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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123 (2009) 45–50
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate / je thpharm
thnopharmacological survey of wild medicinal plants in Showbak, Jordan
. Al-Qura’n ∗
u’tah University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 26, Mu’tah, Karak, Jordan
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:eceived 22 August 2008eceived in revised form 16 February 2009ccepted 18 February 2009vailable online 4 March 2009
eywords:edicinal plants
thnopharmacologyraditional medicineCFhowbakordan
a b s t r a c t
Two main research questions are framing this investigation: (1) the main taxa of the medicinal importancevalue altered the Showbak forest stand and species composition? (2) The most safe species and what arethe toxic ones (unsafe). These two research questions are the vital ones to draw a clear image about thewild medicinal plants of this investigated area of Showbak region in Jordan.
79 wild medicinal plant species were investigated in this study which are used in traditional medi-cation for the treatment of various diseases. Most of the locals interviewed dealt with well-known safemedicinal plants such as Aaronsohnia factorovskyi Warb. et Eig., Achillea santolina L., Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Artemisia herba-alba L., Ceratonia siliqua L., Clematis recta L., Herniaria hirsuta L., Malva neglectaWallr., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Ruta chalepensis L., Salvia triloba L., Sarcopoterium spinosa (L.) Spach., Thym-bra capitata (L.) Hof, and Urginea maritima Barker. Many of the wild medicinal plants investigated weretoxic and needed to be practiced by practitioners and herbalists rather than the local healers. Theseplants include Calotropis procera Willd R.Br., Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Sch., Datura stramonium L., Digitalispurpurea L., Ecballium elaterium (L.) A.Rich., Euphorbia helioscopia L., Euphorbia tinctoria Boiss., Glaucium
corniculatum (L.) Curt., Hyoscyamus aureus L., Mandragora officinarum L., Nerium oleander L., Ricinus com-munis L., Solanum nigrum L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunel. The conservation of medicinal plants andnatural resources is becoming increasingly important, so this research is trying to collect informationfrom local population concerning the use of medicinal plants in Showbak; identify the most importantspecie; determine the relative importance value of the species and calculate the informant consensusfactor (ICF) for the medicinal plants. Obtaining results is relied on the interviewee’s personal informationspeci
and the medicinal use of. Introduction
Showbak is characterized by woodland vegetation and locatedn the mountains of sourthern Jordan. It was investigated and quan-itatively surveyed to determine the wild medicinal plant taxa usedraditionally by local healers.
Jordan lies between longitudes 35◦40′ and 39◦E and betweenatitudes 29◦30′ and 34◦N with moist cold winters and dry hot sum-
ers. It is of great interest in vegetation ecology and biogeographyecause it is the meeting place of the Mediterranean, Irano-uranian, Saharo-arabian and the Nubo-sindian regions (Zohary,973; Bender, 1975; Al-Eisawi, 1982; Karim and Al-Qura’n, 1988;l-Khalil, 1995; Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2000). For this reason there areonspicuous changes in the vegetation and in the composition of the
ora over relatively short distances (within 30 km on the westernlopes of the border mountains) related to the highly fluctuationsn topographic factors, so the unique location has led to diversity inlimate, geology and topography. Within these diverse zones, there∗ Tel.: +962 32372380x3245; fax: +962 3 2372528.E-mail address: [email protected].
378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.02.031
fic plants.© 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
are a total of 13 different vegetation types each with many differentfloral and faunal elements (Zohary, 1973; Bender, 1975).
Although Jordan is relatively a small country, it is characterizedby great variation in wild plants. Around 2500 plant species (ofwhich 100 species (2.5%) are listed as endemic) were recorded. Thefloral species in Jordan also include medicinal and herbal speciesas well as aromatic and spices species. From these plants, 485species from 99 different families are categorized as medicinalplants, which are widely distributed all over the country. Practicesof traditional medicine are based on hundreds of years of belief andobservations, which predate the development and spread of mod-ern medicine (Zohary and Feinbrun-Dothan, 1962–1986; Zohary,1973; Friedman et al., 1986; Mahasneh and El-Oqlah, 1999; Krebs,2001; Rates, 2001; Hamdan and Afifi, 2004).
