Etruscan civilizationEtruscan civilization (/trskn/) is the modern namegiven to a civilization of ancient Italy in the area corre-sponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria, and north-ern Lazio. The ancient Romans called its creators theTusci or Etrusci.[1] Their Roman name is the origin ofthe terms Tuscany, which refers to their heartland, andEtruria, which can refer to their wider region.In Attic Greek,the Etruscans were known as - (Tyrrhnoi),earlierTyrsenoi,from which the Ro-mans derived the namesTyrrhni (Etruscans), Tyrrh-nia (Etruria), and Mare Tyrrhnum (Tyrrhenian Sea),[2]prompting some to associate them with the Teresh (SeaPeoples). The word may also be related to the Hit-tite Taruisa.[3] The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna,which was syncopated to Rasna or Rana.[4]As distinguished by its unique language, this civilizationendured from the time of the earliest Etruscan inscrip-tions (c. 700 BC)[5] until its assimilation into the RomanRepublic in the late 4th century BC.[5] At its maximumextent, during the foundational period of Rome and theRoman kingdom, it ourished in three confederacies ofcities: of Etruria, of the Po valley with the eastern Alps,and of Latium and Campania.[6]Culture that is identiably Etruscan developed in Italy af-ter about 800 BC approximately over the range of thepreceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. The latter gaveway in the 7th century to a culture that was inuencedby Hellenic, Magna Graecian, and Phoenician contacts.After 500 BC, the political destiny of Italy passed out ofEtruscan hands.[7] The latest mitochondrial DNA study(2013) shows that Etruscans appear to fall very close toa Neolithic population from Central Europe and to otherTuscan populations.[8]1 Legend and history1.1 Origin and historyMain articles: Etruscan origins and Etruscan historyThe origins of the Etruscans are mostly lost inprehistory, although Greek historians as early asthe 5th century BCE, repeatedly associated theTyrrhenians (Tyrrhnoi/, Tyrsnoi/)as Pelasgians. Thucydides [4.109], Herodotus [6.137]and Strabo [5.2] (citing Anticlides) all denote Lemnosto be settled by Pelasgians who Thucydides identi-es as "belonging to the Tyrsenoi" ( Etruscan pendant with swastika symbols, Bolsena, Italy, 700-650BC. Louvre MuseumEtruscanriders, Silverpanel 540-520BC, Castel SanMarino,near Perugia, ), and although both Strabo and Herodotus[1.94] are inagreement that the migrationwas ledbyTyrrhenus/Tyrsenos sonof Atys, kingof Lydia,Strabo[5.2] (citing Anticlides) species that it wasthePelasgians of Lemnos andImbros that followedTyrrhenus/Tyrsenos to Italy. The Lemnian Pelasgianlinkwas further manifestedbythediscoveryof theLemnos Stele, whose inscriptions were writteninalanguage which shows strong structural resemblances to12 1 LEGEND AND HISTORYthe language of the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans).[9] Dionysiusof Halicarnassus [1.17-19] records a Pelasgian migrationfrom Thessaly to the Italian Peninsula noting that "...thePelasgi madethemselvesmastersofsomeofthelandsbelonging to the Umbri" and Herodotus [1.94] describeshow the Tyrsenoi migrated from Lydia to the lands oftheUmbrians(). Strabo[6.2]aswell astheHomericHymn to Dionysus [7.7-8] make notablemention of the Tyrrhenians as pirates.[10] Pliny the Elderput the Etruscans in the context of the Raetic people tothe north and wrote in his Natural History (79 CE):[11]Adjoining these the (Alpine) Noricans are theRaeti and Vindelici. Allare divided into a number of states. The Raetiare believed to be peopleof Tuscan race driven out by the Gauls, theirleader was named Raetus.Historians have no literature and no original texts of re-ligion or philosophy; therefore, much of what is knownabout this civilization is derived from grave goods andtomb ndings.