Ethnomethodology's Programme (Garfinkel)

7/30/2019 Ethnomethodology's Programme (Garfinkel)

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Ethnomethodology's ProgramAuthor(s): Harold GarfinkelReviewed work(s):Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 1996), pp. 5-21Published by: American Sociological AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2787116 .Accessed: 14/06/2012 17:02

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Social Psychologyuarterly1996, Vol. 59 No. 1, 5-21Ethnomethodology'srogram*

HAROLD GARFINKELUniversityf California, osAngelesETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM

1.1 What s Ethnomethodology?Ethnomethodologyetsreintroducedomein a recurrentpisode t the nnualmeetingsof the American ociologicalAssociation.I'm waiting or he levator. he doors pen."Oh, Hi Hal!" "Hi." I walk in. THEQUESTION is asked: "Hey, Hal, what Sethnomethodology?"he elevator doorsclose. We're on ourwayto the ninth loor.I'm onlyable to say, "Ethnomethodologysworking ut some very preposterousrob-lems." The elevator oorsopen.On theway o my oom t occurs o me thatI shouldhave said that thnomethodologysrespecifyingurkheim'sivedimmortal,r-dinary ociety, vidently, oing o bywork-ingout a schedule fpreposterousroblems.

The problemshave their sources in theworldwide ocial sciencemovement. heyaremotivatedythatmovement's biquitouscommitmentso thepoliciesand methods fformal nalysis nd general epresentationaltheorizingndby tsunquestionablechieve-ments.FormalAnalytic FA) technologynd itsresults are understoodworldwide.Almost*Acknowledgements:hereare manypeoplewhose

contributionothisworkneed to be acknowledged,otleast those manystudentsnd colleagueswhose eth-nomethodologicaltudies aveprovidedhe atalogue finvestigations,iscussed ere,without hich he riginalpromise f "Studies"wouldhave remained nfulfilled.Ethnomethodologys after all, and necessarily, nunrelievedlympirical nterprise. thank lso DougMaynardndLucySuchmanor heirteadfastriendshipandfortheir enerosity ith heir ime nd their ardwonknowledgenshoptalk. am deeplyn debt o AnneRawls.Yearsagoshewasbriefly y tudent. ow she smy teacher, steemed olleague,and rare friend. hesustained urdiscussionshroughhewritingnd tookthe ime ocarefullydit hismanuscriptor ublication.Because of many eoplewhohavetaken p an nterestinethnomethodologyt s impossiblehat nedescriptionwillencompass hevastarray f studies oingby thatname. However, hope that there s room in thisdiscussion or hose tudieswhich ake he mportancefwitnessable ecurrenthenomenal ieldsof detail seri-ously ndas a primaryssue, nwhateverther espectswe maydiffer.

unanimouslyor he rmies f social analysts,in endless analyticarts and sciences ofpractical ction,formal nalytic roceduresassuregoodwork ndare accorded he tatusof good work. FA's achievementsre wellknown nd pointless o dispute. A technol-ogy exercises niversalurisdictionntarget-ing phenomena oranalysis.Phenomena forder are made instructablybservable nformal nalytic etailsof concertedlyecur-rent chievementsf practical ction.Theserange rom he onductf war o the ransientpause before n invitations refused.Phe-nomena made instructablybservable informal nalytic etailsof concertedlyecur-rent chievementsfpractical ctions re soprovided for by FA that a phenomenon,whateverhe phenomenonnd whatevertsscale, is made nstructablybservable s theworkof a population hat taffstsproduc-tion. Populationsare usually treated asstraightforwardountsof bodies. The pro-posalhere s instead hatt s theworkingsfthephenomenonhat xhibitmong ts otherdetails the population hat staffs t. Thispopulations exhibitednsurveyable articu-lars of body counts and dimensionalizeddemographics. hese are elucidated withvariable nalysis, uantifiedrguments,ndcausal structures.uch analytic escriptionsare available in all administeredocieties,contemporarynd historical.That these achievementsre unquestion-able s assured ybeing ubordinatedo FA'spremierchievement,hecorpus tatus f itsbibliographies. y corpus I mean (1) itsinvestigations,lways accompanied y tex-tual accountsthatdescribe, pecify,makeinstructablybservable, satisfy,and areexhibitsof adequate groundsof further