The study area is located within Sharah mountains at an eleva-tion from 1000 to 1400 m above the sea level. This area is dominatedby Mediterranean habitat since it is influenced by the westerly
fronts’ currents associated with winter precipitation, so the coldsnowy winter is the general climate. The mean annual precipitationis of 435 mm in winter while the spring months tend to be wetterwith average precipitation about 200 mm. The mean summer tem-perature is 24 ◦C while 2–6◦C is the average winter temperature.
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ranspiration rates are 1300 mm/year. Rocks are with 6.5–7.0 pH,nd the soil texture ranges from loamy silt to silt clay to gravel clayZohary and Feinbrun-Dothan, 1962–1986; Zohary, 1973; Karimnd Al-Qura’n, 1986, 1988).
The dominant trees are: three Quercus species: Quercus ithabu-ensis Decasne, Quercus coccifera (incl. Quercus calliprinos also theame) and Quercus infectoria, Platanus orientalis (oriental plane),inus halepensis (halap pine), Prunus laurocerasus (cherry laurel),istacia atlantica L., Populus spp. (poplar), Salix sp. (willow), Oleauropea L. (olive tree), and Arbutus andrachne (strawberry tree).
hile several shrubs (Styrax officinalis L., Cistus creticus L., Cis-us salviifolius L., Atriplex halimus L., Calycotome villosa (Poir.) Link,etama raetam L. and Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Spach., Hypericumalycinum, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Linaria genistifolia,aurus nobilis (laurel), dominate the woody vegetation in the inves-igated area. Lower altitudes of south-west facing slopes mainlyith Cercis siliquastrum (judas tree), Juniperus spp., Ligustrum vul-
are (ligustrum), Morus alba (white mulberry), Nerium oleandernd Olea europaea (olive tree) demonstrate generally the higherlant densities than the higher altitudes of north-east facing slopesZohary and Feinbrun-Dothan, 1962–1986; Zohary, 1973; Al-Eisawi,982, 1996; Karim and Al-Qura’n, 1986, 1988; Aburjai et al., 1999,005; Afifi and Abu-Irmaileh, 2000; Abu-Irmaileh and Afifi, 2003;fifi et al., 2005).
Jordan society is composed of two different subclasses: one ruralnd the other urban. Both of them depend upon the rich traditionaleritage. Folk medicine is widely practiced by the inhabitants of theemote areas or the nomads who generally inhabit the desert andome areas of the steppe and the uplands. The reliance on herbaledicine and the uncontrolled collection of medicinal plants might
ause the disappearance of some medicinal herbs growing in therea and will add more plants to the list of the endangered plantpecies. Safety and efficacy data are available for even fewer plants,heir extracts and active ingredients, and the preparations contain-ng them (assurance of the safety, quality, and efficacy of medicinallants and herbal products has now become a key issue in indus-rialized and in developing countries. Both general consumer andealth-care professionals need up-to-date and authoritative infor-ation on the safety and efficacy of medicinal plants (Khayyat andursi, 1981; Dafni and Yaniv, 1994; Harbone, 1997; Adailkan andauthaman, 2001; Joud et al., 2001; Caiozzi et al., 2002; Eddoukst al., 2002; Heinrich, 2002).
This study needs to be framed fully in terms of the followingoncrete research questions: (1) what are the main taxa that havehe medicinal importance value altered the Showbak forest standnd species composition? (2) What are the most safe species andhat are the toxic ones (unsafe). These two research questions
re the vital ones to draw a clear image about the wild medicinallants of this investigated area of Showbak region in Jordan (Zoharynd Feinbrun-Dothan, 1962–1986; Zohary, 1973; Karim and Al-ura’n, 1986, 1988). The ultimate objective of this is to elaborate on
he number, method of use and indication of ethnically importantedicinal plant species prevailing in Showbak woodland region.