[12] A mitochondrial DNA study of 2013has suggested that the Etruscans were probably an in-digenouspopulation. Thestudyextractedandtypedthe hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA of four-teen individuals buried in two Etruscan necropoles, an-alyzing them along with other Etruscan and Medievalsamples, and 4,910 contemporary individuals from theMediterranean basin. Comparing ancient (30 Etruscans,27 Medieval individuals) and modern DNA sequences(370 Tuscans), has suggested that the Etruscans can beconsidered ancestral. By further considering two Anato-lian samples (35 and 123 individuals) it could estimatethat the genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia dateback to at least 5,000 years ago, strongly suggesting thatthe Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an im-mediate consequence of immigration from the EasternMediterranean shores. Among ancient populations, an-cient Etruscans are found to be closest to a Neolithic pop-ulation from Central Europe.[8][13]An mtDNA study of 2007 conrmed that the Etruscanswere not related substantially to the Upper Paleolithichunter-gatherer populations of Europe and also that theyshowed no similarities to populations in the Near East.Another earlier DNA study performed in Italy, however,partly gave credence to the theory of Herodotus, as the re-sults showed that 11 minor mitochondrial DNA lineagesextracted from dierent Etruscan remains occur nowhereelse in Europe and are shared only with Near EasternAnatolian people.[14] Another source of genetic data onEtruscan origins has been developed by Marco Pellecchiaand Paolo Ajmone-Marsan at the Catholic University ofthe Sacred Heart in Piacenza. Tuscany has four ancientbreeds of cattle. Analyzing the mitochondrial DNA ofthese and seven other breeds of Italian cattle, Ajmone-Marsan found that the Tuscan breeds genetically resem-bled cattle of the Near East. The other Italian breeds werelinked to northern Europe.[14]The latter hypothesis gives credence to the main hypothe-ses, which state that the Etruscans are indigenous, prob-ably stemming from the Villanovan culture or from theNear East.[15] Etruscan expansion was focused both to thenorth beyond the Apennines and into Campania. Somesmall towns in the 6th century BC disappeared duringthis time, ostensibly consumed by greater, more powerfulneighbours. However, it is certain that the political struc-ture of the Etruscan culture was similar to, albeit morearistocratic than, Magna Graecia in the south. The min-ing and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron,led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expan-sion of their inuence in the Italian peninsula and thewestern Mediterranean sea. Here their interests collidedwith those of the Greeks, especially in the 6th centuryBC, when Phoceans of Italy founded colonies along thecoast of Sardinia, Spain and Corsica. This led the Etr-uscans to ally themselves with the Carthaginians, whoseinterests also collided with the Greeks.[16][17]Around 540 BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new dis-tribution of power in the western Mediterranean Sea.Though the battle had no clear winner, Carthage man-aged to expand its sphere of inuence at the expense ofthe Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the north-ern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. Fromthe rst half of the 5th century BC, the new internationalpolitical situation meant the beginning of the Etruscandecline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC,Etrurias ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition ofMagna Graecia cities led by Syracuse. A few years later,in 474, Syracuses tyrant Hiero defeated the Etruscans atthe Battle of Cumae. Etrurias inuence over the cities ofLatium and Campania weakened, and it was taken overby Romans and Samnites. In the 4th century, Etruria sawa Gallic invasion end its inuence over the Po valley andthe Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome had started annex-ing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of the NorthernEtruscan provinces. Etruria was conquered by Rome inthe 3rd century BC.