15. March.2009)..Put.in.place.to.protect.the.camps.of.refugees.and.displaced.persons.in.the.east.of.Chad.and.the.north.of.the.Central.Afri-can.Republic,.as.a.prelude.to.the.deploy-ment.of.the.UN’s.peacekeepers,.the.Euro-pean. force. is. made. up. of. 3,500. people..Run.by.Irish.General.Pat.Nash.(operation.commander.based.in.Mont-Valérien).and.French. General. Jean-Philippe. Ganascia.(force. commander),. it. has. had. to. over-come. several. political,. logistical. and..security.difficulties.

•.EUFOR naval operation in Somalia.(December.2008-December.2009)..Faced.with. the. increase. in. the. cases. of. piracy.affecting.merchant.or. fishing.vessels,. the.European.Union.decided.to.put.in.place.what.will.be.its.first.naval.operation..Before.legal.and.political.difficulties,.it.has.been.decided.to.put.in.place.a.small.coordina-tion.cell,.called.EU.Navco,.made.up.of.a.few.officers.within.the.EU’s.headquarters.in.Brussels,.in.order.to.ensure.the.liaison.with. all. interested. parties. (ship. owners.and. marine. organisations,. World. Food.Programme.and.NGOs,.military.coalition.CTF.150.run.by.the.Americans)..Decided.in. November,. the. military. operation.should. officially. start. in. December,. and.last.for.one.year..It.is.run.by.British.Rear.Admiral.Philip.Jones,.based.in.the.British.headquarters.in.Northwood..n



In. the.context.of.a.growing.number.of.civilian.crisis. situations,. five.EU.member.states.with.a.police.force.which.is.military.in.nature.–.France,. Italy,.Spain,.Portugal.and.the.Netherlands.–.have.built.the.Euro-pean.Gendarmerie.Force.(EGF),.an.inter-vention.tool.whose.foundations.are.based.on.the.Velsen.Treaty.of.18.October.2007..This.does.not.fall.under.EU.law,.but.classic.international.law.

With.the.breakup.of.Yugoslavia,.the.need.quickly.arrived.for.the.Union.to.be.able.to.warn.and,.in.the.event.of.a.failure,.manage.crises. and. lead. peacekeeping. operations.autonomously,. or. as. a. group.. This. is. the.reason.for.the.creation,.in.January.2003,.of.a.reflection.on.the.projection.of.police.forces.which.began.by.sending.the.first.detachment.to. Bosnia. Herzegovina. (EUPM),. initially.equipped. with. its. 550. personnel,. includ-ing. almost. 100. French. gendarmes.. This.ensured.the.relief.of.missions.which,.until.then,.had.been.fulfilled.by.NATO.through.the.International.Police.Task.Force.

Placed. up. against. civilian. crises,. the.Union. intended,. on. the. one. hand,. to.reinforce. local. police. capacities. through.training.and.assistance.actions,.but.also,.in.the.event.of.failure,.to.step.in.to.maintain.public.order..Though.the.EUPM.showed.its.effectiveness.in.Yugoslavia,.it.owes.this.largely. to. its. civilian-military. mix.. How-ever,. it. quickly. appeared. appropriate,. for.interventions. in. the. most. degraded. con-

texts,. justifying. the. intervention.of.armed.forces. and. an. initial. crisis. management.under.military.command,. to.use.a.better.adapted.entity..This.is.how.the.EGF.came.into.being.

trANSItIoN betweeN mIlItAry-cIvIlIANLikely.to.be.indifferently.deployed.under.

military. or. civilian. command,. the. EGF.seems.to.be.the.most.apt.tool.to.ensure.the.transition.from.military.to.civilian.in.crisis.management..It.can.even.be.engaged.for.prevention,.though.no.deployment.of.mili-tary.forces.has.yet.taken.place..

This.project.was.initiated.in.Noordwijk.(Netherlands).on.17.September.2004,.on.France’s.initiative,.and.was.realised,.under.the. Austrian. Presidency,. by. establishing.a. permanent. headquarters. in. Vicenza.(Italy),.on.23.January.2006..An.instrument.of. the.EU’s.Security. and.Defence.Policy.(ESDP),.the.EGF.can.also.be.made.avail-able. for. international. organisations. such.as.the.UN,.NATO.and.the.OSCE,.or.be.deployed.within.ad.hoc.coalitions.

The. EGF. does. not. have. any. perma-nent. dedicated. forces.. Its. composition. is.determined.according.to.the.missions.and.the. contributions. from. the. five. founding.countries.which.draw.from.a.catalogue.of.capacities.written.up.by. their.own.police.forces.with.a.military.status:.Gendarmerie.nationale,. Guardia. Civil,. Carabinieri,.Guarda.Nacional.Republicana,.Koninkli-jke. Marechaussee,. with. reinforcements.from.identified.partners,.such.as.the.Polish.

gendarmerie.. The. EGF. therefore. has. a.rapid. deployment. capacity. of. 800. men.within.30.days,.with.an.overall. reserve.of.2,300.personnel..Under.the.auspices.of.the.permanent.multinational.headquarters. in.Vicenza,. also. projectable,. of. 30. officers.and.non-commissioned.officers..

The. projected. means. are. in. part.regrouped.within.an.Integrated.Police.Unit.(IPU). integrating. all. the. existing. police.capacities. (legal,. technical. and. scientific,.administrative,. intervention. in. specialised.environments,. protection,. observation.and. investigation).. To. support. this. IPU,.specialised. peacekeeping. units. can. be..constituted.

The. EGF’s. political. and. strategic.management. falls. to.a.European.inter-ministerial. committee. (CIMIN),. gath-ering. the. representatives. of. foreign.affairs. and. defence. ministers. from. the.five. founding. countries.. It. also. coordi-nates. between. the. parties. in. the. crisis.and. contributing. states.. It. sets,. on. a.case.by.case.basis,.the.employment.and.deployment.conditions.through.specific.mandates.for.each.mission.

It. is. in. this. strict. framework. that. the.relief. by. the. EGF. of. the. police. unit.deployed.in.Bosnia.–.dubbed.EUFOR-Althea.–.began.in.November.2007,.with.a.staff.of.about.130..n

(*) Yves-Marie Moray is president; General Claude Gervais is first vice-president; Colonel Philippe Gerbault is vice-president for defence of the CED (Culture, Economie, Défense)

By Yves-Marie Moray, General Claude Gervais and Colonel philippe Gerbault (*)

opEN foruM

European Gendarmerie force, an operational tool for the ESdp



1�

Commonly. referred. to. as. a. ‘mili-tary. Erasmus’,. although. the. European.Commission. does. not. really. want. to.see.the.name.of.its.well-known.student.exchange.programme.hackneyed.in.this.way,. this. initiative. has. a. dual. aim:. “to.give. young. European. officers. the. pos-sibility. to. complete.part. of. their. initial.training. in. another.member. state”. and.“to. strengthen. the. interoperability. of.forces. and. the. capacity. of. European.armies. to. work. together”.. The. idea. is.also,.explained.French.Defence.Minis-ter. Hervé. Morin,. to. promote. a. “Euro-pean. awareness,. so. that. alongside. the.citizenship. proper. to. each. member.state,. there. exists. a. European. citizen-ship,. so. that. we. can. forge. a. European.defence.culture.and,. through.common.training,. improve. the. interoperability.of. the. armed. forces. intervening. in. the.same.theatre.of.operations”.

Some.military.academies.have.already.set.up.bilateral.and.sometimes.multilat-eral. exchange. programmes,. even. going.as. far. as. awarding. joint. degrees.. These.exchanges.are.sometimes.matched.with.the.academies’.membership.of.the.Eras-mus.programme..The.number.of.military.students. involved. is. limited,. however,.owing. to. the. considerable. divergences.that. still. exist. between. member. states’.practices.and.implementing.difficulties.

The. initiative. will. include. three..components:

1.. Creation. of. a common training platform.. A. computerised. platform.containing. the. initial. officer. training.programmes. should. be. created. to. allow.national. training. institutions. to. offer.and.request.places.for.officer.exchanges..This.database.would.be.administered.by.the. Secretariat. of. the. European. Secu-rity. and. Defence. College. (ESDC),.with. data. input. from. the. member..states/institutions.

2..Promotion.of.exchanges of students and teaching staff of.military.schools.and.academies,.for.the.cross-qualification.of.member. states’. officers.. The. aim. is. to.identify.solutions.to.administrative,.legal.and. other. obstacles. to. such. exchanges,.to. work. out. incentive. mechanisms,. to.build. up. exchanges. and. to. develop. an.equivalence. system. for. the. military..component.of.initial.officer.training.

3.. Development. of. common train-ing modules..A.training.module.on.the.European.Security. and.Defence.Policy.is. being. prepared.. Training. modules.should.also.be.developed.in.other.areas.related.to. international.security..Teach-ing. of. European. Union. languages. will.also. be. developed,. in. particular. the.teaching.of.a.second.foreign.language.

Some.15.states.made.more.or.less.pre-cise. offers. at. the. informal. meeting. of.defence.ministers.in.Deauville,.in.early.

October..The.Czech.Republic.proposed.the. inclusion. of. its. defence. summer.university.in.Brno.as.part.of.the.Erasmus.scheme..

Slovakia.proposed.the.participation.of.its. military. academy. and. Hungary. pro-posed. its. national. defence. university..Malta.is.prepared.to.open.up.its.search.and. rescue. training.module. to.Europe-ans.. Greece. requested. the. creation. of.common. modules. in. language. teach-ing.. Ten. other. countries. (Germany,.Austria,.Portugal,.Luxembourg,.Ireland,.Cyprus,.Slovenia,.Poland,.Romania.and.Bulgaria).announced.their.participation.in.one.way.or.another,.according.to.the.French. EU. Presidency.. There. is. one.glaring. absence,. however:. the. United.Kingdom.

A.statement.of.intent.will.be.signed.at.the.Council.of.Ministers,.on.10.Novem-ber.. The. initiative. is. expected. to. take.off. in. 2009. with. two. specific. actions:.the. publication. of. a. common. training.module. on. European. defence. and. the.launch. of. consultations. between. mili-tary.academies.and.schools.for.the.estab-lishment. of. qualification. equivalencies.for.European.military.staff.

This. initiative. primarily. covers. initial.training..The.European.Defence.College.is.competent.for.exchanges.and.training,.even.if. its. functioning.is.still.considered.imperfect. and. is. being. discussed. with. a.view.to.a.revamping..n


offiCEr TraiNiNG

Military Erasmus to commence in 200�

In.the.past.few.years,.Open.Source.Intelligence.(OSINT).has.become.the.target.of.what.could.almost.be.described.as.infatuation. in. both. the. EU.institutions. and. many. of. its.member. states.. OSINT. is.the. ability. of. an. analyst. to.derive. intelligence. with. all.its.added.value.from.informa-tion.gleaned.not. from.secret.

sources.but.from.non-classified.sources..Commercial.sat-ellite.imaging.bought.for.the.Satellite.Centre.in.Tojerron.(EU.SatCen):.OSINT..The.different.surveillance.systems.used.by.the.majority.of.internet.search.engines:.OSINT..The.many.experts,. from.academic.backgrounds.or.not,.publicly.expressing.their.views.on.their.subject.or.being.available.for.interviews:.OSINT.yet.again.

With. the.explosion.of.new. technologies,. information.in.all.its.forms,.true,.false.or.as.is.more.often.the.case,.par-tial.or.biased,.is.growing.at.the.speed.of.light..As.a.result,.everybody.has.access.to.information.which.was.previously.reserved.for.world.powers..But.this.seemingly.easy.access.disguises.another.reality:. to.be.informed.is.not.enough..One.needs.to.be.able.to.validate.and.arrange.the.informa-tion.before.it.can.become.intelligence..It.is.a.process.that.requires.technique,.means.and.time..It.is.the.price.to.be.paid.to.go.from.being.informed.to.being.in.possession.of.intelligence.

OSINT. places. man. at. the. heart. of. the. question. of.intelligence:. the. difference. between. the. two. classifica-tions.depends.as.much.on.the.ability.to.analyse.as.on.the.level.of. information.received,.but.mostly. it.depends.on.the.ability.of.the.user.to.disseminate.and.re-arrange.the.information..OSINT.is.therefore.dependent.on.the.infor-mation.officer’s. ability. to. analyse..Frequently.described.as.representing.80%.or.more.of.the.requirements.of.any.organisation,.OSINT.is.not.in.competition.with.classified.information:.instead,.it.provides.a.vital.complement.for.it.by.allowing.the.rare.available.intelligence.resources.to.be.concentrated.on. the.most. complicated.and.difficult.information.obtainable..Or,.in.other.words,.it.is.the.gen-eral.practitioner.who. is.consulted.before.going. to.see.a.specialist.

OSINT.also. represents. another.key.advantage. for.EU.institutions.. Intelligence. by. its. very. nature. is. considered.to.fall.under.the.sovereignty.of.each.member.state:.based.on. open,. non-classified. and. therefore. non-conflicting.sources,.OSINT.provides.the.institutions.with.the.perfect.platform.to,.quite.legitimately,.initiate.cooperation.in.this.sensitive.domain.between.member.states..And.the.institu-

tions.have.risen.to.the.challenge:.the.number.of.European..projects.over.the.past.two.years.has.multiplied.

One. of. the. first. of. these. projects. being. the. creation,.by.a.group.of.enthusiasts,.of.the.EUROSINT.Forum,.an.association.made.up.of.both.public.and.private.members..Since.2006,.the.association.has.sparked.an.increase.in.the.number.of.exchanges.and.meetings.on.the.subject,.involv-ing.more.than.300.people.from.the.academic.world,.the.private.sector.and.the.different.departments.in.member.states,.the.European.Commission,.the.EU.Council.and.its.agencies.

The.EU.institutions.have.also.been.busy.and.several.public. initiatives. have. been. launched.. The. European.Defence.Agency.(EDA).set.the.ball.rolling.in.2006.with.the.launch.of.a.study.on.the.use.of.OSINT.in.acquiring.military.intelligence..This.initiative.was.followed.by.two.more.programmes.being.launched,.the.first.of.which.is.training-based:.in.2008,.three.two-week.training.sessions.were. organised. for. military. and. civil. representatives.from.EU.member.states.and.institutions.concerned.by.OSINT..Although.initially.intended.for.40.people,.these.training.sessions.met.with.such.success.that.75.people.ended.up. following. them.in.2008.. In. the. light.of. this.success,. the.EDA.has.established.a.more.comprehen-sive.programme.for.2009,.which.will.include.not.only.general. OSINT. training. but. also. specialist. modules.such.as.the.fight.against.proliferation,.anti-terrorism.or.specialist.modules.about.certain.areas.of.the.world..At.the. same. time,. the. EDA. has. also. launched. a. project.to. develop. tools. based. notably. on. OSINT. for. use. by..intelligence.analysts.

This.latest.initiative.is.in.a.similar.vein.to.those.launched.as.part.of.the.European.Research.and.Security.Programme.under.the.7th.Framework.Programme.for.research.and.development. (FP7).. Of. note. is. an. ‘integrated. project’.launched. as. a. second. call. (December. 2008). intended.to.contribute.to.the.development.of.a.platform.to.exploit.open.source.information.for.help.in.making.decisions.

Europe’s. cultural. and. linguistic. diversity. added. to. its.technological. know-how. mean. that. it. has. all. the. tools.required.for.OSINT.to.represent.a.major.advantage.both.in.the.domain.of.internal.and.external.security.as.well.as.that.of.economic.security.