' It is theworkingsf the traffichatmake ts staffavailable s "typical" rivers,bad" drivers,close in"drivers ndanythinglsethedemographerseedto haveto administer causal account f thedriving. ndoge-nouspopulations re a topicofrecurringthnomethod-ological interest. ou don't startwithbodies. TheConversationalnalysis f talkprovides nother xam-ple. It starts ith onversationhich xhibitsts peakersas typical ecurring,oingtagain nthe ameway, taff.5


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6 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYinferencend action. 2) These are adequa-cies of an investigation'srigins nd problemspecification,nd of theproblem's ssentialhistory, escriptiveoverage,facticity,ele-vance, and, as contingenciesn an actualoccasion f nquirymayhaverequired,ny fthe rest. 3) The adequacies re instructablyreproducible.4) The foregoingre satisfiedin actualworksite chievements.5) Investi-gationsat all levels of findingsn theserespects can be taken on these groundsseriously o define a current ituation finquiry.EthnomethodologyEM) is proposing ndworking ut "What More" there s to theunquestionableorpus tatus f formal na-lyticnvestigationshan ormalnalysis oes,did, everdid, or can provide.EM does notdispute hose chievements.Withoutisput-ing those achievements s unquestionablydemonstrablechievements2M asks "WhatMore" is there hatusersof formalnalysisknowanddemand he existence f,that Adepends upon the existenceof for FA'sworksite-specificchievementsn carefullyinstructed rocedures, hat FA uses andrecognizes verywheren and as its livedworksite-specificractices.Thereare practices hatFA practitionersjust nany ctual aseknow ndrecognizereunavoidable,withoutemedyr alternatives.Thepracticesreindispensableopractition-ers. Just s in anyactualcase thepractices

2 If this claim is read as irony, t will be readincorrectly.o read t withoutrony, ecall he cene nlonesco'sRhinoceros. he last manandhis girlfriend,Daisy,are looking ut nto he street elow filledwithrhinoceroses. aisy exclaims, Oh look, they're anc-ing." The lastman: "You call thatdancing!" Daisy:"That'stheway they ance."Similarly,o disrespects involved orFA's demandthat ts nvestigationseworldly ork ffindingut ndspecifyingeal order, vidently;eal order,not cocka-mamie real order. Real order s FA's achievement,withoutuestion. M is not laimingo know etter. utneithers EM proposingo institutend carry ut EMinvestigationsf ordinary ocietywhile being in themidst of organizationalhings nd thereinknowingnothing. ather,we'll proceedwithoutaving odecideoreventoknowhow toproceedwhileknowing othing.Instead, y beginning],y carryingn], by findingurbearings gain], by [completingn investigation]e'lllandourselvesn themidst f things. rocedurally eknowsomething.We're not agnostic.EM's commit-ments rethe ame s those fFA inworldwidenalyticstudies f practical ction nd practical eason: n themidst f itsendlessthingswe'll study he work s ofwhichmmortalrdinaryociety onsists.We'll see.

specifypractitioners'work and make itinstructablybservable."WhatMore" has centrallyand perhapsentirely)odo with rocedures. havegivenproceduralEM's emphasison work. Byprocedural,EM does not mean process.Proceduralmeans labor. That emphasis sexemplifiedn theprobative escriptionsyDavid Sudnow. At the worksite-playinghearablymprovisedazz at thepianokey-board;typingwatchablyhoughtfulords tthe ypewritereyboard;nactedlyolving heproblem,tthe omputeronsole, fgettinghigh core n "Breakout," hevideogame-progressivelynddevelopinglyoming ponthephenomenonia thework nand as oftheunmediatedetails fproducingt Sudnow,1978,1979,1983,1996).Thecentralbsessionnethnomethodolog-icalstudies stoprovide orwhat he lternateproceduraldescriptions f achieved andachievable henomenaforder-methodolo-gies-could be withoutacrificingssuesofstructure.hatmeanswithoutacrificinghegreat chievements-ofescribableecogniz-able recurrencies, f generality, nd ofcomparabilityf theseproductionsf ordi-nary ctivitiesactivities that arry ith hemtherecognizablechievementsfpopulationsthatstaff heirproduction,long withtheinterchangeabilitynd surveyabilityf thosepopulations. his is not an indifferenceostructure.his s a concernwith tructuresan achieved henomenonforder.EM isconcerned ith WhatMore," ntheworld of familiar, rdinaryctivities, oesimmortal,rdinaryociety onsist f as thelocusandthe ettingfevery opicoforder,every opicoflogic,ofmeaning, fmethodrespecified nd respecifiable s the mostordinaryurkheimianhingsntheworld.Ethnomethodology'sundamentalhenom-enon nd tsstandingechnicalreoccupationin itsstudies s to find, ollect, pecify,ndmake nstructablybservable he ocalendog-enousproductionnd natural ccountabilityof immortalamiliarociety'smostordinaryorganizationalhings n the world,and toprovide orthem oth nd simultaneouslysobjects ndprocedurally,s alternatemeth-odologies.The identityfobjects ndmethodologiesis key.Thesemethodologiesre incarnatenfamiliar ociety.Therein heyare uniquelyadequate o thephenomena hoseproductiontheydescribe ubstantively,n material e-