[16][17]1.1.1 Etruscan LeagueAccording to legend,there was a period between 600BCE and 500 BCE in which an alliance was formedbetween twelve Etruscan settlements, known today asthe Etruscan League, Etruscan Federation, or Dode-capoli (in Greek ).The Etruscan Leagueof twelve cities was founded by two Lydian noblemen:Tarchon and his brother Tyrrhenus. Tarchon lent hisname to the city of Tarchna,or Tarquinnii,as it wasknown by the Romans. Tyrrhenus gave his name to theTyrrhenians the alternative name for the Etruscans. Al-though there is no total consensus on which cities were inthe league, the following list may be close to the mark:Arretium, Caisra, Clevsin, Curtun, Perusna, Pupluna,1.2 Heritage, founding and Populus Romanus 3Veii, Tarchna, Vetluna, Volterra, Velzna, andVelch.Some modern authors include Rusellae. The league wasmostly an economic and religious league, or a loose con-federation, similar to the Greek states. During the laterimperial times, when Etruria was just one of many re-gions controlled by Rome, the number of cities in theleague increased by three. This is noted on many latergrave stones from the 2nd century onwards. According toLivy, the twelve city-states met once a year at the FanumVoltumnae at Volsinii, where a leader was chosen to rep-resent the league.[18]There were two other Etruscan leagues: that ofCampania, the main city of which was Capua, and thePo Valley city-states in the North, which included Spinaand Adria.1.2 Heritage, foundingandPopulusRo-manusMain article: Founding of RomeThose who subscribe to an Italic foundation of RomeEtruscan walled town, Civita di Bagnoregio.The Capitoline Wolf, long considered an Etruscan bronze, feed-ing the twins Romulus and Remus.followed by an Etruscan invasion, typically speak of anEtruscan inuence on Roman culture that is, culturalobjects which were adopted by Rome from neighbouringEtruria. The prevailing viewis that Rome was founded byItalics who later merged with Etruscans. In this interpre-tation, Etruscan cultural objects are considered inuencesrather than part of a heritage.[19] Rome was probably asmall settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, whoconstructed the rst elements of its urban infrastructuresuch as the drainage system.[20][21]The main criterion for deciding whether an object origi-nated at Rome and traveled by inuence to the Etruscans,or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans, is date.Many, if not most, of the Etruscan cities were older thanRome. If one nds that a given feature was there rst,it cannot have originated at Rome. A second criterion isthe opinion of the ancient sources. These would indicatethat certain institutions and customs came directly fromthe Etruscans. Rome is located on the edge of what wasEtruscan territory. When Etruscan settlements turned upsouth of the border, it was presumed that the Etruscansspread there after the foundation of Rome, but the settle-ments are now known to have preceded Rome.Etruscan settlements were frequently built on hills thesteeper the better and surrounded by thick walls. Ac-cording to Roman mythology, when Romulus and Remusfounded Rome, they did so on the Palatine Hill accordingto Etruscan ritual; that is, they began with a pomerium orsacred ditch. Then, they proceeded to the walls. Romuluswas required to kill Remus when the latter jumped overthe wall, breaking its magic spell (see also under PonsSublicius). The name of Rome is attested in Etruscan inthe form Ruma- meaning 'Roman', a form which mir-rors other attested ethnonyms in that language with thesame sux -: Velzna- '(someone) from Volsinii' andSveama- '(someone) from Sovana'. This in itself, how-ever, is not enough to prove Etruscan origin conclusively.If Tiberius is from efarie, then Ruma would have beenplaced on the Thefar (Tiber) river. A heavily discussedtopic among scholars is who was the founding populationof Rome. In 390 BC the city of Rome was attacked bythe Gauls, and as a result may have lost many though notall of its earlier records. Certainly, the history of Romebefore that date is not as secure as it later becomes, butenough material remains to give a good picture of the de-velopment of the city and its institutions.Later history relates that some Etruscans lived in theTuscus vicus, the Etruscan quarter, and that there wasan Etruscan line of kings (albeit ones descended from aGreek, Demaratus of Corinth) that succeeded kings ofLatin and Sabine origin. Etruscophile