It.can.therefore.legitimately.hope,.in.the.not.too.distant.future,.to.be.able.to.catch.up.with.the.United.States,.which.has.recently.invested.huge.sums.in.OSINT.leading.to.the.creation.of.the.inter-agency.Open.Source.Centre.(OSC),.which.Michael.Hayden,.director.of.the.CIA,.recently.com-mented.has.yielded.“incalculable”.results..When.can.we.expect.a.European.OSC?.n

(*) Axel Dyèvre ([email protected]) is director of CEIS, the European Company for Strategic Intelligence.

By axel dyèvre (*)

opEN foruM

intelligence cooperation: The oSiNT option



[email protected] www.t-systems.com

Secure networks. Secure data. Secure society.With ICT solutions from T-Systems.

Az_Sicherheit_210x297_DefenceDay.indd 1 23.10.2008 14:58:42 Uhr

1� Monday3November2008 N°3630EUROPOLITIcs


Seven. projects. are. currently. on. the.table. to. reinforce. the. capabilities. of.European.armies..

These.may.seem.technical.as.regards.the.proposed.European.army.wanted.by.some,.vilified.by.others..

Nonetheless,. they. reflect. real. needs,.both. on. the. industrial.and. operational. level.(for.operations.in.Chad,.Georgia,. and. Somalia,.for.example)..

The. stakes. are. clear:.EU. member. states.must. be. equipped. with.certain. means. which.match. the. ambitions.they. show. in. terms. of.foreign.policy.and.crisis..management.

StrAtegIc trANSportThe. proposed. Euro-

pean. Air. Transport.Fleet. (EATF). aims. to.constitute,. around. the.Airbus. A400M,. a. fleet.of. common. planes,. allowing. certain.joint. costs. to. be. shared. (maintenance,.for.example)..

Two. complementary. options. have.been. conceived:. constituting. a. multi-national.unit.of.planes.made.available.by. member. states. possessing. A400Ms;.and.a.provision.in.flight.hours.provided.by. member. states. possessing. A400Ms.(arrangements.to.be.defined).

An. initial. core. of. proactive. states.could.create.a.multinational.unit,.pro-posing. degrees. of. cooperation. adapted.to. the. needs. of. other. member. states,.which. would. like. to. acquire. aircraft.without.developing.complete.organisa-tion. (maintenance,. upkeep). or. simply.benefit.from.a.service,.like.a.client.

Several.countries.(Hungary,.Bulgaria,.Italy,.Germany,.France,.Sweden,.Roma-nia,.Spain.and.Portugal). “have. spoken.out.in.favour.of.the.proposal”.based.on.the. future. A400M,. either. through. the.transfer. of. flight. hours. or. the. creation.of.a.multinational.unit.

The.Franco-British. initiative.aims. to.

upgrade.helicopters.–.and.crews.(through.training). –. which. are. not. suitable. for.use. in. foreign. operations,. for. example.in. mountainous. areas. (Afghanistan),..deserts.(Chad).or.at.sea.(Somalia)..

This. initiative. is. original. in. its. insti-tutional. make-up. and. its. functioning..It. is. the. European. Defence. Agency.(EDA). which. is. responsible. for. listing.

the.needs.and.offers.of.each..A.trust.fund,.put.in.place.at.SHAPE,.

within. NATO,. has. received. contri-butions. from. the. UK. (€7.3. million),.France.(€5.million),.Denmark.(€2.mil-lion),. Luxembourg. (€500,000),. and.Finland. (€500,000,. a. sum. that. will. be.doubled,.according.to.Helsinki)..

Lithuania.could.participate..Several.countries.–.the.Czech.Repub-

lic,.Bulgaria,.and.Hungary.in.particular.–.have.stated.that.they.want.to.upgrade.their.helicopters.

Another. proposal,. more. long. term,.aims. to. develop. a. heavy. helicopter.project,. capable. of. overcoming. the..European.lack.compared.to.the.Ameri-can. Chinook. CH47. or. the. Russian.Mi26.

AeroNAvAl cooperAtIoNIt.is.not.a.question.of.creating.a.Euro-

pean.aeronaval.group,.but.of.developing.interoperability.of.European.aeronaval.means,. so. that. they. can. be. available.during.the.operation..

This.aeronaval.capacity.will.be.based.around. aircraft. carriers,. fighter. planes.and.attack.or.rescue.helicopters.able.to.be.boarded,.all.accompanied.by.surface.vessels. (frigates). or. submarines,. with.protection. (equipped. with. cruise. mis-siles),.and.tankers..

The. initiative. firstly. aims. to. ensure.certain. tasks. preliminary. to. engage-

ment:. joint. train-ing,. harmonisation. of.upkeep. programmes.and. units’. activity.and. exchange. of. good..practices..

The. first. practi-cal. applications. are.expected. for. early.2009..

Around. the. four. EU.member. states. which.have. aircraft. carriers.(France,. UK,. Italy. and.Spain),. other. member.states. –. like. Germany.–. could. also. hitch. a.ride,. which. have. addi-tional. vessels. (frigates,.submarines,. boats. and.

tanker.aircraft)..The. military. operation. in. Somalia.

against. the. pirates. could. constitute. a.first.full-size.test.for.this.initiative.

SpAce obServAtIoNIn. the. event. of. a. crisis,. space. infor-

mation. is. essential. to. be. able. to. react.quickly. to. the. reality. of. the. situation..“Recent. military. operations. have,.however,. proved. that. our. information.capacities,.in.particular.space.informa-tion,. are. insufficient,”. say.EU.defence.experts..

Two. initiatives. are. therefore..underway..

One.aims.to.increase.military.sources.of. information. from. the. EU. satellite.centre. in. Torrejon. (Spain). with. the.transfer. of. images. from. the. French.Helios.system,.the.German.SAR.system.and.the.Italian.Cosmo-Skymed.system..

The. other. intends. to. develop.member. states’. space. capacity. around.a.multinational.new.generation.system.(MUSIS)..


CriSiS MaNaGEMENT

Seven capacity projects to reinforce ESdp

© N

GV



1�

The. project. already. involves. six.member.states.(France,.Germany,.Italy,.Belgium,.Greece.and.Spain).and.others.could.join.(Poland)..

The.European.Defence.Agency.must.receive,. by. the. end. of. the. year,. a. pre-cise.mandate.for.the.“search.for.synergy.in.the.field.of.civilian.space.activities,”.particularly.for.the.launch.of.the.study.on.the.“ground.segment”.

mArItIme mINe cleArINgThe. objective. is. to. launch,. in. 2009,.

in. the. framework. of. the. European.Defence. Agency,. preliminary. work. for.the.cooperation.project..Germany,.Bel-gium,. the. Netherlands,. Finland. and.Italy. support. this. project. and. aim. to.clear.their.seas.of.mines.which.hold.in.their. depths. many. unexploded. mines,.particularly. from. the. Second. World.War..

The. Baltic. Sea. and. the. North. Sea.are.particularly. affected..Furthermore,.existing.maritime.mine.clearing.capaci-ties.must.be.replaced.between.2015.and.

2020..Research. and. technology. (R&T).

capacities.remain.low..The.French.EU.Presidency.wants. to.

open.a.debate.on. the. funding.arrange-ments.of.defence.R&T,.put. in.place. a.joint.agenda.which.synchronises.efforts.and.determine.the.balance.to.be.found.between.the.operational.budget.and.the.ad.hoc.projects.within.the.EDA..

A. reflection,. necessary. before. the.adoption.by. the.governing.body.of. the.EDA,.on.10.November,.of.a.‘European.strategy.for.defence.R&T’,.will.involve.action.in.two.fields:

-.Drones:. the. EDA. is. carrying. out. a.project.on.navigability.and.ad.hoc.proj-ects. could. be. developed. like. the. one.proposed.by.Sweden.(MIDCAS)

- Communications by radio:. One.of. the.key.points.during. foreign.opera-tions,.by.continuing. the.Essor.project,.France. proposed. a. new. project. called.CORASMA. (Cognitive. Radio. for.Dynamic.Spectrum.Management).

Between. the. Organisation. for. Joint.

Armaments. Cooperation. (OCCAR),.created. in. 1998. by. the. main. Euro-pean. countries. of. NATO. (France,.Germany,. Italy,. the. United. King-dom,. later. joined. by. Belgium. and.Spain). and. the. EDA,. there. is. an.effort. to. be. made. “to. streamline. and.optimise”. the. system. for. cooperation..programmes..

duplIcAteS muSt be AvoIdedPut. clearly,. duplicates. must. be.

avoided. and. tasks. must. be. distributed:.in. the. EDA,. to. prepare. cooperation.programmes;.in.the.OCCAR,.to.follow.them.up.and.manage.them..

OCCAR. would. therefore. become.the. ‘natural. organisation’. for. carrying.out. cooperation. programmes,. without.exclusivity.and.completely.voluntarily..

Any. EU. member. state. would. there-fore.have.the.right.to.participate.in.the.projects.managed.by.OCCAR..

The. full. agreement. is. scheduled. to..be.signed.on.10.November..n

© N

GV



“Guaranteeing. that. the. European.defence. industry. serves. the. European.Security. and. Defence. Policy. (ESDP). as.well.as.possible”.is.the.aim.of.the.“strategy.for.a.stronger.and.more.competitive.Euro-pean.defence.industry”.that.the.European.Commission. presented. a. year. ago.. Of.course,. this. industry. presents. “particular.characteristics”. and. its. “unique. relation-ship. with. governments”. requires. specific.treatment..But.a. lot.can.still.be.done.“to.fully.free.up.its.potential,”.underlines.the.EU’s.executive.arm..The.defence.package.included. a. strategic. communication. and.two. draft. directives,. one. on. ‘simplifying.the. terms. and. conditions. of. transfers. of.defence-related.products.within.the.Com-munity’. and. the. other. on. ‘the. coordina-tion.of.procedures.for.the.award.of.certain.public.works.contracts,.public.supply.con-tracts. and.public. service.contracts. in. the.fields.of.defence.and.security’..These.two.texts.are.currently.being.discussed.by.EU.legislators.

oNe commuNIcAtIoNIn.its.communication,.the.Commission.

is. very. cautious.. It. takes. care. to. define.what.is.a.‘strategic.activity’.and.a.‘national.interest’,. for. which,. according. to. Article.296.of.the.Treaty,.member.states.maintain.a.stranglehold.and.postpones.this.issue.to.a.study.at.a.later.date..Similarly,.it.postpones.the.need.to.have.a.joint.approach.on.the.protection. of. investments. of. ‘national.interest’.. It. also. calls. on. member. states.to. invest. more. in. research. and. develop-ment. and. work. for. “more. transparency”.in.the.management.of.state.aid.to.defence.industries.

More. precisely,. the. communication.calls.for.compensation.arrangements.to.be.gradually.eliminated..These.arrangements.allow.a.member.state.to.receive.industrial.compensation.(manufacture.of.part.of.the.equipment. sold),.be. that.military.or.civil.(equipment,. roads.etc).when.it. is.buying.defence.equipment.goods..Much.used.by.the.US.and. some.member. states. (eg. the.UK),. the. Commission. believes. that. they.can.cause.distortions.to.the.EU’s.internal.market.because.only.member. states.with.major.industries.can.afford.to.do.it..Even.

Germany,. says. a. source.close. to. the.dos-sier,.does.not.have.a.large.enough.industry.to.afford.such.compensation.

The. Commission. therefore. hopes. to.facilitate. the. opening. of. external. markets.to.European.companies..The.US. is.men-tioned.in.particular.but.India.and.China.are.also.implicitly.targeted..The.US.market.is.currently.very.closed,.in.particular.because.

of.the.International.Traffic.in.Arms.Regula-tions.(ITAR),.which.ban.the.development.of.civil.or.military.products.based.on.a.US.technology,.even.an.old.one.

trANSferS Based. on. Article. 95. (single. market),.

adoptable.by.qualified.majority.in.co-deci-sion. with. the. European. Parliament,. the.directive. on. transfers. is. designed. to. har-monise. the. legislative. framework. appli-cable. to.what.are.most.commonly.called.export. licences. for. security. and. defence.weapons. and. equipment. goods. within.the.EU.only.(exporting.outside.the.EU.is.not.covered)..The.Commission.has.opted.for.a.very.supple.and.very.flexible.frame-work,.leaving.member.states.considerable.margin.for.manoeuvre.

Three. types. of. licences. are. being. pro-posed,. from. the. most. open. to. the. most.closed:. . general,. global. and. individual.licences.

•.The general licence. is.meant. for. the.least. sensitive. products,. sold. to. certified.companies.or.European.armies.(examples:.electricity.generators,.night.vision.goggles,.various.components)..The.list.of.products.open.for.this.licence.will.be.freely.set.at.the.national.level.by.each.member.state,.based.on.joint.and.existing.lists.(in.particular.the.Wassenaar.Convention).with.the.possibility.of.including.products.with.similar.objectives.that.are.not.on.these.lists..Each.national.list.

will.have.to.be.made.public.and.notified.to.the.Commission..The.Commission.hopes.that.member.states.will.put.the.same.prod-ucts,. at. least. in.part,. on. their. 27.national.lists,.to.facilitate.the.standardisation.of.the.market.

•. The. global licence. concerns. more.sensitive.goods..It.will.be.handed.out.by.a.member.state.on.demand.from.a.company.for.one.or.several.products,.one.or.several.recipients,. tightly. defined.. The. member.state.will.define. the.conditions. for.hand-ing.out.this.licence.in.a.fairly.free.manner..It.is.worth.noting.that.some.countries.(eg.France).have.already.put.in.place.such.a.licence.while.others.(eg.Spain.and.Hun-gary). have. not.. The. Commission’s. aim.here.is.to.offer.a.general.framework.

•. The. individual licence. is. reserved.for. very. sensitive. products,. meant. for.export. from.one.body. (public.or.private).to.another.within.the.EU,.justified.by.the.member.state.in.terms.of.national.interest.(Article.296.of.the.EC.Treaty).

In. addition,. the. Commission. backed.the. cooperation. that. has. already. begun.by. the. six. biggest. producers. of. defence.equipment.goods.(UK,.France,.Germany,.Italy,. Spain. and. Sweden),. known. by. the.acronym. LOI. (letter. of. intent),. which.use. a. voluntary. code. of. cooperation. for..transfers.

A.system.of.recognition.of.certification.is.being.put.in.place,.designed.to.ensure.the.member.state.of.origin.that.the.company.receiving.the.equipment.is.trustworthy..It.will.be.up.to.the.receiving.member.state.to.ensure.that.companies.are.certified,.on.the.basis.of.ten.or.so.common.criteria.(for.example:. the.reputation.of. the.company,.previous.authorisations,.industrial.activity.concerned,. the.presence.of. an. identified.responsible. party,. a. written. commitment.by. the. company. to. respect. certain. rules,.transfer.verification.procedures,.etc)..This.system.will.be.accompanied.by.a.safeguard.clause:.the.member.state.of.origin.will.be.able.to.stop.the.transfer,.if.it.has.a.doubt,.after. consulting. the. receiving. member.state.

When. it. re-exports. a. good. outside.the. EU,. the. receiving. company. has. the.responsibility. to. prove. to. the. third. party.that.it.has.no.limitation.from.the.member.state.of.origin.for.this.re-export.