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 7tails. The competence f theirproductionstaffs onsistsof the unique adequacy ofmethods. he competencef their roductionstaffss, itexists s, it is identicalwith, heunique adequacy of methods.3EM addresses heseprovisionss empiri-cally adequatedescriptions.t carries hemout by eschewing he methodsof formalanalysis. his sdonewithoutoss or sacrificeof ssuesofstructure,nd withoutowdleriz-ingor gnoringssuesof structurerchangingthe ubject.Without acrificingssues of structurerchanging he subject?That means withoutsacrificinghe ubiquitous chievements,neverydayife,of recognizablend account-able, observablerecurrencies f practicalactions ndpractical easoningn achievedlycoherent,rdered, niquely dequatedetailsofgenerality,fcomparability,f classifica-tion, ftypicality,funiformity,fstandard-ization.These are recurrenciesnproductionsof the phenomena f ordinaryctivities-traffic ams, service lines, summoningphones,blackboard otes, azz piano in acocktail ounge, alking hemistryn lectureformat-phenomenahat xhibit, longwiththeir ther ndogenouslyccountable etails,the endogenously ccountable populationsthat taff heir roduction.What n the worlddo these chievementsconsist of? Where in the world are theyfound?How in the worldare theyfound?What n the worldof commonplace,ocal,endogenoushaecceitiesof daily life doesimmortal,rdinaryociety onsist f as thelocus andthe ettingfevery opicoforder,of logic, of meaning, f method, eason,rationality,cience, truth, especified ndrespecifiables the mostordinaryoncertedlivedorganizationallynacted henomenantheworld?1.2 Theres Order n thePlenum

According otheworldwideocial sciencemovement nd the corpus status of itsbibliographies,here is no order in theconcretenessfthingsGarfinkel,988). Theresearch nterprisesf the social scientificmovement re defeatedby the apparentlyhopelessly ircumstantialverwhelminge-tails ofeverydayctivities-the lenum, he3 The unique adequacy requirementf methods sexplained rieflynGarfinkelnd Wieder,1992.

plenty, heplenilunium.o get remedy,hesocial scienceshaveworked utpolicies ndmethods f formalnalysis.Theserespecifytheconcrete etailsof ordinaryctivities sdetailsof the analyzing evices and of themethodshatwarrantheuseofthese evices.They respecifyhe sheer ircumstantialityfordinary ctivities o that order can beexhibited nalytically.t is essentially nempirical emonstration.hedetails ound nthe model reveal the essential recurringinvarianteatures hich reFA's phenomena.A Catalog ofEthnomethodologicalnvesti-gations4 onsists f evidence o thecontrary.Indeed,there s order n themostordinaryactivities of everyday ife in their fullconcreteness,nd thatmeans n their ngo-ingly procedurally nacted coherence ofsubstantive,rderedhenomenaletailswith-out oss ofgenerality.5t has to do with heunexplicatedpecifics fdetails nstructures,in recurrencies,n typicality,ot the detailsgottenyadministeringgeneric escription.These detailsare unmediatedlyxperiencedandexperiencedvidently.Just-in-any-actual-casemmortal rdinarysociety s a wonderful east. Evidentlyndjust n any actual ase, Godknowshow t sput together. he principal ormal nalyticdevices currentlyn hand,ofpaying arefulattentionotheuse,thedesign, nd adminis-tration f genericrepresentationalheoriz-ing-models,for xample, et job done hatwith he ame echnicalkills nadministeringthem ose the very phenomenonhattheyprofess.