historians wouldargue that this, together with evidence for institutions, re-ligious elements and other cultural elements, proves thatRome was founded by Italics.The true picture is rathermore complicated, not least because the Etruscan citieswere separate entities which never came together to forma single Etruscan state. Furthermore, there were strongLatin and Italic elements to Roman culture, and later Ro-4 2 SOCIETYmans proudly celebrated these multiple, 'multicultural'inuences on the city.Under Romulus and Numa, the people were said to havebeen divided into thirty curiae and three tribes. Fewwords of Etruscan entered the Latin language, but thenames of at least two of the tribes Ramnes and Luceres seem to be Etruscan. The last kings may have bornethe Etruscan title lucumo, while the regalia were tradi-tionally considered of Etruscan origin: the golden crown,the sceptre, the toga palmata (a special robe), the sellacurulis (curule chair), and above all the primary symbolof state power: the fasces. The latter was a bundle ofwhipping rods surrounding a double-bladed axe, carriedby the kings lictors. An example of the fasces are the re-mains of bronze rods and the axe froma tomb in EtruscanVetulonia. This allowed archaeologists to identify the de-piction of a fasces on the grave stele of Avele Feluske,who is shown as a warrior wielding the fasces. The mosttelling Etruscan feature is the word populus, which ap-pears as an Etruscan deity, Fuuns. Populus seems tomean the people assembled in a military body, rather thanthe general populace.2 SocietyMain article: Etruscan society2.1 GovernmentMain article: Etruscan governanceThe historical Etruscans had achieved a state system ofsociety, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms.In this they were dierent from the surrounding Italics,who had chiefs and tribes. Rome was in a sense the rstItalic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believedthat the Etruscan government style changed from totalmonarchy to oligarchic republic (as the Roman Repub-lic) in the 6th century BC although it is important to notethis did not happen to all the city-states.The Etruscan state government was essentially atheocracy. Thegovernment was viewedas beingacentral authority, ruling over all tribal and clan organi-zations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact,the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power, appears asa motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to thisstate power were united by a common religion. Politicalunity in Etruscan society was the city-state, which wasprobably the referent ofmethlum, district. Etruscantexts name quite a number of magistrates, without muchof a hint as to their function: the camthi, the parnich, thepurth, the tamera, the macstrev, and so on. The peoplewere the mech. The chief ruler of a methlum was perhapsa zilach.Etruscan mother and child, 500-450 BC.2.2 FamilyMain article: Etruscan society: Rise of the familyThe princely tombs were not of individuals. The in-Etruscan couple (Louvre, Room 18)scription evidence shows that families were interred thereover long periods, marking the growth of the aristocraticfamily as a xed institution, parallel to the gens at Romeand perhaps even its model. There is no sign of such ahereditary aristocracy in the preceding Villanovan cul-ture. The Etruscans could have used any model of the5eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class isrelated to the new acquisition of wealth through trade isunquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near thecoast. At the centre of the society was the married cou-ple, tusurthir. The Etruscans were a monogamous societythat emphasized pairing.Similarly, the behaviour of some wealthy women is notuniquely Etruscan. The apparent promiscuous revelry hasa spiritual explanation. Swaddling and Bonfante (amongothers) explain that depictions of the nude embrace, orsymplegma, had the power to ward o evil, as did bar-ing the breast, which was adopted by western civilizationas an apotropaic device, appearing nally on the gure-heads of sailing ships as a nude female upper torso. Itis also possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to theEtruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the placeof women within their society. In both Greece and Re-publican Rome, respectable women were conned to thehouse and mixed-sex socialising did not occur. Thus, thefreedom of women within Etruscan society could havebeen misunderstood as implying their sexual availability.It is worth noting that a number of Etruscan tombs carryfunerary inscriptions in the form X son of (father) and(mother)", indicating the importance of the mothers sideof the family.2.3 MilitaryMain article: Etruscan military historySee also: Padanian EtruriaThe Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of AncientGreece and Ancient Rome, had a signicant military tra-dition. In addition to marking the rank and power of cer-tain individuals in Etruscan culture, warfare was a consid-erable economic advantage to Etruscan civilization. Likemany ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted cam-paigns during summer months, raiding neighboring ar-eas, attempting to gain territory and combating piracy as ameans of acquiring valuable resources, such as land, pres-tige, goods, and slaves. It is also likely that individualstaken in battle would be ransomed back to their familiesand clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially besacriced on tombs as an honor to fallen leaders of Etr-uscan society, not unlike the sacrices made by Achillesfor Patrocles.[22][23][24]2.4 CitiesMain article: Etruscan citiesThe range of Etruscan civilization is marked by its cities.They were entirely assimilated by Italic, Celtic, or Ro-man ethnic groups, but the names survive from inscrip-tions and their ruins are of aesthetic and historic inter-est in most of the cities of central Italy. Etruscan citiesourished over most of Italy during the Roman Iron Age,Etruscan warrior, found near Viterbo, Italy, dated c. 500 BC.marking the farthest extent of Etruscan civilization. Theywere gradually assimilated rst by Italics in the south,then by Celts in the north and nally in Etruria itself bythe growing Roman Republic.[22]That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan waswell known to all the Roman authors. Some cities werefounded by Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore en-tirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etr-uscans who Etruscanized the name, usually Italic.[23]3 Culture6 3 CULTURE3.1 ReligionMain article: Etruscan mythologyChimera of ArezzoInscription of Tinia on the Chimeras legThe Etruscan systemof belief was an immanentpolytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were consid-ered to be a manifestation of divine power and that powerwas subdivided into deities that acted continually on theworld of man and could be dissuaded or persuaded infavour of human aairs. How to understand the will ofdeities and how to behave had been revealed to the Etr-uscans by two initiators, Tages, a childlike gure bornfrom tilled land and immediately gifted with prescience,and Vegoia, a female gure. Their teachings were keptin a series of sacred books. Three layers of deities are ev-ident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears tobe divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, thesun; Tivr, the moon; Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the god-dess of love; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddessof death;Maris;Thalna;Turms;and the ever-popularFuuns, whose name is related in some unknown way tothe city of Populonia and the populus Romanus. Perhapshe was the god of the people.[25][26]Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higherones that seemtoreect theIndo-Europeansystem:Tin or Tinia, the sky, Unihis wife (Juno), and Cel,the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Ro-man gods were taken into the Etruscan system:Aritimi(Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Dionysus). TheGreek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensivelyin art motifs.