. Materials and methods
.1. Study survey
In planning the methodology for this study, the researchervoided the use of a questionnaire approach. Alternatively, the
esearcher relied predominantly on qualitative tools such as infor-al meetings, open discussions and observation, which enabled theresentation of accurate account of the interviewees’ knowledgeouted via oral sources. Data collected through direct interviewsere immediately recorded. The interview aimed to assess several
macology 123 (2009) 45–50
aspects such as plant sources of the medicinal plants and speciessituation in the communities, in addition to the personal education,source and extent of practitioners’ knowledge and willingness to beenrolled into a local union
The survey was conducted during the period 2001–2002. A totalof 25 (20 males and the others were females). Elders are traditionalpractitioners participated in the study. The age of the informantsranged between 40 and 60 years, with an average of 48.6 years. Theelders who participated were identified by community membersas those who were most knowledgeable in traditional medicine.Only practitioners, who utilized medicinal plants as part or all oftheir therapeutic activity, were selected and regarded as profes-sional because they treated patients outside their immediate circleof family and friends. Interview length ranged from 50 to 110 mm.Voucher specimens and field photographs were accomplished inJordan wild flowers and medicinal plants by Karim and Al-Qura’n(1986). Vouchers in form of dried plants, parts of plants or even pho-tos could be found deposited at plant section of Mutah University.The identity of each plant species mentioned by the intervieweeswas verified and confirmed by a professional botanist using livespecimens and photographs (Karim and Al-Qura’n, 1986). A medic-inal use was accepted as valid only if it was mentioned by at leastthree independent practitioners. Some of the plant species men-tioned is known to be rare or endangered species, so they were noteasy to find during the survey.
2.2. Calculations
(1) Informant consensus factor (Trotter and Logan, 1986): it is cal-culated as in the following formula:
ICF = Nur − Nt/Nur − 1, where Nur is the number of use cita-tions in each category and Nt is the number of species used.
(2) The use value (Trotter and Logan, 1986), a quantitative methodthat demonstrates the relative importance of species knownlocally, was also calculated as according to the following for-mula: UV = U/N, where UV is the use value of a species; U is thenumber of citations per species; N is the number of informants.
It was employed to indicate how homogenous the informationis. All citations were placed into ailment categories for which theplant was claimed to be used. ICF values will be low (near 0) ifplants are chosen randomly, or if informants do not exchange infor-mation about their use. Values will be high (near 1) if there is awell-defined selection criterion in the community and/or if infor-mation is exchanged between informants (Akerele, 1988; Afifi andAbu-Irmaileh, 2000; Kloutusos et al., 2001; Abu-Irmaileh and Afifi,2003).
3. Results and discussion
Although Mediterranean areas are known to have a relativelyhigh vegetation cover, this Showbak area forest suffers a limitedbiodiversity. It is interesting to note that the number of plants useddaily by the locals is very limited in comparison with the substan-tial number of medicinal plants found in this mountainous area.Moreover, few people in this area appear to know much about theuse of medicinal plants and the related information seems to be lostthrough younger generations (Krebs, 2001; Prance, 2001).
Only a low number of taxa was recorded in the whole area underinvestigation. Some of the reported plants, which are not native
were introduced into the area either by migration or by domes-tic inhabitation. Informants identified 79 plants and herbs that areused for the treatment of various diseases (see Table 1). Most of thelocals interviewed in Showbak dealt with well-known safe medic-inal herbs. The most commonly used plants included Aaronsohnia
S.Al-Q
ura’n/JournalofEthnopharm
acology123
(2009)45–50
47
Table 1List of wild medicinal plants investigated with their related information. Vouchers in form of dried plants, parts of plants or even photos could be found deposited at plant section of Mutah University.
Plant no. Plant species Family Common English name Part used Methods of use Recommended uses UV Recorded literature uses