This industry presents “particular

characteristics” and its “unique relationship with

governments” requires specific treatment

dEfENCE MarkETS

Commission wants to facilitate movement of defence goods



21

Member.states.will.be.given.three.years.to. implement. the. directive:. 18. months.to. transpose. it. into. national. law. and. 18.extra.months.of. adaptation. for. the.appli-cation.of.all. the.rules..A.review.clause. is..envisaged.five.years.later.

publIc teNderSThe.draft.directive.is.designed.to.open.

up. defence. markets. to. some. competi-tion..Given.the.sensitivity.of.these.mar-kets,. the. adjudicating. power. neverthe-less.retains.certain.powers..It.can.use.the.negotiated. procedure. with. publication.in. advance. as. a. standard. procedure.. It.can. also. demand. from. bidders. specific.clauses. for. security. of. information. (to.guarantee.the.confidentiality.of.sensitive.

information). and. for. security. of. supply.(to. guarantee. delivery. in. the. required.time.in.the.event.of.a.crisis).

The.principles.of.the.treaty,.in.particu-lar.transparency,.non-discrimination.and.openness,.will.have. to.be. implemented.in. security. and. defence. markets.. Use.of. Article. 296. will. be. limited. to. really.exceptional.cases,.as.the.Treaty.and.the.European.Court.of.Justice.stipulate.

Currently,. defence. markets. theoreti-cally. come. under. the. field. of. applica-tion. of. rules. for. public. tenders,. set. by.Directive. 2004/18.. But. that. is. subject.to. two. exceptions. –. Article. 14. of. the.directive. allows. for. these. rules. to. be.sidestepped. and. Article. 296. of. the. EC.Treaty.envisages.a.general.exception.for.public. tenders. for. “reasons. of. national.security”.. In. practice,. the. Commission.has.noted,.member.states.“systematically.invoke. these. two.articles. to. remove. the.large. majority. of. military. tenders. from.Community.law,.even.for.sensitive.non-military. security. products,”. whose. eco-nomic. importance. is. growing..The.EU.Court.of.Justice.has.not.accepted.such.a..general.exception..n

dEfENCE MarkETS

Verheugen on strategic independence

For. EU. Industry. Commissioner.Günter. Verheugen,. development. is.necessary..The.restrictions.that.we.have.(on.defence.goods).“date.from.the.Cold.War”..“The.time.has.come.to.have.a.true.industrial. base. which. would. be. more.than. the. sum. of. national. industries.”.“It. is. a. question. of. defending. Europe’s.strategic.independence..[…].Not.to.live.in. autarchy.. Autonomy. is. the. power. to.make.our.decisions.independently,.with-out.foreign.influence,.not.just.from.the.USA,.but.other.countries.too.”.“We.must.concentrate. on. key. technologies,. avoid.duplicates.and.crosschecking.”

Cooperation.with.the.USA:.“We.are.in.a. completely. disproportionate. market..The.American.market.is.almost.inacces-sible. to. European. industries.. But. until.now,.member.states.and.European.indus-tries.have.not.wanted.to.have.a.policy.of.reprisals.. If.we.had.wanted. to.do. it,.we.could. not. have.”. “Because. we. depend.

on.American.products.in.numerous.sec-tors.”.With.our.system,”.he.maintained,.

“dependence.on.the.USA.should,.if.not.disappear,.decrease.considerably”.

Certain.aspects.have.been.deliberately.avoided..“We.are.leaving.aside.the.ques-

tion. of. transfers. [of. defence. equip-ment]. abroad.. That. would. serve. no.purpose..Member.states.are.incapable.of. being. organised. at. Community.level.. Moreover,. that. falls. under. the.second.pillar..Perhaps.we.should.wait,.to. notch. up. our. first. positive. actions.before. going. further,”. explained. Ver-heugen.

The. draft. presented. by. the. Euro-pean.Commission.is.“less.ambitious”.than.originally.planned..“It.was.clear.that.a.draft.regulation.would.not.pass.the. Council.”. This. is. why. the. direc-tive.was.set.out..Likewise,.the.notion.of. intra-Community. transfer. is. less.broad. than. planned.. Finally,. on. the.assets. [compensation. arrangements],.though. “this. process. seems. undesir-able. to. me,. we. have. no. legal. solu-tion”.. “Even. industry. tells. us:. ‘“we.

don’t.like.that,.but.please,.please.don’t.take.it.away.from.us!”.n


figuresTheEuropeandefenceindustryhasanannualturnoverofover55billioneuro.It represents around 30% of worldproductionandemploysover300,000people. Defence budgets have beencutbyaroundhalfsincetheendoftheColdWarand,withbudgetsastightastheyare,areunlikelytoincrease.Between2000and2004,only13%ofdefence equipment contracts of theEU15werepublishedintheEU’sOfficialJournal, the figures varying between2%(Germany)and24%(France).

BackgroundArticle296-1oftheTreatya. No member state shall be obligedto supply information the disclosureof which it considers contrary to theessentialinterestsofitssecurityb.Anymemberstatemaytakesuchmea-sures as it considers necessary for theprotection of the essential interests of itssecurity which are connected with theproductionofor trade inarms,munitionsandwarmaterial;suchmeasuresshallnotadverselyaffecttheconditionsofcompeti-tioninthecommonmarketregardingprod-uctswhicharenotintendedforspecificallymilitarypurposes.

verheugen: “A draft regulation would not pass the council”

© C

E

On the eve of France’s Presidency of the EU, the country’s Defence Minister, Hervé Morin, set out his priorities for the next six months to journalists in Paris in June.An EU with 27 countriesI.have.been.able.to.meet.all.my.counter-parts. (in. their. countries. or. during. inter-national. meetings).. I. have. come. out. of.this.general.consultation.with.a.feeling.of.optimism..Contrary.to.what.many.believe,.countries. usually. considered. pro-NATO.are. today. the. keenest. supporters. of. the.European.defence.policy..And.the.consen-sus.reached.on.our.proposals.bodes.well.Europe of defence and NATONicolas. Sarkozy’s. position. on. NATO. was.the.key.to.moving.things.forward..As.long.as.the.Europe.of.defence.was.considered.to.be.a.way.of.avoiding.NATO,.we.were.not.making.progress..Through.this.gesture,.we.have. lifted. a. part. of. the. doubt. that. some.member. states. had. over. the. Europe. of.defence..After.my.meetings.with.my.coun-terparts,.I.have.emerged.convinced.that,.for.most.of.our.partners,.the.Atlantic.Alliance.is.a.security.system.which.suits.them,.which.is.not.expensive,.and.which.has.proved.itself.since.1949..And.that,.for.them,.is.worth.all.the. rest.. This. idea. of. complementarity. is.therefore.fundamental.Military capacitiesWe.have.to.enhance.the.pooling.of.our.resources.. There. is. the. implementa-tion.of. joint.maintenance.of. the.Airbus.A400M. with. the. UK. (100%). and. Ger-many.(partially.involved),.and.Spain.has.just. joined. us.. It. is. important. for. us. to.keep.this.joint.potential.for.40.years.and.to. not. have. differences. of. opinion. over.the. years. [like. for. Transall. -. Ed].. We.also. want. to. begin. work. toward. a. joint.European.air.fleet,.like.for.the.C17,.with.drawing. rights. for. participating. coun-tries..As.for.air.and.sea,.why.not.have.an.aircraft.carrier.permanently.stationed.at.sea.which.remains.under.the.operational.authority.of.the.owner.state.but.which.is.at. the. disposal. at. EU. level. (formalised.in. a. treaty. if. necessary)?. There. is. also.the. creation. of. a. trust. fund. to. upgrade.the. helicopter. fleet,. particularly. those.

in.Central.Europe,.and.therefore.attain.additional. capacities.. Finally,. with. the.launch.of.the.post-Helios.satellite.opera-tion,. and. eight. countries. which. partici-pate.in.it,.we.can.make.progress.on.topics.such.as.space,.a.European.early.warning.or.missile.detection.system.European Defence AgencyThe.EDA.must.find.a.new.breath.of.life.and.impetus,.with.the.launch.of.research.programmes,.which.progressively.lead.us.toward.joint.European.programmes,.like.

urban. security. and. heavy. helicopters….It. is. also. evident. that. it. must. benefit.from.a.multi-year.budget..Europe.spends.seven.times.less.money.on.research.and.development.than.the.USA..And.70%.of.this.expenditure.is.funded.by.France.and.the.UK..There.is.a.risk.of.a.considerable.technological.gap..We.are.therefore.inter-ested.in.pooling.our.resources,.which.are.already.weaker.than.America’s.Pooling of forcesWe. have. several. international. forces..But. all. these. forces. are. almost. never.deployed..We.have,.for.example,.a.Euro-corps. headquarters. of. 1,000. equipped.and. trained. men,. who. want. nothing.more.than.to.be.deployed,.but.they.never.are….That.could.have.been.a. formida-ble.force.in.Chad..We.therefore.need.to.be.able.to.use.these.tools.more.naturally.for.generating.forces..Another.problem.is.the.GT1500.battle.group,.whose.engage-ment.rules.need.to.be.revised..With.the.rules. as. they. stand,. these. groups. can.never.be.used..They.must.be.relaxed.Defence strategyIt.is.not.only.an.intellectual.exercise,.it.is.part.of.our.joint.European.knowledge..It.is.therefore.a.major.exercise..We.have.a.common.future,.we.have. to.ensure.our.common.security..Faced.with.threats.that.we. have. defined,. we. have. to. take. into.account. the.consequences.on.resources.and. capacities.. The. situation. has.changed.in.comparison.to.2003..We.only.

had.15.member.states.and.now.we.have.27.. There. are. additional. risks:. nuclear.proliferation,.cyber.attacks.(a.real.risk.for.people,. in. hospitals,. for. example),. and.powerful. terrorist. networks.. Our. cities.are. more. vulnerable. today. than. they.were.during.the.Cold.War.European Command CentreWe. do. not. aim. to. create. an. operation.command.centre.like.NATO..It.is.simply.a. question. of. having. 50. or. so. officers,.capable. of. leading. a. robust. but. modest.operation.. There. is. no. duplication. with.NATO..Because.sometimes.Europe.is.the.only.one.capable.of. leading.certain.mis-sions,. in.Africa,. for. example….We.have.to.do.everything.so.that.it.has.the.capacity.to.do.so..Having.five.operation.command.centres,.like.at.the.moment,.does.not.just.have.a.cost..It.also.presents.practical.dif-ficulties..They.have. to.be.equipped.and.staffed,.which.takes.time..Then.each.one.must. get. used. to. working. together.. And.the. day. that. the. operation. ends,. each.one. disperses. and. we. lose. a. part. of. the.jointly.acquired.skills..While.it.would.be.so.simple,.and.less.costly,.to.have.one.of.these.centres.in.Brussels….Finally,.there.is. no. coherence. with. the. battle. groups..Europe.has.a.rapid.reaction.force,.capable.of. leaving.within.a. few.days..But. it.does.not.have.a.command.centre.which.can.be.mobilised.in.the.same.timeframe.Consequences of the Irish ‘no’France’s. priorities. are. not. linked. to. the.Lisbon.Treaty..It.is.certainly.not.possible.to.carry.out.structured.cooperation..But.we.cannot.say.that.everything.stops..It.is.rather.the.climate.that’s.changing..There.are.two.ways.to.react:.either.depression,.or,.on.the.contrary,.we.tell.ourselves.that.we.can.do.as.much.as.possible..My.frame.of.mind.falls.into.the.second.category.If the Lisbon Treaty comes into force, con-tent of permanent structured cooperationWhy.not.a.general.armament.delegation.at.European.level,.a.programme.to.rein-force.capacities.and.joint.research,.a.joint.forces.organisation?.But.this.cooperation.will.only.work.between.countries.which.have.the.same.ambition.and.talk.the.same.language.. It. must. not. be. an. additional.structure.but.an.additional.ambition..n


fraNCE’S dEfENCE MiNiSTEr HErVé MoriN

defence plans moving ahead despite irish ‘no’

France’s priorities are not linked to the

Lisbon Treaty





2�

The.Czechs.do.not.plan.to.highlight.the. European. Security. and. Defence.Policy. (ESDP). during. their. six-month.Presidency. of. the. European. Union..Defence. is. not. a. “top. priority,”. Czech.Defence. Ministry. spokesman. Andrej.Cirtek. told. Europolitics. He. also.reviewed. the. subjects. now. before. the.ministers.and.set.to.be.discussed.on.10.November.

“The. slogan. of. our. Presidency. is.‘Europe. without. barriers’.. We. want. a.competitive.and.open.Europe..Our.pri-orities. are. energy. security,. the. budget.for. Europe’s. future,. freedom. of. move-ment.and.Europe.as.a.global.partner,”.explained. Andrej. Cirtek.. Asked. about.defence. policy,. he. confirmed. that.“defence. is. first. and. foremost. the. role.of.NATO,.which. is.a.key.organisation..A.transatlantic.security.link.needs.to.be.built..That.is.what.we.prefer”.

Certain. missions. can. be. shared. as.part. of. cooperation. with. NATO.. “But.there. mustn’t. be. any. dogmatic. rule..We. should. keep. a. practical. approach..Every. situation. is. different.. Look. at.Kosovo:. there. is. a. military. mission. on.one. side. and. a. police. and. justice. mis-sion. on. the. other.. And. everyone. is..working.hand.in.hand.”

koSovo ANd AfghANIStANThe. Czech. EU. Presidency. does. not.

plan. to. go. back. on. actions. already.under. way,. however.. “We. want. to.continue. the. actions. taken. by. the.Presidency,.notably. the.2010.headline.goals.. We. also. support. missions. such.as. EULEX. in. Kosovo. and. EUFOR. in.Chad.”. The. Czech. presence. in. Chad.is.“symbolic”.and.is.likely.to.remain.so.in.2009,.but.not.due.to.any.underlying.“political. reason”.. The. Czech. Repub-lic. is. “simply. a. small. country,. with. a.small. army.. We. are. already. engaged.in. Kosovo. and. Afghanistan.. And. we.cannot. have. a. significant. presence. in.Africa.”.The.Czech.Republic.has.“500.men.in.Kosovo,.600.in.Afghanistan.and.a.few.trainers.in.Iraq”..Out.of.an.army.of. 25,000. soldiers,. 900. are. deployed.

and. 1,300. will. be. deployed. next. year..That.represents.between.4%.and.5%.of.its.strength..For.the.future.UN.mission.in.Chad,.the.Czech.Republic.“encour-ages. the. member. states. to. participate,.but.for.these.reasons.cannot.send.troops.itself”.

In. Bosnia,. the. Czech. Republic. has.concluded. its. Althea. mission.. It. had.

been. on. location. with. the. UNPRO-FOR. since. 1993.. “It. is. almost. time. to.transform. this.military.mission. into.an.advisory. and. police. mission.. That. will.depend. on. the. evaluation. we. receive..The. objective. of. stability. in. Bosnia.has. to. be. kept. in. mind.. We. also. have.to.build.consensus.among.all.the.states.and. determine. what. Bosnia. needs:.training,. advisory. services,. educa-tion.”. Cirtek. adds. that. “Europe. has.to. be. ready. to. deploy. quickly,. with.another. strong. mission,. because. the.Balkans. may. need. it.. We. have. to. be..prepared.for.anything”.