[25][26]3D view, facing west, of the Etruscan Hypogeum of the Volum-nis, Perugia, Italy, cut from a laser scan.3.2 ArchitectureThe architecture of the ancient Etruscans adapted the ex-ternal Greek architecture for their own purposes, whichwere so dierent from Greek buildings as to create a newarchitectural style. The two styles are often consideredone body of classical architecture. The Etruscans ab-sorbed Greek inuence, apparent in many aspects closelyrelated to architecture. The Etruscans had much inu-ence over Roman architecture.[27]Etruscan architecture made lasting contributions to thearchitecture of Italy, which were adopted by the Romansand through them became standard to Western civiliza-tion. Rome itself is a repository of Etruscan architecturalfeatures.3.3 Art, music and literatureMain article: Etruscan artEtruscan art was the form of gurative art produced by5th century BCE fresco of dancers and musicians, tomb of theleopards, Monterozzi necropolis, Tarquinia, Italythe Etruscan civilization in northern Italy between the 9thand 2nd centuries BC. Particularly strong in this tradi-tion were gurative sculpture in terracotta (particularlylife-size on sarcophagi or temples) and cast bronze, wall-painting and metalworking (especially engraved bronzemirrors). There was also a tradition of Etruscan vasepainting. Etruscan art was strongly connected to religion;the afterlife was of major importance in Etruscan art.[28]The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and7bas-reliefs are dierent types of pipes, suchas theplagiaulos (the pipes of Pan or Syrinx), the alabaster pipeand the famous double pipes, accompanied on percus-sion instruments such as the tintinnabulum, tympanumand crotales, and later by stringed instruments like thelyre and kithara. With the exception of the Liber Lin-teus, the only written records of Etruscan origin that re-main are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language iswritten in the Etruscan alphabet, a script related to theearly Euboean Greek alphabet.[29] Etruscan literature isevidenced only in references by later Roman authors.3.4 Language and etymologyMain article: Etruscan languageKnowledge of the Etruscan language is still far fromCippus Perusinus. 3rd-2ndcenturyBCE, SabnMarconearPerugiacomplete. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken anon-Indo-European language; the majority consensus isthat Etruscan is related only to other members of what iscalled the Tyrsenian language family, which in itself is anisolate family, that is, unrelated directly to other knownlanguage groups. Since Rix (1998), it is widely acceptedthat the Tyrsenian family groups Raetic and Lemnian arerelated to Etruscan.No etymology exists for Rasna, the Etruscans name forthemselves, althoughItalianhistoriclinguist MassimoPittau has proposed the meaning of 'Shaved' or 'Beard-less, backing the opinion of ancient gurines collectorand author Paolo Campidori.[30] The etymology of Tusciis based on a beneciary phrase in the third Iguvine tablet,which is a major source for the Umbrian language.[31] Thephrase is turskum ... nomen, the Tuscan name, fromwhich a root *Tursci can be reconstructed.[32] Ametathe-sis and a word-initial epenthesis produce E-trus-ci.[33] Acommon hypothesis is that *Turs- along with Latin tur-ris, tower, come from Greek , tower.[34] TheTusci were therefore the people who build towers[34] orthe tower builders.[35] This venerable etymology is atleast as old as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who said Andthere is no reason that the Greeks should not have calledthem by this name, both from their living in towers andfrom the name of one of their rulers.[36]Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante (Bonfante, 2002) specu-late that Etruscan houses seemed like towers to the sim-ple Latins. It is true that the Etruscans preferred to buildhill towns on high precipices enhanced by walls. On theother hand, if the Tyrrhenian name came from an incur-sion of Sea Peoples or later migrants, then it might wellbe related to the name of Troy, the city of towers in thatcase.4 References[1] According toFlix Gaots DictionnaireIllustrLatinFranais, the term Tusci was used by the major authorsof the Roman Republic:Livy, Cicero, Horace, and oth-ers. Cognate words developed, including Tuscia and Tus-culanensis. Tusci was clearly the principal term used todesignate things Etruscan; Etrusci and Etrria were usedless often, mainly by Cicero and Horace, and they lackcognates. According to the Online Etymological Dictio-nary, the English use of Etruscan dates from 1706.