1. Aaronsohnia factorovskyi Warb. et Eig. Compositae Yellow chamomile Aerial parts Infusion Carminative 0.24 Intestinal colic.2. Achillea santolina L. Compositae Milfoil Aerial parts Infusion Depurative 0.21 Not reported3. Achillea tomentosa L. Compositae Milfoil Aerial parts Infusion In stomachache 0.20 Stomach aliment4. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantaceae Venus hair Leaves Infusion Expectorant 0.25 Aperitive, gastritis,5. Aloe vera L. Liliaceae Aloe Laticiferous material Decoction Expectorant 0.24 Bladder stonesa6. Althaea rosea (L.) Cav Malvaceae Rose mallow Leaves Infusion Abdominal inflammation, demulcent. 0.32 Stomach, intestine pain,7. Anchusa italica Retz. Boraginaceae Stink herb Flowers, roots Decoction Antidiabetic 0.35 Weight loss, stomach,8. Artemisia herba-alba L. Compositae Field southern wood Aerial parts Infusion Emmenagogue 0.36 Inflammation, asthma9. Atriplex hastata L. Chenopodiaceae Salt orache Leaves and steam Decoction Used to cure gout 0.09 Not reported10. Brassica nigra (L.) Kotck Cruciferae Black mustard Leaves, stem and seeds Expectorant 0.16 Healing wounds11. Bryonia dioica Jacq. Cucurbitaceae White vine Leaves and fruits Infusion Antihypertensive 0.17 Skin, circulatory12. Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. Asclepiadaceae Mudar plant Laticifer Infusion Antispasmodic. 0.19 For gastric diseases13. Capparis spinosa L. Capparidaceae Caper bush Leaves and fruits Edible Expectorant 0.12 Cough,14. Capsella bursa-pastoris L. Cruciferae Capweed Leaves, seeds Pads form Astringent 0.06 Haemostatic,15. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don Apocynaceae Herbaceous periwinkle Leaves, stems Infusion For constipation 0.04 Antihypertensive16. Carthamus tinctorius L. Compositae Staff-flower Leaves, roots Cooking Emollient 0.08 Not reported17. Ceratonia siliqua L. Leguminosae Carob Fruits Soaked as juice In syphilis 0.08 Veneral diseases18. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodiaceae Goose foot Leaves, roots Decoction Diuretic, bladder 0.06 Uterine hemorrhoid,19. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium Vis. Compositae Insect plant Leaves, flowers Decoction Used in scabies 0.38 Antirheumatic,20. Cichorium intybus L. Compositae Chicory Whole plant Cooking Sedative in typhoid 0.36 Internal hemorrhage21. Cistanche tubulosa(Schenk.)Hooker f. Orobanchaceae Broomrape Aerial parts Pads form Wounds healing 0.14 Cholagouge22. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Sch. Cucurbitaceae Bitter apple Fruits, seeds Infusion In hepatic and billiary disease 0.36 Antidiabetic, cathartic23. Clematis recta L. Ranunculaceae Clematis Whole plant Decoction Antisyphilitic 0.23 Eye diseases24. Colchicum autumnale L. Lilaceae Meadow crocus Aerial parts Decoction For gout 0.25 Healing wounds25. Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Thorn apple Aerial parts Decoction For asthma 0.06 Neuralgic pain26. Digitalis purpurea L. Scrophulariaceae Common fox glove Whole plant Syrup Cardiac tonic 0.06 Hypotensive27. Ecballium elaterium (L.) A.Rich. Cucurbitaceae Squirting cucumber Fruits Decoction For jaundice 0.14 For fluid retention28. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. Gramineae Cock spur grass Whole plant Syrup For spleen disorders 0.25 Diaphoretic29. Ephedra campylopoda C.A.Mey Ephedraceae Ephedra, joint pine Aerial parts Infusion Asthma, bronchodilator 0.30 Styptic30. Eryngium creticum Lam. Umbelliferae Snake root Whole plant Cooking In renal stones and skin diseases 0.10 Diaphoretic31. Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae Wolf’s milk, surge Latex Decoction Antiscorbutic 0.20 Diaphoretic32. Euphorbia tinctoria Boiss. Euphorbiaceae Wolf’s milk, surge Latex Decoction For arthritis 0.11 Anthelmintic33. Foeniculum vulgare (L.) Mill Umbelliferae Fennel Whole plant Edible fresh Antitussive, bronchodilator, 0.09 Anthelmintic lactagogue34. Glaucium corniculatum (L.) Curt. Papaveraceae Horned poppy Aerial parts Decoction For arthritis 0.12 Antirheumatic35. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Leguminosae Liquorice Roots Syrup Diuretic 0.22 Useful for peptic ulcers36. Heliotropium europaeum L. Boraginaceae Turnsole Aerial parts Decoction Cholagogue 0.23 Throat diseases37. Herniaria hirsuta L. Caryophyllaceae Burst wort Whole plant Syrup Bronchodilator, for bladder disorders 0.15 Wound healing38. Hyoscyamus aureus L. Solanaceae Hanbane Aerial parts Decoction Narcotic, hypnotic 0.15 For intestinal mucosa39. Inula viscosa (L.) Ait. Compositae Inula Whole plant Infusion Anthelmintic, for lung disorders 0.16 Nerve tonic40. Iris petrana Dinsm. Iridaceae Iris, orris Rhizomes Infusion Expectorant, for teething infants. 0.17 For teething infants.41. Juniperus phoenicea L. Cupressaceae Common Juniper Leaves Decoction For rheumatism 0.17 For skin diseases (eczema)42. Lactuca virosa L. Compositae Great lettuce Aerial parts Cooking In typhoid fever, hypnotic 0.18 Diuretic43. Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae Low mallow Aerial parts Cooking For constipation 0.07 Antitussive44. Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae Blue mallow Aerial parts Cooking Antitussive 0.36 Emollient45. Mandragora officinarum L. Solanaceae Satan’s apple Matured fruits Decoction Ointments for external use 0.06 Purgative46. Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae Laurel, kafur Leaves Infusion Antirheumatic, 0.46 Antiscabies47. Leontice leontopetalum L. Berberidaceae Lion’s foot Corms Pads form Antiepileptic 0.34 Diaphoretic48. Matricaria chamomilla L. Compositae German camomile Aerial parts Soaking For intestinal colic, hypnotic 0.03 Astringent49. Melilotus albus Med. Leguminosae White melilot Aerial parts Infusion Anticoagulent in thrombosis 0.03 Purgative50. Mentha longifolia L. Labiatae Horse mint Aerial parts Soaking Relieves spasms and flatulence 0.01 Carminative51. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Cruciferae Water cress Whole plant Edible fresh Expectorant 0.04 Antispasmodic52. Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae Oleander Leaves, fruits Decoction Cardiac tonic 0.05 Antitussive53. Ononis spinosa L. Leguminosae Gammock, resthorrow Leaves, roots Infusion Useful for renal disorders 0.13 Aperitive54. Ornithogalum umbellatum L. Liliaceae White field onion Bulbs Pads form For gout and cardiac troubles 0.16 Antistomachache.55. Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae Indian sorrel Leaves, stems Infusion For urinary inflammations 0.25 Carminative
48 S. Al-Qura’n / Journal of EthnopharTa
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macology 123 (2009) 45–50
factorovskyi Warb. Et Eig., Achillea santolina L., Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Artemisia herba-alba L., Ceratonia siliqua L., Clematis rectaL., Herniaria hirsuta L., Malva neglecta Wallr., Rosmarinus officinalis L.,Ruta chalepensis L., Salvia triloba L., Sarcopoterium spinosa (L.) Spach.,Thymbra capitata (L.) Hof, and Urginea maritima Barker. The use ofmoderately unsafe or toxic plants was noted to be practiced by prac-titioners and herbalists rather than the locals. These plants includeCalotropis procera (Ait.) Ait., Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Sch., Daturastramonium L., Digitalis purpurea L., Ecballium elaterium (L.) A.Rich.,Euphorbia helioscopia L., Euphorbia tinctoria Boiss., Glaucium cornic-ulatum (L.) Curt., Hyoscyamus aureus L., Mandragora officinarum L.,Nerium oleander L., Ricinus communis L., Solanum nigrum L., Withaniasomnifera (L.) Dunel.
Medicinal plants are usually used internally or externally whichdepends on the illness. The internal use of the medicinal plantsconsisted mainly of drugs used to relief stomachache, back acheand muscle pain as well as constipation, cough, asthma and kidneystones. Almost all the external remedies prepared from medicinalplants are prepared in olive oil, mainly in the form of decoction.As olive tree is highly distributed in Showbak, so the use of thistree in folkloric medicine and in the preparation of some dosageform is very common. Practitioners advise the oral consumptionof these plants. Aaronsohnia factorovskyi Warb. et Eig, Aloe vera L.,Artemisia herba-alba L., Ephedra campylopoda C.A.Mey, Glycyrrhizaglabra L., Heliotropium europaeum L., Inula viscosa (L.) Ait., Ononisspinosa L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Scilla autumnalis L., Teucriumpolium L., Urtica urens L. and Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don werethe most commonly reported plants to be used in their traditionalmedicine. The external use of medicinal plants in this area consistedmainly of drugs for inflammation and irritations of the skin (skincracks, bruises, frostbite, scorpion bite and insect bite), and mucousmembranes (irritations and infections of the mouth and gums, andhemorrhoids). The use of other poisonous plants such as Euphorbiahelioscopia L., Euphorbia tinctoria Boiss. and Mandragora officinarumL. seems to be diminished, despite a heritage of traditional use, dueto recognition of their toxicity.
Decoction or infusion is almost the common method of prepa-ration of medicinal plants to be used internally, however, withoutknowing neither the real differences between the two methods northeir effect on the final product. In very rare cases, other methodsof preparation and use were recorded like direct applications inthe form of powdered plant material, paste or in the form of vaporinhalation (Harbone, 1997; Heinrich et al., 1998; Hamdan and Afifi,2004).