INduStrIAl prAgmAtISmRegarding. industrial. cooperation,.

the. Czech. Republic. is. interested. in. a.number.of.sectors,.but.here.too.the.key.word. is. “pragmatism”.. For. example,.“we. need. strategic. transport. means.for. Afghanistan.. But. we. can’t. buy. an.Airbus. A400M. just. for. that.. And. we.prefer.to.have.flight.time.”.The.Czechs.are. therefore. “interested”. in. the. proj-ect. (discussed. at. the. informal.meeting.in.Deauville,.on.1.October).of.sharing.these. aircraft.. But. they. are. waiting. to.know. more. about. it.. “We. will. decide.once. the. acquisition. price. and. the.shared. costs. are. known.”. This. same.sense. of. pragmatism. is. also. the. rule.for.the.NATO.project.of.sharing.C17s..

“We. are. not. very. enthusiastic. because.the. price. is. too. high. compared. to. the.SALIS. programme’s. flight. time. (leas-ing.of.Antonovs).or.direct.contacts.with.Ukrainian. companies”. [Ukraine. has. a.lot. of. heavy. air. means,. inherited. from.the.ex-USSR.-.Ed].

On.the.helicopter.modernisation.ini-tiative,. the. Czech. Republic. is. both. in.demand. of. helicopter. modernisation.and.a.supplier.of.modernisation.capaci-ties.. “Like. the. other. East. European.countries,.we.have.a.lot.of.Russian-made.helicopters.. Good. machines,. with. a.reliable.engine,.but.they.need.moderni-sation.in.terms.of.embedded.electronic.systems.. [...]. The. Czech. Republic. has.capabilities,.with.the.firm.LOM,.which.has. a. long. tradition. of. repairing. and.modernising. these. helicopters.. We. are.making.this.capacity.available. to.other.countries.. A. feasibility. study. is. being.conducted. by. the. European. Defence.Agency.”. More. generally,. the. Czech.Republic. is. pushing. for. “more. inclu-sion. of. SMEs. in. the. defence. industry..A.seminar. should.be.held.on. that. sub-ject.during.the.Presidency”..Of.course,.it. supports. the.“opening.up.of.defence.markets,”.in.line.with.the.draft.directive.currently. being. debated. in. Council,.but.certain.operating.facilities.must.be.preserved,.such.as.“being.able.to.award.a.contract.directly.to.a.firm.in.an.emer-gency”..“For.example,.on.an.operation,.we. sometimes. have. to. buy. vehicles. or.protective. equipment. very. fast.”. Such.facilities.should.only.be.available.“with.real.justification,”.however.

Finally,. the. Czech. Republic. sup-ports. the.reform.of. the.Athena.mecha-nism.for. financing.military.operations..“This. idea. of. sharing. the. costs. of. cer-tain. operations. is. logical.. It. would. no.doubt. motivate. the. small. countries.to. participate. more. in. operations. or.the. battle. groups”.. The. discussion.on. extending. battle. group. missions.“must. continue”.. Most. importantly,.the.“financial.barriers. to. this.use.must.be. removed”.. The. battle. groups. con-cept. is. “sound”.. The. Czech. Republic.plans.to.take.up.its.tour.of.duty.with.the..Slovaks.in.the.latter.half.of.2009..n


“Our priorities are energy security, the budget for

Europe’s future, freedom of movement and Europe

as a global partner”

CzECH prESidENCY

defence no priority for prague

EUROPOLITICSTHE EUROPEAN AFFAIRS DAILY

www.europolitics.info

The centrepiece of EU news

Subscription order form to be returned by fax or mail to: EUROPOLITICSRue d’Arlon 53 / B-1040 Brussels or by fax to: +32 (0)2 732 67 57

GETTING TO KNOW YOU BETTER… ❏ Yes, I would like to subscribe to EUROPOLITICS daily: ❏ 6 MONTHS, 112 issues (paper version) + unlimited online access at the price of €890 (1). ❏ 1 YEAR, 223 issues (paper version) + unlimited online access at the price of €1,700 (1). ❏ 6 MONTHS, 112 issues (PDF + html) at the price of €765 (1). ❏ 1 YEAR, 223 issues (PDF + html) at the price of €1,450 (1). I would like to receive Europolitics in: ❏ French ❏ English

❏ I would like to receive a free issue of EUROPOLITICS daily in: ❏ French ❏ English

First name:.......................................................................................................................... Last name: ..........................................................................................................................................................

Organisation: ........................................................................................................................... Activity: ..........................................................................................................................................................

Job title: ................................................................................................ VAT: ❏ No ❏ Yes: N° ...........................................................................................................................................................

Address:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Post code: .....................................................................................City: ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................

Country: .....................................................................................................................................................................................................

Phone: ..............................................................................................Fax: ..............................................................................................

E-mail: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................

AP08

Please pay upon receipt of your invoice. If the invoice address is different from the delivery address, please indicate it. Note that any cancellation (no e-mail admitted) must be sent at least one month prior to the expiry date. One year subscription will automatically be renewed.(1) Excluding VAT but including postal charges. Offer reserved to new subscribers. For multi-user licences and special discounts, please contact us. Missing information in the order form will unfortunately not be registered. In order to keep you informed of our activities, your details will be stored on EIS’s fi les,Rue d’Arlon 53, B-1040 Brussels. Pursuant to the law, you are free to access this information, request correc-tions and consult the Register of the Committee for the Protection of Privacy. Any subscription implies for the subscriber the full acceptance of general sales conditions available at www.europolitics.info.

HELP US GET TO KNOW YOU BETTER…YOUR ACTIVITY❏ Embassy❏ EU institution❏ Association, federation, trade union, NGO❏ Research, scientifi c institute, university❏ Chamber of commerce ❏ Media and communication❏ Consultant, lawyer ❏ Ministry and national government❏ Enterprise❏ Mission, EU representation ❏ Finance, bank, insurance❏ Other: ............................................

YOUR INTERESTS❏ Agro-industry and agriculture❏ SMEs❏ Competition❏ General EU policy❏ Consumers❏ EU-third countries’ relations❏ Energy ❏ Science and research❏ Environment ❏ Security and defence❏ Finance, taxation and economy ❏ Social policy and employment❏ Industries and corporate ❏ Information society❏ Justice and home affairs ❏ Transport ❏ Media❏ Other: ............................................

Date and signature:

NEw daNGErS

The approaching revision of European security strategy

Developed. in. 2003,. the. European. security. strat-egy.reflects.a.dated.environment:. the.Balkans.crisis.and.the.end.of.the.Cold.War.. The. December.2007. European. Coun-cil. called. for. a. revision.of. the.strategy.as.a.cool-headed. updating. exer-cise,.reviewing.both.new.threats. and. the. neces-sity.of. strengthening. the.Union’s. military. and.civilian.capabilities..

But.the.crisis.in.Geor-gia,.with.Russia’s.will. to.play.a.more.assertive.role.on. the. European. and.world. scene,. requires. a.revision.that.is.more.sen-sitive. and. strategic,. par-ticularly. because. it. has.to. be. conducted. under.heat.

The.strategy.has.“proved.its.worth,”.explains.Javier.Solana,. the. high. representative. for. the. Common.Foreign. and. Security. Policy.. The. threats. described.in. 2003. -. terrorism,. organised. crime,. proliferation.of. weapons. of. mass. destruction,. regional. conflicts.and. decline. of. states. -. “have. not. disappeared”.. On.the. contrary,. the. proliferation. of. weapons. of. mass.destruction. has. “increased”. in. the. Middle. East,. for.example..But.the.“context.has.changed.since.2003”..The.“world.that.surrounds.us.is.changing.fast”..Some.issues.like.climate.change,.energy.security.and.cyber.security. are. “much. more. topical,”. in. the. same. way.as.the.destabilising.consequences.of.migratory.move-ments. and. natural. disasters.. “They. deserve. more..attention.”.

The. problems. are. more. inter-connected.. Organ-ised.crime,.illegal.immigration,.the.threat.to.maritime.safety.and.terrorism.are.all.fed.by.regional.conflicts.and.vice.versa.

The.EU’s.response.“must.be.more.coherent.than.it.is.today”..

At. the.same. time,. it. is.equally.vital,.notes.a.docu-ment.presented. to. the.defence.ministers. in.Septem-ber,.to.continue.enjoying.the.support.of.citizens.for.the.Union’s.action..

Three. ground. rules. are. proposed. for..revision.of.the.security.strategy:-.continue.to.contribute.to.an.effective.multilateral.system,.“working.with.the.emerging.powers,”.so.that.they.“will.assume.more.responsibilities,”.for.exam-ple.on.climate.change.and.climate.security-.pursue.implementation.of.a.“solid.and.peaceful.neigh-bourhood”.by.“putting.more.effort. into.dispute.settle-ment.and.combating.instability”..This.implies.greater.anticipation,.the.coordination.of.European.action.and.strengthening. of. the. capabilities. of. the. countries. or.regional.organisations.concerned-. tackle. threats. at. the. source.. The. EU.“must. have. the. capacity. and. the. politi-cal. will. to. intervene. effectively. and. to..promote.long-term.stability”.

The. ‘jumbo’.Foreign.Affairs.and.Defence.Council,.scheduled. for. 10. November,. ahead. of. the. European.Council. on. 11. December,. could. proceed. with. final.adoption.of.this.document..n




2�



Against. the. backdrop. of. political. crisis,. the.European.Council.of.December.2003.adopted.the. European. security. strategy. (ESS). that. the.high. representative. of. the. European. Union.for. the. Common. Foreign. and. Security. Policy.(CFSP). proposed. to. it.. It. was. a. bold. move..The.deep-seated.differences.of.opinion.on.Iraq.were. still. echoing. across. Europe. as. the. Euro-pean.Union.prepared. for.a.major.enlargement.five.months.later..But.that.was,.as.Javier.Solana.pointed. out1,. without. taking. into. account. the.dynamism.of.the.CFSP.

Now. at. 27. member. states. and. in. a. state. of.great. uncertainty. following. Ireland’s. refusal. to.ratify. the. Lisbon. Treaty,. Europe. is. wondering.about.the.relevance.of.its.security.strategy..The.French. Presidency. of. the. EU. intends. to. carry.out.an.update.of.the.European.security.strategy,.as.was.decided.in.December.2007..This.is.not,.however,. about. developing. a. European. white.paper. but,. less. ambitiously,. about. proposing.“elements.on.how.to.improve.the.implementa-tion. and,. as. appropriate,. elements. to. comple-ment. it”,. according. to. the. conclusions. of. the.European.Council.of.14.December.2007..The.conclusions. of. the. mandate. entrusted. to. the.high. representative. could. also. serve. broader.political. designs. such. as. giving. the. ‘Europe.of.defence’.new.impetus.and.bringing.Europeans.together.around.a.concrete.project.

The.aim. is. to.be. in.a.position. to.present,.by.December,.a.European.security.strategy.together.with.an.additional.document. to.be.adopted.by.the.next.European.Council.. In.particular,. it. is.about.renewing.the.joint.analysis.of.threats.(over.a. ten-year. horizon). and. learning. lessons. from.its. implementation,. based. on. which. defence.capacities.and.measures.to.strengthen.the.CFSP.will.be.defined.

The. 2003. security. strategy. was. designed. to.provide.a.first.joint.doctrinal.pillar.and.thereby.confirmed.a.wish. to. affirm. the.EU.as. a.global.player.called.on.“to.take.on.its.share.of.respon-sibility. in. international. security,”. according. to.a. speech. by. Solana. at. a. European. Movement.event. in. France,. on. 24. May. 2004.. The. strate-gic.concept. that. the.document.outlines. is.very.much. set. within. an. overall. approach. of. crisis.management..It.prioritises.the.use.of.civil-mili-tary. tools. and. multilateral. cooperation.. This.conception.compensates.for.the.main.weakness.

of.European.defence.a.highly.constrained.mili-tary.system.by.proposing.a.coherent.strategy.that.takes.account.of.that.

Nonetheless,. geopolitical. trends. in. recent.years.of.which.the.main.characteristic.is.uncer-tainty. call. for. new. threats. to. be. taken. into.account.. The. ESS. had. initially. identified. five.main. threats:. terrorism,. the. proliferation. of.weapons.of.mass.destruction,.regional.conflicts,.rogue. states. and. organised. crime.. While. the.document.also.refers.to.regulating.globalisation.and. competition. for. natural. resources. as. chal-lenges. for. the. EU,. it. is. also. necessary. to. add.threats.that.have.recently.grown.in.importance.issues.related.to.immigration.and.cyber.attacks.in.particular..It.is.also.envisaged.that.it.will.refer.to.new.threats.such.as.from.climate.change.and.energy.security.

But. it. is. in. the. areas. of. ‘Strategic. objectives.of. the. Union’. and. ‘Political. implications. for.Europe’. where. the. current. work. on. recasting.the. ESS. will. have. to. show. political. sense. and.concrete.progress..Facing.up.to.threats.currently.defined,. building. security. in. the. neighbour-hood.of.the.European.area,.founding.the.inter-national.order.on.multilateralism,.pursuing.the.objectives. aimed. for.more.actively,.developing.capacities,. defining. methods. of. cooperation.with. international. partners. almost. all. of. these.already.appear.in.the.initial.text..It.will.be.more.about. deepening. its. content. than. giving. the.CFSP.new.objectives.and.more.about.defining.new.partnership. arrangements.. It. is. very. likely.to.be.on.the.issue.of.the.nature.of.relations.with.Russia. where. the. debates. are. the. most. sensi-tive..Recent.disagreements.between.EU.foreign.affairs. ministers. on. whether. to. relaunch. nego-tiations. with. Russia. on. a. strategic. partnership.underline. the. difficulty. of. getting. a. consensus.on.this.issue.

Five. years. after. the. launch. of. the. first. EU.crisis. management. mission. (the. police. opera-tion.in.Bosnia-Herzegovina.EUPM.-.in.2003),.it.is.important.to.give.the.CFSP.a.more.solid.joint.doctrinal.pillar..In.the.medium.term,.it.will.not.be.able. to.have.a.coherent.range.of.operations.without.a.real.strategic.reference.document..n

(*) Olivier Hubac ([email protected]) is a consultant in the department for strategic analysis at CEIS, the European Company for Strategic Intelligence (1) ‘Stratégie de sécurité de l’Union européenne, Revue Défense Nationale’, May 2004

By olivier Hubac (*)

opEN foruM

whither the update of Europe’s security strategy?



2�

Observers.will.undoubtedly.have.noted.that.the.issue.of.the.physical.security.of.vital.infrastructures.in.the.energy.sector.is.absent.both.in.the.conclusions.of.the.European. Council,. held. on.15-16. October. in. Brussels,.and. the. road. map. on. Euro-pean. energy. security,. which.is. annexed. to. them.. How-ever,.as. recently.emphasised.by. the. Dutch. MP. Jos. van.Gennip.to.the.NATO.Parlia-mentary. Assembly,. “attacks.against.vulnerable.and.poorly.defended. energy. infrastruc-tures. are. now. regarded. as.perhaps. the. most. effective.means.of.directly.impacting”.not. just. importer. countries.but. also. producer. countries.and,. via. them,. their. energy.customers.