[2] Gaots.[3] Sandars,N.K. (1987). The Sea Peoples: Warriors ofthe ancient Mediterranean, Revised Edition. London:Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27387-1.[4] Rasenna comes from Dionysius of Halicarnassus I.30.3.The syncopated form, Rasna, is inscriptional and is in-ected. The topic is covered in Pallottino, p. 133. Someinscriptions, such as the cippus of Cortona, feature theRana (pronounced Rashna) alternative, as is describedin Gabor Z. Bodroghys site, The Palaeolinguistic Connec-tion, under Origins.[5] Helmut Rix, Etruscan, inTheAncient LanguagesofEurope, ed. Roger D. Woodard (Cambridge UniversityPress, 2008), pp. 141-164.[6] A good map of the Italian range and cities of the cultureat the beginning of its history can be found at , the mys-teriousetruscans.com site. The topic of the League ofEtruria is covered in Freeman, pp. 562565. The leaguein northern Italy is mentioned in Livy, Book V, Section33. The passage identies the Raetii as a remnant of the8 5 EXTERNAL LINKS12 cities beyond the Apennines". The Campanian Etr-uscans are mentioned (among many sources) by Polybius,(II.17). The entire subject with complete ancient sourcesin footnotes was worked up by George Dennis in his In-troduction. In the LacusCurtius transcription, the refer-ences in Denniss footnotes link to the texts in English orLatin; the reader may also nd the English of some ofthem on WikiSource or other Internet sites. As the workhas already been done by Dennis and Thayer, the completework-up is not repeated here.[7] M. Cary and H. H. Scullard, A History of Rome (3rd ed.,1979), p. 28. ISBN 0-312-38395-9.[8] Silvia Ghirotto, Francesca Tassi, Erica Fumagalli, Vin-cenza Colonna, Anna Sandionigi, Martina Lari, StefaniaVai, Emmanuele Petiti, Giorgio Corti,Ermanno Rizzi,Gianluca De Bellis, David Caramelli, Guido Barbujani (6February 2013). Origins and Evolution of the EtruscansmtDNA. PLOS One. Retrieved 2015-04-25.[9] Robert D. Morritt, Stones that Speak (2010) p.272[10] John Pairman Brown, Israel andHellas, Vol.2 (2000)p.211[11] Etruscan Origins In A Prehistoric European Context Ob-servations That Transcend Law and Politics. Retrieved2013-05-30.[12] Bonfante (2006): 9.[13] Were the Etruscans after all native Italians?". For whatthey were... we are - Prehistory, Anthropology and Genet-ics. 8 February 2013. Retrieved 2015-04-25.[14] Nicholas Wade (3 April 2007). Origins of the Etruscans:Was Herodotus right?". The New York Times. Retrieved2013-05-30.[15] Achilli A, Olivieri A, PalaMet al. (April 2007).Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans sup-ports the near eastern origin of Etruscans. Am. J. Hum.Genet. 80 (4): 75968. doi:10.1086/512822. PMC1852723. PMID 17357081.[16] Larissa Bonfante. Etruscanlifeandafterlife. GoogleBooks. ISBN 978-0-8143-1813-3. Retrieved 2009-04-22.[17] John Franklin Hall. Etruscan Italy. Google Books. ISBN978-0-8425-2334-9. Retrieved 2009-04-22.[18] The Etruscan League of 12. mysteriousetruscans.com. 2April 2009. Retrieved 2015-04-25.[19] Davis and Frankforter, Madison and Daniel (2004). TheShakespeareNameDictionary. Routleg. Retrieved2011-09-14.[20] Cunningham, Reich. Cultures andvalues: SurveyoftheHumanities (2006),p.92: The later Romansowngrandiose picture of the early days of their city was in-tended to glamorize its origins, but only with the arrivalof the Etruscans did anything like an urban center beginto develop.[21] Hughes. Rome: A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History(2012), p.24: Some Roman technical achievements be-gan in Etruscan expertise. Though the Etruscans nevercame up with an aqueduct, they were good at drainage,and hence they were the ancestors of Romes monumen-tal sewer systems.[22] Mario Torelli. The Etruscans. Rizzoli International Publi-cations.[23] Trevor Dupey. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military His-tory. Rizzoli Harper Collins Publisher.[24] Dora Jane Hamblin. The Etruscans. Time Life Books.[25] De Grummond and Nancy Thomson (2006). EtruscanMythology, Sacred History and Legend: An Introduction.University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology.[26] Erika Simon. The religion of the Etruscans. Google Books.ISBN 978-0-292-70687-3. Retrieved 2009-04-22.[27] Axel Bothius, Roger Ling and Tom Rasmussen (1994).Etruscan and early Roman architecture. Yale UniversityPress.[28] Spivey, Nigel (1997). Etruscan Art. London: Thames andHudson.[29] Etrusca. The Culture Traveler.com. Retrieved 2009-04-22.[30] Massimo Pittau, Rasenna[31] Paper entitled Cui Bono?The Beneciary Phrases of theThird Iguvine Table by Michael Weiss and published on-line by Cornell University at .[32] Carl Darling Buck (1904), AGrammarofOscanandUmbian, Boston: Gibb & Company, Introduction, avail-able online at the forumromanum.org site.[33] Eric Partridge (1983), Origins,New York: GreenwichHouse, under tower.[34] The Bonfantes (2003), p. 51.[35] Partridge (1983)[36] Book I, Section 30.5 External linksEtruscan weapons and warfare5.1 ArtEtruscan Lion Plaque Pendant, article on a piece ofEtruscan art5.2 Cities and sites 95.2 Cities and sites(Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologicidell'Umbria) The Cai Cutu Etruscan tombAn undisturbed late Etruscan family tomb, reusedbetween the 3rd and 1st century BC, reassembledin the National Archeological Museum of PerugiaEtruscan Splendors from Volterra in TuscanyHypogeum of the Volumnis digital media archive(creative commons-licensedphotos, laser scans,panoramas), data from a University of Fer-rara/CyArk research partnership10 6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses6.1 Text EtruscancivilizationSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization?oldid=669656445Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas,Rmhermen, Zadcat, Heron, Hephaestos, Edward, AdSR, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Nixdorf, Jketola, Skysmith, Ahoerste-meier, Kricxjo, TUF-KAT, Glenn, Genie, RodC, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Janko, Reddi, Itai, Geraki, Wetman, Owen, Dimadick,Rogper~enwiki, Robbot, AlainV, ChrisO~enwiki, Ashdurbat, Puckly, Rholton, Spamhog, Levzur, Saforrest, Ruakh, SoLando, Wile E.Heresiarch, GreatWhiteNortherner, Adam78, Jhf, Andromeda~enwiki, Pretzelpaws, Ferkelparade, Per Honor et Gloria, Jastrow, Pgan002,GeneralPatton, Antandrus, Bumm13, Kuralyov, Arcturus, Jabecker423, Robin klein, Adashiel, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, YUL89YYZ,Dbachmann, Mani1, TimBray, ESkog, Appleboy, MisterSheik, CanisRufus, Zscout370, El C, Bill Thayer, Circeus, Jolomo, JW1805,Polylerus, HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Lyle~enwiki, Ryanmcdaniel, Walter Grlitz, Ricky81682, TZOTZIOY, Bart133, Dhartung, SidP,J Heath, Nicknack009, Ghirlandajo, Tainter, Bobrayner, Nuno Tavares, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Kupojsin, FeanorStar7, Nor-manEinstein, Mb1000, Wayward, Driftwoodzebulin, Dysepsion, Ashmoo, Cuchullain, Kbdank71, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Dimitrii,Jake Wartenberg, Quiddity, Cynoclast, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Q11, President Rhapsody, Enon, Mathrick, Markh, Red-Bird, Reediewes, CJLL Wright, Bgwhite, Tone, Roboto de Ajvol, Kummi, RussBot, Longbow4u, Red Slash, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar,Rsrikanth05, Bullzeye, NawlinWiki, Muntuwandi, Curtis Clark, Wiki alf, Welsh, Rjensen, THB, Dputig07, Mlouns, Axismech, BlueDanube, Botteville, Thegreyanomaly, Nlu, Igin, Codrinb, Petri Krohn, MaNeMeBasat, JoanneB, JLaTondre, Spliy, Selkem, Luk, At-tilios, SmackBot, Haymaker, Sprocedato, Saimdusan, Od Mishehu, Kintetsubualo, Alsandro, Alex earlier account, Athinaios, Sebesta,Hmains, Betacommand, Nicholai, Quinsareth, Persian Poet Gal, MK8, Hibernian, Jerome Charles Potts, Guparra, Alon, Hongooi, Oat-meal batman, Glengordon01, Calbaer, Stevenmitchell, Fuhghettaboutit, Citizenabc, John D. 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