Users of medicinal plants in Showbak are not fully aware ofsome medicinal facts, despite of some recorded errors in select-ing the proper plant part to use, the vast majority of the informantsaddressed the true plant part based on traditional heritage ratherthan a scientific knowledge, suggesting the poor experience con-cerning the appropriate prescription (Stickel et al., 2000; Rates,2001; Said et al., 2002). To achieve a positive response to herbalpreparations, one should select the proper part of a plant that con-tains the active constituents. It is well known that not all the plantparts (organs) contain the same concentration of the active con-stituents. Not only that, but in many plant different parts containtotally different phytochemical substances. For instance, leaves ofCapparis spinosa L. were used to treat arthritis instead of the rootbark, while aerial parts of were employed instead of the flower-ing tops. Ironically, in animal models, upon testing some plantssuch as, Herniaria hirsuta L., Teucrium polium and Pistacia atlanticafor their potential antidiabetic activity, they exhibited no hypogly-
caemic action or have induced hyperglycemia (Stickel et al., 2000;Kloutusos et al., 2001; Prance, 2001; Rates, 2001; Piccillo et al.,2002; Said et al., 2002). This underscores the need for clinical evi-dences for the claimed medicinal use of the phytomedicinal plants.Furthermore, Ecballium elaterium, a plant common to herbal prac-
S. Al-Qura’n / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123 (2009) 45–50 49
Table 2Consensus factor of the informant categorized by the use of medicinal plants for the ailment.
No. Ailements Species no. % All species Use citation % All use citation ICF value
1 Hemorhoids 3 7.78 6 4.65 0.252 Blood pressure 4 9.75 7 5.76 0.263 Diabetic problems 11 20.70 12 8.67 0.274 Urogenital and kidney problems 8 13.20 15 10.70 0.285 Internal and external Inflammation pains 5 14.13 11 9.46 0.296 Respiratory problems 8 14.12 12 8.79 0.307 28 491
tjapitpisttumlmsuCcMocstfcATri1VUotaaksfcmwQraelvt0n(
Skin problem 11Digestive problems 19Delivery and female problems 3
0 Constipation 4
ice in early Arabic medicine, is still widely used for the treatment ofaundice especially for newborns. Nevertheless, in vitro testing andnimal experiments done on active principles isolated from thislant showed significant anti-inflammatory and antihepatotoxic-
ty activities (Karim and Al-Qura’n, 1986). Other ailments includehe treatment of toothache, headache, muscle and rheumaticains, burns, skin infections, allergies, cuts, wounds, eczema, eye
nfections and contraception. Healers prescribe medicine for allymptoms that reflect a lack of general well being. Their rationale ishat “all herbs were tried before by our ancestors or we have triedhem individually” and “the abundance of those herbs has forceds to experiment their healing powers”. According to all the infor-ants, the traditional healing practice is also divided along gender
ines. The abandoned use of Mandragora officinarum L. as narcoticedicinal plants in the region accentuated by the introduction of
afe drugs. Serious poisoning cases have been reported after these Mandragora officinarum L. with severe atropine-like symptoms,itrullus colocynthis is used for the treatment of arthritis, while Sar-opoterium spinosum for the treatment of heartburn (Khayyat andursi, 1981; Karim and Al-Qura’n, 1986). Consequently, a number
f preparations are offered to treat infertility, vaginal infections,hild bearing, delivery and breast-feeding, where on the other hand,ome other healers provide women with prescriptions for abor-ion and contraception. Child health receives considerable attentionrom healers: herbs are prescribed for treating baby indigestion,ramps, jaundice, dehydration, constipation, eye infections and flu.little number of plants is mentioned to be used for such a purpose.