The. EU27’s. strategic. sup-plies.originate.from.and.tran-sit. via. a. series. of. countries.outside.the.European.Union.(EU),. countries. which. do.not. always. display. all. the.guarantees.in.terms.of.politi-cal. stability. and. immunity.from. terrorism-related. risks.. The. fol-lowing. have. thus. been. mentioned:. the.realisation. of. the. ‘Mediterranean. elec-tric. ring’,. connections. with. new. part-ners. from. South-East. Europe. (Croatia,.Bosnia-Herzegovina,. Serbia,. Montene-gro,. the. former. Yugoslav. Republic. of.Macedonia,.Albania,.Romania,.Bulgaria.and. the.UN.Mission. to.Kosovo).united.with. the. EU. within. the. Energy. Com-munity,. or. even. energy. partnerships.to. be. constructed. with. the. countries.in. the. Caspian. Sea. region. and. Africa..The. European. Programme. for. Criti-cal. Infrastructure. Protection. (EPCIP),.accepted. by. the. European. Council. on.17.December.2004,.does.not,.moreover,.ignore.this.external.dimension..But.it.is.also. true. that. such. an. external. strategy.poses. a. string. of. questions. associated.with.cooperation.likely.to.be.established.with.these.third.countries,.from.the.pos-session. of. a. suitable. European. military.

tool.to.the.coordination.of.missions.with.NATO,. which. have. not. yet. received. a.proper.response.

However,.the.European.Council.could.at.least.have.referred.to.the.protection.of.its.own. sensitive. infrastructures..For.all.

that,.the.Union.has.not.remained.indif-ferent,.specifically.via.the.EPCIP,.to.the.physical. security. of. its. infrastructures.for. production. (nuclear. thermal. power.plants,. dams,. liquid. gas. plants),. trans-port. (gas. pipelines,. oil. pipelines,. high.voltage. lines,. oil. tankers,. gas. carriers).and. energy. storage.. This. preoccupa-tion,.which.is.expressed.via.the.creation.of. ‘contact.points’,. groups.of. experts. in.‘critical.infrastructures’.(CI),.is.-.among.others. -. at. the. heart. of. the. CI. to. be.protected,. a. directive. proposed. by. the.European.Commission,.on.1.December.2006,.which.was.the.subject.of.a.‘politi-cal. agreement’. between. internal. affairs.ministers,.on.5.June.

While. the. EPCIP. tackles. the. protec-tion. of. CIs. via. an. ‘all. risks’. approach,.it. is.nevertheless. the.threat.of. terrorism.which.is.considered.to.be.a.priority..The.aim.is.not.to.create.a.unique.instrument,.since.most.EU.states.have.already.imple-

mented,. especially. since. 2001,. a. range.of.measures.at.national.level..It.is.more.a.question.of.identifying.potential.targets,.“when.a.need.will.have.been.listed.fol-lowing.an.analysis.of.failures.in.terms.of.security,”. and. providing,. when. neces-

sary,. a. European. response..There.is,.in.fact,.no.question.of.duplicating.efforts.already.agreed. at. the. level. of. states.and.regions..

On.the.other.hand,.all.the.parties. concerned. -. public.authorities,. competent.authorities,.as.well.as.owners-operators. of. CIs. –. are. sup-posed. to. be. associated. with.the. conception. and. imple-mentation.of.these.measures.under.the.surveillance.of.the.future.Critical.Infrastructure.Warning. Information. Net-work.(CIWIN)..

This. is. a. measure. which,.as. underlined. by. the. Com-mission. in. its. proposal. for.a. decision. of. 27. October.creating. CIWIN,. will. dis-tinguish. itself. from. the.other. rapid. alert. systems. set.up. by. the. Union. due. to. its..‘intersectoral’.nature.

For. its. part,. the. directive. on. which.the.EU27.agreed,.on.5.June,.defines.the.procedures.necessary. for. the.recording.and.classification.of.these.CIs.as.well.as.a.common.approach.for.the.evaluation.of.the.need.to.improve.their.protection..It.is.from.this.perspective.that,.in.2007,.the.Commission.launched.-.in.the.con-text. of. the. 7th. European. Framework.Programme. for. R&D. -. a. pilot. project,.with.a.budget.of.€3.million,.around.six.themes:. strengthening. of. measures. to.protect. critical. infrastructures;. weak-nesses. and. capacity. of. resistance. of.critical. infrastructures,. and. develop-ment.of.related.methodologies;.allevia-tion. strategies. and. risk. evaluation. for.critical. infrastructures;. development.of. emergency. plans;. development. of.common. standards. for. security. and.innovative. technologies. for. the. pro-tection. of. critical. infrastructures;. and..transnational.projects..n

By Marc paoloni

NEw daNGErS

protecting critical infrastructures: an essential task

© N

GV

2� Monday3November2008 N°3630EUROPOLITIcs


The. European. Union. must. give. itself.the.means.to.counter.cyber.attacks,.which.are.no.longer.the.stuff.of.small-scale.web.hackers.but.of.organised.crime..This.mes-sage. has. been. relayed. by. a. number. of.experts. and. seems. to. have. been. heard..Under. impetus. from. the. French. EU.Presidency,. the. Union’s. 27. justice. and.home. affairs. ministers. decided,. on.24. October. in. Luxembourg,. to. give.Europol,. the. European. Police. Office,.a. structure. that. will. receive. reports. on.offences. transmitted. by. member. states’.national.platforms.and.pass.on.informa-tion. concerning. them. to. the. national.platforms...

Cyber. crime. is. a. growing. phenom-enon. that. takes. a. number. of. forms:.child. pornography,. credit. card. fraud,.illegal. site. content,. false. university.degrees,. incitement. to. racial. hatred. or.terrorism,.targeted.attacks.on.electronic.networks,. denial-of-service. and. hack-ing.. “This. implies. a. comprehensive.response.that.tries.to.anticipate.events,”.commented.French.Home.Affairs.Min-ister.Michèle.Alliot-Marie..The.creation.of. this. platform. “is. a. first. step”. that. will.allow. “grouped. investigations. and. there-fore.a.saving.of.money.and.energy”..The.new.structure.will.also.help.determine.the.member. states. most. likely. to. be. able. to.respond.to.the.criminal.acts,.thus.avoiding.multiple. investigations.. The. Justice. and.Home.Affairs.Council,.in.late.November,.will.adopt.more.general.conclusions.on.an.action.plan.against.cyber.crime.

Jacques. Barrot,. EU. commissioner. for.justice,. freedom. and. security,. responded.to. the. financial. expectations. with. the.release. of. €300,000. for. the. creation. of.this. European. structure.. “Combating.sexual. abuse. of. children. on. the. internet.is.an.absolute.priority. for.me.and.for. the.Commission,”. he. said.. Child. pornogra-phy.today.accounts.for.more.than.half.of.all.cyber.crime,.according.to.the.Commis-sion.. The. EU. executive. is. also. prepared.to. offer. financial. help. to. the. member.states. lacking. a. national. platform.. They.have.been.asked.by.the.Council.to.secure.equipment.or.set.up.a.common.structure.among.several.states.

Lastly,. the. Council. asks. these. states. to.“encourage. partnership. among. private.and. public. players. concerned. with. the.fight.against.cyber.crime”.

urgeNt reActIoN A. reaction. had. become. pressing. after.

the. attacks. in. the. spring. of. 2007,. many.

of. which. coming. from. Russia,. against.the. very. well. developed. internet. net-work. in. Estonia.. The. attacks. coincided.with. riots. by. Russian. speakers. who. were.unhappy.about.a.monument.to.the.Soviet.army. being. moved.. This. summer,. Geor-gian. government. websites. also. suffered.from.a.similar.attack.in.the.middle.of.the.armed.conflict.with.Russia.over.Georgia’s.separatist. regions. of. South. Ossetia. and..Abkhazia.

The. European. Network. and. Informa-tion.Security.Agency. (ENISA),. set.up. in.2004,.recently.called.on.member.states.to.invest.more.in.the.security.of.networks.and.information,. to. launch. awareness. cam-paigns,.to.exchange.more.information.and.to. create. emergency. reaction. teams.. For.the. moment,. there. are. 14. of. these. com-puter.emergency.response.teams.(CERT).in.the.EU.as.opposed.to.eight.in.2005..

“More.than.a.million.computers.in.the.world.were.used. to.attack.Estonia. in. the.spring. of. 2007,”. said. Tim. Boerner,. an.expert.from.the.US.secret.service,.basing.himself.on.data.received.by.the.offices.of.

secret.services.in.Europe,.during.a.confer-ence. on. the. issue,. in. Tallinn. on. 4. Sep-tember..Estonia’s.banking.network.had,.in.particular,.been.paralysed.

“The. cyber. war. against. Georgia. in.August.has.shown.that.it.can.be.part.of.a.real.war.on. the.ground,”. said.Mart.Laar,.a. former. Estonian. prime. minister. who.

has. been. advising. Georgia’s. President.Mikhail. Saakashvili. for. three. years.. At.the.NATO.summit,.in.April.2007,.Esto-nia. secured. agreement. from. alliance.members. for. the. opening. of. a. cyber.defence.training.centre.

future of eNISAThe. EU. had. the. chance. to. be. a. lot.

more.ambitious..The.European.Coun-cil.and.the.European.Parliament.did.not.in. the. end. go. with. the. Commission’s.idea. of. creating. an. anti-cyber. attack.elite. cell. within. a. telecoms. ‘super..regulator’..

It.stayed.with.ENISA,.which.is.based.in.Crete.and.whose.mandate.has.been.renewed. until. 2012.. However,. more.thinking.is.due.to.be.done.on.the.effec-tiveness.of.the.agency..

“The.European.Network.and.Informa-tion. Security. Agency. must. be. rethought.in.terms.of. these.objectives.[fight.against.cyber.crime. -.Ed],”. said.French.Socialist.Catherine.Trautmann,.the.European.Par-liament’s.rapporteur.on.the.revision.of.EU.telecoms.rules,.to.Europolitics recently.

She.was.the.one.who.removed.ENISA’s.functions. from. the. telecoms. package,.which.is.on.the.way.to.being.adopted.

“Everything. is. done. now. online.. We.don’t. want. to. witness. an. 11. September.2001-type.digital.attack,”. said. the.Execu-tive. Director. of. ENISA,. Andrea. Pirotti,.when.visiting.Brussels.last.May..“An.attack.would.be.very.damaging.but.I.can.say.that.for. the. moment. the. situation. has. been.under.control,”.he.added..

The. agency’s. role. for. the. moment. is.to. collect. information. and. to. serve. as. a.broker.between.the.member.states..It.does.not.have.the.power.to.pursue.cyber.terror-ists.and.cyber.crime..

With.a.budget.of.€8.million.per.year.and.a.staff.of.50,.ENISA.needs.more.resources..As. from. 2009,. Pirotti. thinks. that. ENISA.will.need.€15.million.per.year..n

By Nathalie Vandystadt

NEw daNGErS

Eu urged to prepare itself for large-scale cyber attacks

In. April.2007,.on.the.o c c a s i o n.of. a. diplo-matic. con-flict. with.Russia,. the.websites. of.nu m e r o u s.institutions,.companies.and. media.enterprises.

in. Estonia. were. paralysed. for. several. days..In.August.2008,.Georgia’s.institutional.sites.were. attacked.by.pro-Russian.pirates..Each.conflict,. whether. diplomatic. or. military,. is.now. accompanied. by. some. form. of. ‘infor-mation.confrontation’.which.is.more.or.less..spontaneous..

Even. so,. is. it. systematically. possible. to.speak.of.an. ‘information.war’?.It. is,. in. fact,.difficult.to.speak.of.‘war’.when.the.objective.of.the.attack.is.purely.financial.or.when.the.pirates.are.content.with.modifying.websites.to.leave.some.pseudo-patriotic.messages..

It. is. also. difficult. to. speak. of. cyber. ter-rorism,. as. long. as. the. SCADA. (supervi-sory. control. and. data. acquisition). sys-tems,. which. directly. control. certain.automatisms. at. the. heart. of. our. sensitive..infrastructures,.are.not.directly.affected.

While.it.is.essential.not.to.tarnish.the.term.‘information. war’,. the. boundaries. between.cyber.criminality,.cyber.terrorism.and.cyber.war.are,.however,.close..

The. amateur. pirate. becomes. more. pro-fessional,. the.professional. sells.himself. and.the.terrorist.takes.over.the.methods.used.by.criminal.organisations..

The. growing. interconnection. of. net-

works. and. recourse. to. standard. protocols.for.reasons.associated.with.cost.and.interop-erability. also. render. sensitive. networks..increasingly.vulnerable..

Lastly,. the. asymmetric. aspect. (at. least. in.terms. of. appearance). of. the. information.weapon. renders. it. very. attractive. to. cer-tain. states. and. terrorist. groups.. Whether.it. is. wanted. or. not,. the. information. war.will. therefore. become. a. reality,. because.the. sovereignty. of. states. is. directly. threat-ened,. just. like. the. ‘botnet’. [software. robot].networks,. a. sort. of. fifth. column. of. the.internet,. to. be. found. at. the. heart. of. every..substantial.attack.

Faced. with. this. threat,. a. (French). white.paper. underlined. that. there. was. an. urgent.need. for. France. to. equip. itself. with. defen-sive.as.well.as.offensive.capacities..

A.doctrine.and.operational.concepts.com-patible. with. national. and. international. law.will.now.have.to.be.developed;.these.must.be.politically. acceptable. and. technically. suit-able.. Cyberspace. is. now. a. particular. battle.zone,. with. a. double. aspect. -. both. physical.and.cognitive.-.giving.rise.to.multiple.forms.of. confrontation:. the. fight. for. information,.the. fight. via information. (psychological.war),.the.fight.against enemy.infrastructures..The. division. of. responsibilities. is. therefore.particularly.difficult..

Undoubtedly,.for.want.of.having.resolved.this. thorny. issue,. the. US. Department.of. Defence,. which. is. very. advanced. on.the. matter,. has. just. announced. that. it.is. signalling. a. pause. in. the. operational.deployment. of. the. US. Air. Force’s. Cyber..Command..n

(*) Guillaume Tissier ([email protected]) is head of the Operational Risks Department at CEIS, the European Company for Strategic Intelligence.

By Guillaume Tissier (*)

opEN foruM

Cyberspace: a new battle zone



2�

dCNS



�1

Europe. has. a. coastline. of. approxi-mately.70,000.kilometres..Twenty-three.out.of.the.27.EU.member.states.have.a.coastline.and.two-thirds.of.EU.borders.are. coasts.. Managing. the. risks. associ-ated.with.maritime.activity.–.European.waters. permanently. have. more. than.20,000.boats.sailing.in.them.(European.Commission. statistics). –. and. moni-toring. external. coastline. borders. has.become. increasingly. important. over.the.years..Sectoral.initiatives.have.been.set.up,. examples.of.which. include. the.SafeSeaNet.system.to.combat.maritime.pollution..This.has. linked.up.different.databases.in.EU.member.states,.making.it.possible.to.track.ships.carrying.cargoes.of. dangerous. substances. in. EU. waters.or. the. border. management. operations.set.up.as.part.of.Frontex,.such.as.‘Posei-don’.(sea.patrols.in.the.Aegean.Sea.and.the.Greek-Albanese.and.Greek-Turkish.borders). and. ‘Nautilus’. (the. control. of.immigration.to.Malta.and.Lampedusa).or.‘Hera’.(the.Canary.Islands).

The. initial. reports. (see. box). show.an.increase.in.the.total.number.of.this.type. of. combined. operation,. particu-larly. with. regard. to. sea. borders.. The.number.of.member.states.participating.in.Frontex.operational.activities.is.also.increasing,. while. the. number. of. iso-lated. operations. launched. by. member.states.is.decreasing..While.Frontex.may.see. this. “as. an. indicator. for. increased.awareness. and. acceptance. of. Frontex-coordinated. activities. in. the. member.states”. (2007. annual. report),. it. is.worth. noting. that. the. operational. and.financial. means. made. available. to. the.agency.by.member.states.is.still.largely.inadequate,.so.much.so.that.it.has.even.been.forced.to.put.a.hold.on.its.activi-ties,.as.happened.in.2007.when.Nauti-lus.patrols.in.the.Mediterranean.had.to.be.suspended.

“Let’s. be. clear,. none. of. the. bigger.member.states.is.making.enough.effort.any. more,”. said. Brice. Hortefeux,. the.French. minister. for. immigration,.recently1.

A. comparison. of. the. means. actu-ally. contributed. this. summer. with. the.

inventory.of.means.that.are.supposed.to.be.available.to.the.agency.soon.reveals.that.“there.is.still.a.long.way.to.go”.

And,.of.course,.one.should.not.forget.the. legal. problems. caused. by. these.operations2.and. the.difficulty.of.ensur-ing.that.the.immigrants’.home.country.was. also.party. to. the.operation. (which.

required. bilateral. cooperation. agree-ments. such. as. those. signed. by. Spain.with. Mauritania. and. Senegal).. All. of.these. factors. illustrate. the. restrictions.limiting.such.operations.today.

the coASt guArd QueStIoNBut.the.question.is:.is.there.a.need.to.

go. any. further?. Further. than. coopera-tion. and. the. coordination. of. services?.The.response.for.the.time.being.is.‘no’,.as.borne.out.by.the.debate.on.whether.to.create.a.European.coast.guard.team,.an. idea. which. at. one. time. seemed. to.be. very. much. a. part. of. the. European.agenda.but.which.today.seems. to.have.been. abandoned.. Over. the. past. few.years. it.has.made. the.odd.appearance,.mostly. promoted. by. the. European.Parliament. and. often. during. debates.on. maritime. safety.. It. was. in. fact. the.European. Parliament. that. succeeded.in.including.in.a.directive.on.pollution.caused. by. ships3. that. the. question. be.the.subject.of.a.feasibility.study.carried.out.by.the.European.Commission..The.aim. at. the. time. was. clearly. limited. to.the. prevention. of. maritime. pollution,.notably.to.monitor.oil.spills.

The. Commission’s. green. paper. on.a. maritime. policy,. published. in. June.2006,. was. meant. to. broaden. the. con-cept. quite. considerably.. Perhaps. that.was. the. problem.. In. addition. to. mari-time. safety,. it. also. linked. the. idea. of.a. European. coast. guard. to. concepts.such. as. the. fight. against. counterfeit-

ing,. human. trafficking,. illegal. immi-gration. and. even. terrorism.. After. a.consultation.procedure.which.resulted.in.a.blue.paper.on.maritime.policy,. in.October. 2007,. the. Commission. was.finally. forced. to. accept. that. “there.is. little. support. for. a. European. coast.guard,”. but. there. is. “interest. in. coop-eration. between. member. states’. assets.to. achieve. similar. objectives. without.changing.competences”..

So.cooperation. it. is..The.blue.paper.makes.no.mention.of.a.European.coast.guard.. It. speaks. rather. of. encouraging.cooperation. between. the. coastguards.from. the. different. member. states. and.of. measures. to. improve. the. interop-erability. of. the. surveillance. systems..The. political. debate. has. turned. into. a..technological.challenge..n

(1) His full speech of 15 September is available (in French) at www.immigration.gouv.fr/article.php?id_article=666

(2) What should be done with the people ‘assembled’ by the Frontex patrols? Who should be responsible for them? Nautilus has its launch delayed because the participating countries could not agree on this question (it was finally agreed that people intercepted in the operation’s Libyan zone would be sent back to Libya or if this was not possible to the nearest port. (3) Directive 2005/35/EC, Article 11

By isabelle Smets

“Let’s be clear, none of the bigger member states is making enough effort

any more,” says Minister Hortefeux

frontex statisticsnumber of joint maritime border operations2006:12007:6number of member states participating in joint maritime border operations2006:152007:22number of non-Eu citizens intercepted in maritime border operations2006:21,7692007:27,441Source: Frontex 2007 general report

NEw daNGErS

Maritime surveillance: Yes to coordination, no to integration

Today's naval operations demand a partnerexperienced at all levels and across allplatforms and environments.

• Decision Superiority• Engagement and

Protection• Maritime Safety

and Security.

Thales providesintelligent maritimesolutions.

PERFECTION INPARTNERSHIP

www.thalesgroup.com

partnership_210x297_SDA_uk 27/10/08 17:33 Page 1



��

Surrounded. by. two. oceans. and. four.seas,.Europe.is.a.major.maritime.entity..It.has.a.coast. that. is.70,000.kms. long..This.physical. reality. also. has. its. demographic.and.economic.implications.as.40%.of.the.European.Union’s.population.live.in.mari-time.regions.and.they.generate.40%.of.the.EU’s.GDP,.whilst.90%.of.its.external.trade.and.40%.of.its.domestic.trade.come.from.maritime.transport1.

These.are.the.sorts.of.factors.that.make.the.security.of.maritime.approaches.and.supply.routes.a.major.issue.for.the.EU.

For.a.long.time,.Western.countries.con-sidered. non-military. maritime. threats.(piracy,. trafficking). as. secondary. phenom-ena. that. mainly. took. place. far. from. their.coasts..Although.recurrent,.acts.of.piracy.in.a.region.such.as.the.Strait.of.Malacca.were.still.sufficiently.small.scale.in.terms.of.vol-umes.of.maritime.trade.not.to.warrant.more.than.a.relatively.small.amount.of.attention..The.same.went.for.a.possible.terrorist.attack.against.a.ship.or.some.maritime.infrastruc-ture.. In.Europe,.only. some.countries. that.felt.the.most.exposed.had.taken.into.account.such.a.threat.during.the.1980s.and.1990s.

It.has.taken.the.stimulus.of.the.attacks.of.11.September.2001.and. the.development.of. an. International. Ship. and. Port. Facility.Security.(ISPS).Code,.followed.by.a.regula-tory.and.normative.body.of.law.more.or.less.exported.by. the.US,. for.maritime.security.to.have.full.visibility.within.the.EU’s.mari-time.policy..This.visibility.has.become.more.marked.as.the.increase.in.the.threat.posed.by.terrorism.has.come.hand.in.hand.with.the.massive.increase.in.the.problem.of.clan-destine.immigration.as.well.as.the.need.to.fight.illegal.trafficking..Maritime.states.have.therefore.focused.on.improving.the.surveil-

lance.of.their.coastal.approaches..The.issue.of. how. to. coordinate. efforts. has. quickly.emerged.. How. can. the. maritime. area.along.Europe’s.coast.be.covered?.While.the.young. European. Maritime. Safety. Agency.(EMSA),. initially. designed. just. for. mari-time.safety,.has.finally.added.a.security.ele-ment.to.its.mission,.an.ad.hoc.organisation.is. still.yet. to.be.established..The.idea.of.a.European.coast.guard.is.still.being.debated..Some. countries. point. out. the. complex-ity.of.such.a.project,.especially.in.terms.of..transfers.of.sovereignty.

This.is.the.case.for.France,.which.relies.on. its. model. organised. around. maritime.‘Préfets’. [the. state’s. representative. in. a.department.or.region].and.advocates.inter-state.coordination.based.on.points.of.con-tact. coordinating. the. national. actions. of.each.of.the.agencies.involved..This.model.of.coordination.and.not. standardisation. in.a.single.agency.interests.a.number.of.coun-tries.. It. is.close. to. the.solution.chosen,. for.example.by.Spain,.which.has.entrusted.the.Guardia.Civil.with.this.coordination.

Whatever.type.of.organisation.is.chosen,.the.important.thing.is.to.base.it.on.sufficient.surveillance. and. intervention. capacities..France. has. therefore. reactivated. its. sema-phores,. of. which. radar,. direction. finders.and. automatic. identification. system. (AIS).transponders. are. being. gradually. put. in. a.network.via.the.SPATIONAV.system..This.system.makes.it.possible.to.consolidate.and.share.information.on.maritime.approaches.

For.its.part,.Spain.has.deployed.the.SIVE.surveillance.system,.while.numerous.other.European. countries. have. also. undertaken.the. modernisation. of. their. coastal. surveil-lance. by. deploying. integrated. systems.(vessel.traffic.management.and.information.systems.–.VTMIS)..All.the.systems.together.will.be.complemented.through.the.imple-mentation.of. the. long-range. identification.tracking. (LRIT). system,.on.31.December.2008.

Cooperation.programmes.can.be.added.to. these. national. initiatives.. Developed. as.part. of. the. 6th. Framework. Programme.for. Research. and. Development,. the. EU.research. programme. MarNIS. (Maritime.Navigation.and.Information.Services).aims.to.develop.integrated.technologies.and.sys-

tems.for.the.detection.and.fusion.of.mari-time.information..The.programme,.which.has. a. budget. of. €19.2. million,. started. in.2005.and.will.coordinate.47.European.com-panies.until.2009..For.its.part,.EMSA.will.ensure. that. the.LRIT.data. are. centralised.and. distributed. to. all. the. member. states..The. Kopernikus. (ex-GMES). programme.also. includes. a. maritime. surveillance..element.(MARISS).

But. protection. of. European. maritime.approaches. will. not. be. enough,. not. just.because.the.fact.that.the.sea.is.a.continuum.implies.the.need.to.take.into.account.dan-gers. and. threats. from. far. away,. but. also.because. this. threat. hangs. over. free. move-ment.on. the.high. seas. and. therefore.over.the. EU’s. supplies.. The. huge. increase. in.the.number.of.acts.of.piracy.off.the.coast.of.Somalia. has. thus. forced. European. coun-tries. to.decide.on.a. joint. action..The.EU.Nav.operation.aims.to.deploy.a.naval.inter-vention.force.by.10.December.at.the.latest..The.European.force’s.mission.will.be.to.pro-tect.ships.transporting.humanitarian.aid.for.the.World.Food.Programme,.ships.regarded.as.‘particularly.vulnerable’.or.sensitive,.and.to.put.in.place.all. the.arrangements.to.try.to.deter.and.stamp.out.any.act.of.piracy.in.the.area..Although.the.mission.is.not.with-out.difficulties,.both.in.terms.of.force.gen-eration.and.the.definition.of.its.legal.frame-work,.it.does,.however,.show.how.European.security. and. defence. has. moved. forward..The.operation.is.of.course.part.of.Europe’s.contribution.to.global.stability.but.it.is.also.an.act.affirming.its.strength..By.deploying.at.the.intersection.of.maritime.routes.that.are.critical. for. its. autonomy,. Europe. is. show-ing.its.ambition.to.protect.its.interests.well.beyond.its.borders..n

(*) Luc Viellard ([email protected]) is head of the Strategic Forecasting Department of CEIS, the European Company for Strategic Intelligence (1) ‘An integrated maritime policy for the European Union’, a communication from the European Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - COM(2007) 575 final – 10/10/2007.

By Luc Viellard (*)

opEN foruM

Maritime security: a big issue for Europe

�4 Monday3November2008 N°3630EUROPOLITIcs


“Space superiority is not our birthright, but it is our destiny. Space superiority is our day-to-day mission. Space supremacy is our vision for the future.” […] “You can’t go to war and win without space.” General Lance W. Lord, commander of the US Air Force Space Command, May 2005

Slowly.but.surely,.space.is.taking.a.central.posi-tion.in.modern.defence.and.security.systems..For.nearly.25.years,.the.United.States,.in.particular,.has.made.it.the.bedrock.of.its.strategic.superior-ity. and. is. multiplying. its. efforts. to. preserve. its.supremacy.in.this.domain..Many.other.countries.are. now. also. realising. the. importance. of. this.strategic. environment. and. have. either. devel-oped.or.are.attempting.to.develop.an.aero-spatial.industry.which.will.guarantee.them.autonomy.in.being. able. to. access. space.. In. Europe,. France.took. the. lead.only. to.be. followed.by. the. rest.of.Europe. and. following. China’s. example,. Japan.India. and. Israel. have. followed. suit.. Satellites,.capable. of. accessing. all. areas. of. space. without.restriction,. have. been. subject. to. major. techno-logical. innovations.. Organised. in. networks. and.operating.in.real.time,.they.are.fast.becoming.the.backbone.of.all.major.defence.and.security. sys-tems..These.defence.satellites.were.initially.used.primarily.for.surveillance,.observation,.warning,.communication. and. positioning. purposes. (con-stellation. GPS,. Syracuse).. Today,. however,. in.addition.to.these.support.functions,.the.question.of. the. relationship. between. satellites. and. the..‘militarisation’.of.space.cannot.be.ignored.

Even. if. the.use.of. space. for.military.purposes.is. an. accepted. fact. (which. brings. the. GPS.into. question),. the. international. community.has. expressed. a. reluctance. to. militarise. space.or. install. offensive. weapons.. The. concept. is.not. new. and. is. already. the. subject. of. a. legal..framework.with.several.texts.that.apply:

-..the.1963 treaty banning atomic testing.and.nuclear.explosions.in.space

-..the.1967 Outer Space treaty-. . the. 1972 treaty on anti-ballistic missiles

(ABM.treaty).banning. the.development,. testing.and.deployment.of.anti-ballistic.missile.compo-nents.in.space..The.United.States.withdrew.from.this.treaty.in.2002

-. . the. 1980 convention on environmental changes,. which. prohibits. any. hostile. action.that. may. provoke. any. lasting. or. occasional..environmental.repercussions.in.space.

None. of. these. texts,. however,. is. sufficiently.explicit.about.completely.prohibiting.the.milita-risation.of.space..During.the.Cold.War,.there.was.nothing. to. prevent. the. United. States. or. Russia.from.developing.anti-satellite.weapons,.nor.was.there.anything. to.prevent.other.countries,. such.as.China,.from.showing.an.interest.in.these.tech-niques,.based.as.much.on.destroying.satellites.as.rendering.them.inoperable,.whether.it.be.perma-nently,. temporarily,.blatantly.or.discreetly..This.was.frequently.achieved.by.means.of.scramblers,.lasers,.powerful.microwaves.or.taking.control.of.ground.stations.

All. attempts.at.prohibition.are.confronted.by.a. hard. reality:. the. intensification. of. the. link.between.space.and.American.national. security..The. US. Air. Force,. the. Pentagon’s. primary. ser-vice. responsible. for. space. militarisation. pro-grammes,. bases. itself. on. the. report. published.on. 11. January. 2001. by. the. Space. Commission.(‘Rumsfeld.Commission’),.which.stipulates.that.“there.is.no.blanket.prohibition.in.international.law.on.placing.or.using.weapons.in.space”.nor.of.“applying.force.from.space.to.earth.or.conduct-ing. military. operations. in. and. through. space”..This. desire. for. space. supremacy. is,. however,.contested.by.other.countries:.sparking.an.“arms.race”.cannot.be.ignored.