he use of White petrolatum, as an ointment base, for the incorpo-ation of plant material for cosmetic use is comparable to olive oiln the studied area (Khayyat and Mursi, 1981; Karim and Al-Qura’n,986). As calculated by the use-value UV (Trotter and Logan, 1986,itex agnus-castus L. (0.62), Viscum cruciatum Sieb et Boiss. (0.56),rginea maritima Barker (0.55), Thuja occidentalis L. (0.52), Styraxfficinale L. (0.49) and Laurus nobilis L. (0.46) were reported to be ofhe highest use value. The FIC values obtained for the categorizedilments are presented in Table 2 (Trotter and Logan, 1986). Tenilment categories were reported, namely, digestive problems andidney problems, inflammation and pain, hemorrhoids, blood pres-ure, skin problems, respiratory problems, diabetes, delivery andemale problems, constipation. ICF values obtained for the reportedategories indicate the degree of shared knowledge for the treat-ent of the ailment by medicinal herbs. The highest ICF (0.55)as scored for the constipation ailments, Malva neglecta Wallr.,uercus coccifera L. and and Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don were
eported within the plant remedies indicated for this use. Deliverynd female problems by all its images recorded the second high-st ICF value (0.48). Digestive problems recorded by its all imagesike the third group (ICF was 0.45), while the fourth level of ICF
alues (0.31) was recorded for skin problems category. Respira-ory problems were ranked as the fifth ailment with ICF value of.30. An ICF value of 0.29 was recorded for internal and exter-al inflammation pains. Urogenital and kidney problems with ICF0.28) were recorded the seventh level. The last citations of this3.39 16 12.56 0.314.23 47 32.26 0.455.42 7 4.02 0.487.72 9 6.23 0.55
ranking was reported for plants used to treat diabetic problems,blood pressure and hemorrhoids with ICF value of 0.27, 0.26 and0.25 respectively (see Table 2). These categories recorded a lowerICF, which could be attributed to the civilization trend of the societyand the tendency of the people to follow orthodox medicine in thesemodern society recognized diseases. Other medicinal plants, whichwere mentioned but were not classified under a specific categoryinclude Althaea officinalis (emollient), Ecballium elaterium (infantilejaundice), Inula viscosa (Magic trials) and Mandragora officinarum(highly toxic). Searching the literature for other field surveys donein Jordan or over the Mediterranean areas lie within the neighboringregion of similar biogeographical zone and biodiversity, revealed agreat deal of agreement among the medicinal plants and their tra-ditional remedial uses (Zohary and Feinbrun-Dothan, 1962–1986;Zohary, 1973; Karim and Al-Qura’n, 1986, 1988).
Upon comparison, plants which were shown to have the sameuse include Aaronsohnia factorovskyi Warb. Et Eig., Achillea santolinaL., Achillea tomentosa L., Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Aloe vera L.,Brassica nigra (L.) Kot., Capparis spinosa L.k., Capsella bursa-pastorisL., Cichorium intybus L., Iris petrana L., Artemisia herba-alba, Cap-paris spinosa L., Quercus infectoria Oliv., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Rutachalepensis L., Solanum nigrum L., Capsella bursa-pastoris, Ceratoniasiliqua, Crataegus aronia, Ecballium elaterium, Eryngium creticum,Mandragora officinarum L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Melilotusindicus, Pistacia atlantica L., Quercus coccifera, Salvia triloba, Sarcopo-terium spinosum and Teucrium polium. Such supportive citationsindicate not high level of knowledge among generations and neigh-boring populations, which may increase the fidelity concerning themedicinal use of these plants.
4. Conclusion
The phenomenon of significant contraction in the variety andextent of medicinal plant usage in the Middle Eastern area suggestthat the indigenous medicine of the area is diminishing and maydisappear. This is paradoxical at a time when there is an increasinginterest worldwide in herbal medicines. A diverse or wide col-lection of medicinal plant species and the knowledge concerningtheir medicinal use function as the raw material for new drugdevelopment research. It is worthy, that many medicinal plants,which known to be used for the treatment of various illnesseswere not mentioned at all by the locals although many of themare native plants to the study area. Unfortunately, the latter obser-vation highlights the fact that much of the ethno pharmacologicalheritage in the area has been lost within successive generations.Therefore, the decline in the regional knowledge base concerningmedicinal plants will severely limit the potential of ethnobotany
and ethnopharmacology for drug discovery. Such fieldwork sur-veys document the traditional medical use of plants before thedieing out of such informative resources. The preservation of theknow-how and plant species is a fundamental step toward devel-oping efficacious remedies for various diseases. Ethnobotanical and
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thnopharmacological research is very crucial in the developmentf drugs from natural sources. The information obtained on iden-ification, preparation, clinical use, gathering, and preservation of
edicinal plants dramatically facilitates the search for new drugs,nd the time needed for drug development programs. Since manylant species are indicated as potential resource for treating var-
ous diseases such as diabetes, skin, liver, digestive and urinaryystem diseases, this should encourage further research in theseelds.
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