It. would. therefore. appear. to. be. in. the. inter-ests. of. the. increasing. number. of. countries. that.use. satellites. in. their. defence. systems. to. care-fully.analyse.the.areas.in.which.they.are.vulner-able.and.to.consider.possible.parries:.protecting.ground.stations.and.platforms. is. therefore.vital..Are.European.countries.intent.on.resolutely.pur-suing. the. path. of. strategic. autonomy,. ie. auton-omy.of.decision.making.and.evaluation,.not.only.by.being.in.possession.of.spatial.means.but.also.because. of. the. ability. to. guarantee. their. use?.Will.the.protection.levels.for.the.Galileo.satellite.be.adequate.in.2013?.The.purpose.of.protecting.satellites. from. the. ground. and/or. from. orbit. is.directly.linked.to.conserving.strategic.autonomy..Only.political.goodwill.and.a.European.strategy.will. be. able. to. respond. to. this. challenge.. This.will. require. a. lucid. examination. of. the. conse-quences.of.the.effect.of.the.added.spatial.dimen-sion. in. the. international. landscape. in. the. next.few.years..n

(*) Olivier Zajec ([email protected]) is defence and security consultant at CEIS (European Company for Strategic Intelligence)

By olivier zajec (*)

opEN foruM

Europe and the militarisation of space

Vous permettre de voyager à travers le monde rapidement et en toute sécurité : les technologies

du Groupe SAFRAN y contribuent quotidiennement. Et demain encore davantage, avec les produits

et systèmes aérospatiaux, de défense et de sécurité développés par plus de 100 sociétés aux

marques prestigieuses implantées sur les cinq continents. www.safran-group.com

PEM

A2b

- Ph

oto

: F

réd

éric

Ler

t -

DR

- *

Vo

us

et n

ou

s, d

ans

le m

on

de

enti

er.

CFM

In

tern

atio

nal

est

un

e so

ciét

é co

mm

un

e d

e Sn

ecm

a (G

rou

pe

SAFR

AN

), F

ran

ce e

t G

ener

al E

lect

ric

Co

., U

SA.

Pour un monde plus proche et plus sûr.

SafranCFM56_210x297_FR.qxd 15/09/08 17:52 Page 1

�6 Monday3November2008 N°3630EUROPOLITIcs


The.need.for.the.European.Union.to.have.a.space.policy.worthy.of.the.name.is.based.on.the.assertion.that,.to.address.crises. caused.by.nature.or.mankind,. it.has. to. be. able. to. count. on. the. most.refined.and.reliable.data.possible..

Having.means.to.observe.the.earth.by.combining. space. capacities. and. struc-tures.on.the.ground.is,.for.this.purpose,.strategically. clear.. The. Global. Moni-toring. for. Environment. and. Security.(GMES). system,. dubbed. Kopernikus,.responds.to.this.requirement.

As. was. noted. in. a. joint. report,. in.March. 2008,. by. the. High. Representa-tive. for. Foreign. and. Security. Policy,.Javier.Solana,.and.the.European.Com-mission,.the.risks.generated.by.climate.change.are.not.only.humanitarian.

. They. are. also. political. and. secu-rity-related. and. the. conflicts. relating.to. access. to. resources. (water,. fish. and.agricultural. resources). associated. with.demographic.pressures.are.an.explosive.cocktail.

In. this. context,. if. the. EU. wants. to.have. an. influence. on. events,. it. must.use. all. the. instruments. that. it. has. at.its. disposal:. those. coming. under. the.European.Security.and.Defence.Policy.and.the.Common.Foreign.and.Security.Policy. as. well. as. those. related. to. the.prevention. and. management. of. crises.or. policies. to. reduce. emissions. and.adapt.to.climate.change.

The.EU.must,.in.this.sense,.improve.its. knowledge. (research,. analysis,. sur-veillance.and.alert.systems),.assess.and.strengthen.its.reaction.capacities.(civil-ian. protection,. instruments. to. prevent.and. manage. crises,. both. civilian. and.military),. assess. security. risks. region.by. region,. strengthen. cooperation. in.terms. of. the. detection. and. monitor-ing. of. threats. to. security. and. promote.the. development. of. security. plans.at. the. regional. level.. In. this. respect,..Kopernikus.is.an.essential.tool.

SpAce ANd eArth obServAtIoNKopernikus,.which.was.set.up.in.2004,.

is. the. result. of. a. joint. EU. and. Euro-pean.Space.Agency.(ESA).initiative..It.

became.operational.as.planned.in.2008.and.has.been.offering. its. services,. in.a.phase. called. a. pre-operational. phase,.since.17.September..

These. services. cover,. in. the. first.instance,. the. environment. (state. and.management.of.natural.resources,.links.with. climate. change,. management. of.the.territory).

The. GMES. Atmosphere. Service. is.especially.dedicated.to.the.quality.of.air.

and.a.new.service.of.the.same.kind.sup-plying.information.for.the.monitoring.of.climate.parameters.is.expected.to.be.put.in.place.shortly..

Kopernikus. will. also. provide. backup.for. emergency. situations. and. for. secu-rity. in. the. event. of. natural. disasters. or.humanitarian. crises:. an. early. warning.system,. advanced. modelling. work. to.help. improve.understanding.of. the. fac-tors.of.climate.change.(prevention).and.support.for.humanitarian.aid.(reaction).

The.space.element.is.based.on.the.use.of. existing. satellites. and. the. prepara-tion.of.the.next.generation.of.satellites.(ESA. programme). with. support. from.the. EU’s. 7th. Framework. Programme.for.research.and.in.connection.with.the.Galileo. satellite.navigation.system.and.the.INSPIRE.(Infrastructure.for.Spatial.Information.in.Europe).initiative.

The.earth. element.or. observation. in.situ. covers. all. the. networks. of. sensors.deployed. on. land,. at. sea,. on. artificial.lakes. and. in. the. atmosphere. in. order.to. measure. and. provide. a. complete.description.of.the.terrestrial.system.and.all. the. studies. aiming. to. collect. eco-nomic.data,.on.the.occupation.and.use.of.soil,.geology,. the.state.of.soil,.biodi-versity,. altitude,. administrative. limits,.transport.networks.and.public.services.

Over. time,. Kopernikus. will. bring.together. all. the. information. from. dif-

ferent.sources.and.will.present.them.in.a.useful.form..

A.unique.network.will.bring.together.all. the. networks. that. have. not. yet.been. connected. up,. allowing. the. data.to. be. centralised. and. managed. more..effectively.

StAble fuNdINgThe.funding.of.the.infrastructure.and.

basic. technologies. needed. for. the. first.series. of. services. comes. from. the. ESA.(space. component). and. the. EU’s. 7th.Research.Framework.Programme..

The. budget. is. topped. off. with. the.pooling. of. resources. at. Community,.national. and. regional. levels. for. the.components. in. situ. and. the. manage-ment.of.data.due.to.the.fact.that.respon-sibilities.are.shared.at.different.levels.in.these.areas..

A.financial.contribution.must.also.be.provided. by. the. establishment. of. part-nerships. between. the. public. and. pri-vate. sectors.. Over. time,. the. GMES. is.expected. to.be. funded.by. the.users.. In.terms.of.management,.the.responsibili-ties. are. spread. between. the. EU. (defi-nition. of. priorities),. the. ESA. (space.component). and. member. states. (coor-dination. and. implementation. at. local.level).

Funding. for. Kopernikus. is. assured.until. 2010.. According. to. the. EU’s.Enterprise.and.Industry.Commissioner,.Günter.Verheugen,.the.Commission.is.expected. to.present,.by. the.end.of. this.year,.a.communication.on.the.future.of.the.programme,. its. governance.and. its.funding,. and. to. present. a. proposal. for.a. decision. for. 2011. and. 2012. on. this.last.point..In.any.event,.the.funding.for.Kopernikus.has.a.duty.to.be.“stable.and.sustainable,”.as.the.EU.Council.stated,.on. 26. September.. The. EU27,. which,.on. this. occasion,. confirmed. their. will.to. equip. the. EU. with. a. real. space.policy,.stressed.the.need.to.ensure.that.it. had. “adequate. financial. plans. […].which. will. have. to. take. into. account.two. specificities:. the. industrial. sector,.whose.competitiveness.must.be.helped,.and.the.need.to.find.long-term.funding.for.space.infrastructure,.in.particular.in.the.area.of.observation”..n

By anne Eckstein

If the EU wants to have an influence on events,

it must use all the instruments that it has at

its disposal

NEw daNGErS

kopernikus, Europe’s ‘Big Brother’

YOUR VIEWS CAN SHAPE EUROPE!

www.SchumanSquare.eu

HAVE YOUR SAY

EUROPOLITICSVISIT THE FORUM OF



��

‘Military.space’.has.until.now.been.con-spicuous. by. its. absence. from. the. debate.on. European. defence.. An. absence. that.is. easy. to. understand. when. one. consid-ers. the. meagre. spatial. capabilities. of. the.majority.of.EU.member.states,.including.the.largest,.the.concentration.of.industries.in.the.space.sector.and.the.exorbitant.cost.of.a.military.space.policy..And.yet.this.con-tinued. absence. poses. a. serious. threat. to.any.ambitions.of.developing.a.true.Euro-pean. defence. system. given. the. growing.importance. of. ‘spatial. solutions’. –. ballis-tic.missiles,.satellites.used.for.observation,.listening,. communication. and. probably.attack.–.in.the.modern.range.of.weapons..available.to.armed.forces.

And.yet.there.is.no.getting.away.from.the. fact. the. Europe. has. mastered. a.wide. range.of. spatial. technologies,.par-ticularly. with. regard. to. boosters,. satel-lites,. including. those. used. for. defence.purposes. . (Skynet,. Syracuse,. Helios,.Cosmo-Skymed-Pleiades,. Sar-Lupe).and.telecommunications,.and.electronic.control.equipment.

plAyINg cAtch-upEurope,. today,. is. lagging. far. behind.

the.United.States.and.Russia.and.soon.it.will.be.faced.by.challenges.from.emerg-ing.countries.such.as.China..Serge.Plat-tard,. former. secretary-general. of. the.European.Space.Policy.Institute.(ESPI),.notes.that.Europe.contributes.only.4%.of.worldwide.spending.on.“the.military. in.space”.-.the.equivalent.of.0.4%.of.Euro-pean. defence. budgets.. Meanwhile,. the.United.States.contributes.90%.of.world.spending. on. the. military. in. space. with.an.allocation.of.between.7%.and.8%.of.defence. credits.. And. there. are. plans. to.increase. this.by.30%.by.2012.as.part.of.the.new.National.Space.Policy.launched.by.President.George.Bush.in.July.2006.

Most.experts.stress.that.only.countries.or.groups.of.countries.that.can.claim.to.be.‘military.space.powers’.will.still.carry.sufficient.weight,.at. the.end.of. the.cur-rent.geopolitical.reshuffle,.to.play.a.sig-nificant.role.on.a.planetary.scale..Space,.says. the.ESPI,. is. essential. if. it.wants. to.achieve. its. “headline. security. goals”..

In. other. words,. Europe. is. confronted.with. the.need,. obligation. even,. to. seek.a.certain.degree.of.independence.in.this.strategic. domain.. Also. with. respect. to.NATO,. without. breaking. the. alliance.referred.to.in.the.Lisbon.Treaty:.“Com-mitments. and. cooperation. in. this. area.shall. be. consistent. with. commitments.under.the.North.Atlantic.Treaty.Organi-

sation,.which,.for.those.states.which.are.members. of. it,. remains. the. foundation.of.their.collective.defence.and.the.forum.for.its.implementation”.

So,.in.this.ambiguous.context,.Europe.is. being. called. on. to. firstly. attribute. a.spatial.dimension.to.a.common.defence.project.which. is. still. to.be.defined.and.put. into. place,. then. it. will. be. required.to. implement. a. coherent. and. binding.strategy.based.on.a.global,.accurate.and.long-term. research. and. technological.and.industrial.development.programme..While. it. is. true. to. say. that. certain. dis-creet. programmes. do. exist. (Helios. I.and. II,. Cosmos-Skymed,. etc),. several.other. projects. have. been. abandoned:.the. Horus. radar. observation. satellite..between. France. and. Germany,. the.French-German-British. cooperation.in. Syracuse. III. (telecommunications).and. the. withdrawal. of. first. the. United.Kingdom. then. Germany. from. the..Trimisatcom.project.

And,. as.highlighted.by. a.French.par-liamentary. report,. “the. proliferation. of.European. systems. is. good. for. turnover.in. the. short. term. but. is. detrimental. in.the. long. term. in. terms. of. profitability.and.development.perspectives”1.

two leverS: duAlIty ANd SecurItyEuropean.citizens’.demand.for.security.

could.be.one.of. the. levers.of.a.defence.

space.policy..In.a.communication.of.26.April. 2007,. the. European. Commission.pointed.out.that.“space.assets.can.make.a. significant. contribution. to. increasing.the. security. of. European. citizens”. and.in. another. document. on. space. policy,.dated. 23. May. 2005,. it. noted. that. the.“Council. of. the. EU. has. recognised.that. space. assets. could. contribute. both.to. making. the. EU. more. capable. in.the. field. of. crisis. management. and. to..fighting.other.security.threats”.

The. civil-military. duality. would. also.appear. to. be. a. positive. factor.. In. 2005,.the. Commission. in. a. communication.noted. that. “the. differentiation. between.defence.infrastructure.and.internal.secu-rity.infrastructure.and.systems.is.becom-ing.blurred”..Two.years.later,.on.21.May.2007,.the.EU.Council..adopted.a.resolu-tion.recognising.that.“space.technologies.are.often.common.between.civilian.and.defence. applications. and. that. Europe.can,.in.a.user-driven.approach,.improve.coordination.between.defence.and.civil-ian.space.programmes,.pursuing.in.par-ticular. the. synergies. in. the. domain. of.security,. whilst. respecting. the. specific.requirements. of. both. sectors. and. the.independent.decision.competences.and.financing.schemes”.

Nevertheless. the. most. powerful. lever.will.undoubtedly.be.political..The.cur-rently. ‘frozen’. Lisbon. Treaty. would.have.provided.the.EU.with.the.required.legal. base. because. for. the. first. time,. it.includes. an. article. (172bis). devoted. to.space. policy. and. in. Article. 27. it. stipu-lates. that. the. EU. intends. to. develop. a.common.‘defence’.as.a.way.of.ensuring.“operational. capacity. drawing. on. civil.and. military. assets”.. Meanwhile,. until.such. time. as. the. sector. receives. a. real.boost.at.the.highest.European.level,.two.projects. give. cause. for. hope:. Galileo,.the.future.European.satellite.radio.navi-gation. system,.whose.military.use. is.no.longer. considered. a. taboo. subject,. and.Kopernikus,. a. second. European. satel-lite. system. used. for. surveillance. of. the..environment.and…..security.

(1) Report on the major programme areas of the future space policy - 7 February 2007.

By Marc paoloni

Europe, today, is lagging far behind the United States and Russia and soon it will be faced by

challenges from emerging countries such as China

NEw daNGErS

Military space: Time for Europe to choose



W e r e.opera t iona l.r e s t r i c t ions.responsible.for.the. disputes.between. the.US. Air. Force.(USAF). and.the. US. Army.on. the. subject.of. the. use. of.

MALE. drone. systems1?. That’s. what. the.two.entities.concerned.are.trying.to.prove.in.the.work.now.being.carried.out.to.reach.an. agreement. on. their. common. usage..It. is.also.the.reason.it. is. in.the.interest.of.EU. member. states. to. launch. their. own.reflection. on. the. subject,. failing. which.they.might.have. to.accept.having.Ameri-can. concepts. of. employment,. regulation.and.equipment.imposed..The.USAF.pre-viously. tried. to. assume. control. of. drones.flying.at.more.than.1,000.metres,.a.position.which.it.justified.by.its.unique.experience.of.the.third.dimension.and.its.status.as.the.number. one. MALE. and. HALE2.. opera-tor..It.also.emphasised.its.need.to.guaran-tee. the. safety. of. its. piloted. aircrafts.. The.US. Army. defended. its. interest. in. drones.on.the.grounds.that.it.needs.to.be.able.to.respond.rapidly.to.demands.from.its.forces.for. contact. and. to. deal. with. fleeting. tar-gets..With. the.advent.of. the.programme3.this.need.was.transformed.into.acquisition..Today,. the.aim.of. the.USAF.and.the.US.Army.is.no.longer.to.establish.a.single.fleet.of.drones.but.rather.to.establish.procedures.authorising. their. transfer. from. one. entity.to. the. other. depending. on. the. urgency.of. the. mission,. and. irrespective. of. the..geographical.limitations.

There.is.little.doubt.that.finances.played.a.part.in.prompting.this.quest.for.interop-erability..While.drones.no.longer.hold.the.same.importance.for.the.two.entities,.they.are. expecting. to. have. to. make. a. choice.between. their. respective. equipment. pro-grammes..The.USAF.is.interested.in.infor-

mation.systems.and.would.be.prepared.to.drop.the.third.dimension.for.the.fourth..It.is.also.involved.in.costly.acquisitions4.

The.need. for. interoperability.between.the. American. forces. is. in. line. with. the.logic.of.the.‘Tsahal.reflections’5..As.a.way.of.limiting.the.effects.of.‘war.fog’,.certain.ground.officers.from.the.Israeli.army.have.requested.access.to.the.capabilities.of.the.MALE.systems.operated.by.the.air.forces.

The.drones.which.allow.for.the.OODA.(observation,. orientation,. decision. and.action). cycle. to. be. short-circuited. and.provide. a. response. to. new. threats. need.to. be. integrated. with. the. other. equip-ment.operating.in.networks..In.Israel,.the.‘drone-combat. helicopter’. combination.has.been.operational.since.2004.and.used.for.the.rapid.identification.and.treatment.of.Palestinian.targets6.

In.Iraq,.the.drones’.ability.to.remain.‘in.the.zone’.and.to.sustain.different.charges.(captors.and.armaments).puts.added.pres-sure.on.the.enemy,.which.would.normally.have.better.knowledge.of.the.ground.and.the. element. of. surprise. on. its. side.. The.drones.help.determine.the.pace.of.opera-tions:.their.presence.and.ability.to.inform.and.attack.at.any.given.moment.provides.a. response. to. the. permanent. insecurity7..created.by.the.enemy.

In. addition. to. common. procedures,.interoperability.also.needs.to.be.technically.possible..This.is.no.easy.task.and.there.are.many. difficulties. to. overcome.. Air. traffic.aside,.the.drones.need.to.be.integrated.into.a.digitalised.battle.field.and.an.electromag-netic. spectrum.which. is. so.cluttered. that.there.is.a.risk.of.an.increasing.amount.of.involuntary.fog8.and.available.bandwidths.are.becoming.increasingly.rare.

In.addition,.the.American.forces.have.to.take.into.account.the.multinational.char-acter.of.operational.theatres..The.key.is.to.find.solutions.with.allies.without.compro-mising.the.effectiveness.of.the.operations..The.current.situation.where.interoperabil-ity.and.integration.are.considered.almost.as.one.is.unsustainable..The.British,.operat-ing.MALE.drones.from.the.United.States,.

could.potentially.aspire. to.accomplishing.sovereign.missions9.from.their.own.territory.without.recourse.to.American.resources.

In.Afghanistan,.the.French.armed.forces,.as.was.the.case.with.the.American.forces,.will.undoubtedly.encounter.difficulties.in.using.their.own.systems..Despite.this,.the.experience.gained.would.allow.France.to.maintain.its.operational.credibility.and.to.carry.some.weight.in.drafting.the.rules.on.the.use.of.drones.

Finally,. if. interoperability. with. the.United.States,.via.NATO,.is.unavoidable,.it.must.not.result.in.EU.military.capacities.being.integrated.into.the.American.system.of.command.and.control,.unless.European.countries.endorse.an.‘auxiliary’.rather.than.‘partner’.status..Drones.offer.the.opportu-nity.to.consolidate.an.autonomous.‘Europe.of.defence’.that.needs.to.be.seized.without.wasting.any.time..n

(*) Bertrand Slaski ([email protected]) is a consultant at CEIS, the European Company for Strategic Intelligence. (1) MALE: Medium altitude, long endurance. For the United States, these are drones from the General Atomics Predator family. (2) HALE: High altitude, long endurance. These are drones from the (Northrop Grumman) Global Hawk family (3) An armed drone derived from the Predator and presented as a ‘hunter-killer’. (4) These combat aeroplanes are the Joint Strike Fighter (F-35) and the Raptor (F-22). (5) These were launched after the operations against the Hezbollah in Lebanon in 2006. (6) In 2006, Hermes 450 and Searcher II drones supposedly transferred data in real time to combat F-15 and F-16 aircraft as well as Apache helicopters. (7) This insecurity is characterised by suicide attacks and spontaneously concocted explosives. (8) In Iraq, for example, small American (ScanEagle) and British (Desert Hawk) drones suffered interference from the Iraqi civil communication network. (9) Anti-terrorist operations, the fight against trafficking, identity protection, information acquisition.

By Bertrand Slaski (*)

opEN foruM

European drone systems: interoperability with NaTo or integration with the uS?



41

The. EU’s. interior. ministers. agreed,. on.October. 24. in.Luxembourg,. to. strengthen.common. action. against.drug. trafficking. in. West.Africa,.which.is.known.to.be.a.transit.area.for.10%.of.the.world’s.cocaine.production..The.aim.is.to.improve.coop-eration. between. national.services,. the. Economic.Community.of.West.African.States. (ECOWAS),. inter-national. agencies,. and. the.EU.and.its.agencies,.includ-ing.Europol,. the.European.Police.Office.based. in.The.Hague,. to. coordinate. joint.police.action..

Beyond. supplying. means.to. West. African. countries,.the.Council.also.wants.to.streamline,.coor-dinate. and. pool,. as. early. as. possible,. the.action. of. member. states’. liaison. officers.sent.to.the.region..Its.goal.is.also.to.intensify.member.states’.technical.police.cooperation,..particularly.as.regards.training.

Though.the.use.of.heroin,.cannabis.and.synthetic. drugs. such. as. ecstasy. is. stagnant.or.falling,.cocaine.use.is.increasing.sharply.in. Europe.. Currently. there. are. at. least. 12.million. users,. according. to. the. European.Commission..During.the.2005-2007.period,.33.tonnes.of.cocaine,.from.West.Africa.and.destined. for.Europe,.were. seized,. specifies.the.Council..According.to.the.Commission,.some.250.tonnes.of.cocaine.are.brought.into.the.EU.each.year,.with.increase.in.usage.in.the.UK,.France.and.Spain.

However,. the. first. victims. of. this. traffic,.and.of.organised.crime.in.a.broader.sense,.are. the. countries. of. the. region. and. their.population,. notes. the. EU27,. particularly.concerned.with.the.contributions.from.such.underground. activity. to. possible. terrorists.activities.

“I.have.noted.what.the.French.EU.Presi-dency.wants,.and.that.is.coordination.of.all.actions. to. prevent. drug. trafficking. in. West.Africa,”.said.EU.Justice,.Liberty.and.Secu-rity. Commissioner. Jacques. Barrot.. This.is.the.vision.that.he.aims.to.defend.on.the.occasion.of.the.ministerial.conference.of.the.United.Nations.Office.on.Drugs.and.Crime.

(ONUDC),. in. Praia,. Cape. Verde,. on. 28.and.29.October.

Judging. actions. carried. out. till. now. to.be.too.weak,.member.states.want.to.“make.

West. Africa. a. priority. zone”. in. the. frame-work.of.the.future.EU.action.plan.for.2009-2012.that.the.Commission.presented.on.18.September..“Member.states.have.a.respon-sibility.to.act.against.this.development,.and.focus. the. action. of. their. specialised. ser-vices,. ensuring. that. this. action. constitutes.a.coherent.whole,”.say.European.ministers..They. are. also. ready. to. “unite. their. efforts.and.focus.them,.while.creating.new.tools.if..necessary”.

Europe. already. funds. several. pro-grammes,. such. as. MAOC-N. in. Lisbon,.aiming. to. create. operational. platforms. for.liaison.officers.from.member.states.in.Sen-egal.and.Ghana,.Mediterranean.Anti-drugs.Coordination. Centre. (CECLAD-M),. an.anti-drug. cooperation. platform. in. Dakar.(on. the. initiative. of. the. UK,. France,. Italy.and. Spain).. Bilateral. programmes. have.also.been.launched.in.the.framework.of.the.ninth.European.development.fund.to.help.partner.countries.–.Nigeria,.Guinea-Bissau,.Ghana.–.to.combat.the.drug.invasion.

New europeAN plANThe.consumption. figures. in.Europe. are.

staggering..For.the.most.serious.drug.addic-tion.cases.together,.the.EU.has.two.million.‘problem.users’,.and.about.7,500.people.die.each.year.from.an.overdose..More.generally,.70.million.take.cannabis.–.or.have.taken.it.–.out.of.500.million.Europeans,.12.million.

have.taken.cocaine,.9.5.million.ecstasy.and.11.million.amphetamines..Finally,. at. least.half. a. million. Europeans. have. officially.received.heroin.substitution.treatment.

This.has.pushed.the.Com-mission.to.intensify.its.Euro-pean. strategy,. which. began.in.2005,.while.retaining.the.basic. principle:. tackle. both.supply. and. demand.. “And,.unlike. member. states,. we.are.going.to.act.on.demand.with. a. lot. of. determina-tion. and. courage,”. stressed.Barrot.. His. plan. includes.“five. major. priorities”:.reduce. the. demand. for.drugs. and. increase. aware-ness;. mobilise. European.citizens;.reduce.drug.supply;.improve.international.coop-eration;.and.promote.better..

understanding.of.the.drug.phenomenon.

other cultIvAtIoNSA. whole. series. of. police. and. customs.

measures.are.also.set.out,.while.the.number.of. seizures. continues. to. grow. in. Europe,.particularly. thanks. to. close. cooperation.between.member.states.and.Europol..Here,.too,.cocaine.has.seen.a.steep.increase,.with.seizures.going.from.72.tonnes.in.2004.to.121.tonnes.in.2006..Furthermore,.the.Commis-sion.also.wants.to.improve.the.detection.for.driving. under. the. influence. of. drugs. and.combat. combinations. of. drugs. (multiple.addictions).

The.EU.will.also.increase.its.aid.for. the.fight. against.drugs. in.producing.countries,.particularly.Afghanistan.(one.billion.euro.–.against.€452.million.in.2005),.and.the.coca.producing.countries.in.the.Andean.region.in.South.America.(€230.million.against.€220.million)..Europe.is.also.the.biggest.contribu-tor.to.the.UNODC..If.action.in.Afghanistan.is.made.even.more.difficult.by.the.very.close.link.between.drug.trafficking.and.terrorism.or.in.the.context.of.a.real.armed.conflict.in.Latin. America,. the. commissioner. is. more.confident:.“well.targeted.actions”.are.antici-pated.and.governments.are.making.consid-erable. effort.. For. example,. the. EU. wants.to. offer. farmers. in. Bolivia,. Argentina. and.Colombia. the. possibility. of. growing. other.plants.to.replace.the.cultivation.of.coca..n

By Nathalie Vandystadt

NEw daNGErS

Eu wants to tackle drug flow from west africa

In the eu, cocaine seizures totalled 121 tonnes in 2006

© E

PA

EUROPOLITICSTHE EUROPEAN AFFAIRS DAILY

www.europolitics.info

We have the details

Subscription order form to be returned by fax or mail to: EUROPOLITICSRue d’Arlon 53 / B-1040 Brussels or by fax to: +32 (0)2 732 67 57

GETTING TO KNOW YOU BETTER… ❏ Yes, I would like to subscribe to EUROPOLITICS daily: ❏ 6 MONTHS, 112 issues (paper version) + unlimited online access at the price of €890 (1). ❏ 1 YEAR, 223 issues (paper version) + unlimited online access at the price of €1,700 (1). ❏ 6 MONTHS, 112 issues (PDF + html) at the price of €765 (1). ❏ 1 YEAR, 223 issues (PDF + html) at the price of €1,450 (1). I would like to receive Europolitics in: ❏ French ❏ English

❏ I would like to receive a free issue of EUROPOLITICS daily in: ❏ French ❏ English

First name:.......................................................................................................................... Last name: ..........................................................................................................................................................

Organisation: ........................................................................................................................... Activity: ..........................................................................................................................................................

Job title: ................................................................................................ VAT: ❏ No ❏ Yes: N° ...........................................................................................................................................................

Address:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Post code: .....................................................................................City: ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................

Country: .....................................................................................................................................................................................................

Phone: ..............................................................................................Fax: ..............................................................................................

E-mail: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................

AP08

Please pay upon receipt of your invoice. If the invoice address is different from the delivery address, please indicate it. Note that any cancellation (no e-mail admitted) must be sent at least one month prior to the expiry date. One year subscription will automatically be renewed.(1) Excluding VAT but including postal charges. Offer reserved to new subscribers. For multi-user licences and special discounts, please contact us. Missing information in the order form will unfortunately not be registered. In order to keep you informed of our activities, your details will be stored on EIS’s fi les,Rue d’Arlon 53, B-1040 Brussels. Pursuant to the law, you are free to access this information, request correc-tions and consult the Register of the Committee for the Protection of Privacy. Any subscription implies for the subscriber the full acceptance of general sales conditions available at www.europolitics.info.

HELP US GET TO KNOW YOU BETTER…YOUR ACTIVITY❏ Embassy❏ EU institution❏ Association, federation, trade union, NGO❏ Research, scientifi c institute, university❏ Chamber of commerce ❏ Media and communication❏ Consultant, lawyer ❏ Ministry and national government❏ Enterprise❏ Mission, EU representation ❏ Finance, bank, insurance❏ Other: ............................................

YOUR INTERESTS❏ Agro-industry and agriculture❏ SMEs❏ Competition❏ General EU policy❏ Consumers❏ EU-third countries’ relations❏ Energy ❏ Science and research❏ Environment ❏ Security and defence❏ Finance, taxation and economy ❏ Social policy and employment❏ Industries and corporate ❏ Information society❏ Justice and home affairs ❏ Transport ❏ Media❏ Other: ............................................

Date and signature:

EU newsfor professionals

At EADS, we help provide security against the threats no-one wants to think about. Eurofi ghter Typhoon, the world‘s leading high perfor-mance multi-role combat aircraft is guarding borders across Europe and beyond. Early-warning and air defence technologies monitor and manage threats from the sky. Sensor technologies are protecting our airports. Security systems keep us safe in the crowd at large sporting events. At EADS, we‘re here to make the world a rather more secure place to be. | www.eads.com/madebyeads

Security, made by EADS.

EADS AZ SEC PSaDD 210x297_UK_OFF1 1 13.10.2008 13:59:55 Uhr

the future NAture of europeAN SecurItySecurity and Defence Days – 3-4 November 2008

Palais d’Egmont - Brussels

Co-organised by:

Conference Partners:

Session Partners:

Institutional Partner:

Media Partners:

Documents

Eu sEcurity & dEfEncE policyddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/0/50/29/09/Docs-Bio-CV/... · EUROPOLITIcs The European affairs daily Monday th3 November 2008 N° 3630 36 year New dealS New