4 A Catalog of EM Investigations ith Which toRespecify opics of Logic, Order,Meaning, Method,Reason,Structure,cience, ndtheRest, n, About, ndAs theWorkingsf mmortal, rdinary ocietyJust nAnyActual Case. WhatDid We Do? WhatDid WeLearn?InA CatalogStatement,rieflynnotatedhemesndtopics, n variousdocuments,re arrangedn severalcollections f ethnomethodologicalnvestigations.or-matted s a directed eview ndunderstoods steps f anargument,hesenvestigations,nseveral olumes,makeuptheEM Catalog.5 I usegeneralitys synecdoche or arious eaturesflived phenomena hat formalanalysis collects anddescribes s structures.tructuresre extensivelyis-cussed in Seven Cases WithWhich o SpecifyHowPhenomenalieldsofOrdinary ctivities reLost WithEngineeringetailsof RecordingMachinery: hythmicClapping, ummoninghones,Counting urns t Talk,Scrubbing he Sink and OtherTrivial, UnavoidablySight-Specificrdinary obsAround heHouse, TrafficFlow,Service ines, ndComputerupportedeal TimeOccupations.


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8 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYEnacted specificallyordinaryorganiza-tional phenomena n orderedphenomenaldetailsof structuresvidently re strange.Immortal,rdinaryocietys strange.Strange?n particulars,hat's o strange?

What s stranges alreadywell known ndavailable.Considerthat mmortal rdinaryocietyevidently,ust in anyactualcase, is easilydone and easily recognizedwithuniquelyadequate ompetence,ulgar ompetence,yoneandall-and, for llthat, yoneandall tis intractablyard to describeprocedurally.Procedurally escribed,ust in any actualcase, it is elusive. Further, t is onlydiscoverable.t is not maginable.t cannotbe imagined ut s onlyactually ound ut,and ust in anyactualcase.6 The way it isdone is everythingt can consistof andimagineddescriptionsannot capturethisdetail. Just n any actual case it is bothvulgarly oneandintractablehen t comesto making t instructable.bsent hat, ndGodknows ow t sput ogether. ore othepointof strange:n God's silence,formalanalysts, y exercisingheprivileges f thetranscendentalnalyst and the universalobserver,o notknow;yet till omehowheyknow hey eednothesitateosay.Moreon "strange."How immortal,rdi-nary societyis put togetherncludestheincarnate orkbyformalnalysts f payingcarefulttentionothedesign ndadministra-tionofgeneric epresentationalheorizing.tis nonewsthat hatworks an enacted etailof theimmortalociety t learns boutandteaches. n thesocial sciencemovementhejobs of descriptivenalysisget done withgenerictheorizing. he skills withwhichtheseobs are doneareeverywhereccompa-niedbycurious ncongruities.hesearewellknown, nd evenfreelycknowledged,heyinclude hatwith he ameproceduralkills fcarryingut heseobsthephenomenaheyocarefullyescribere ost.Further,heprocedurefgeneric epresen-tationalheorizinguts nplaceofthe nactedwitnessableetailof mmortalrdinaryoci-etya collection f signs.The FA procedureignoreshe nacted, nmediated,irectlyndimmediately itnessable etailsof immortalordinaryociety.Then, analystshave onlyone option, n order o carry hroughheir

6 For a deep explication of thatclaim see Schegloff,1987.

analytic nterprises,hesebeingthecarefulenterprisesfdescriptionhatwillpermithedemonstrationf the orpus tatus f ordinaryactions; n order odo that, nalysts ecomeinterpretersf signs. Following throughconsistently iththisprocedure,t is thenarguedhatnterpretations unavoidable. hatdesigning nd interpretingmarks, ndica-tors, igns, ndsymbols" s inevitably hatsociologistsnd social scientistsmustdo inorder o carry utthe corpus tatus f theirstudies f ordinaryctivities.EM is not n thebusiness f interpretingsigns. It is not an interpretiventerprise.Enacted ocal practices re nottextswhichsymbolizemeanings" revents. hey re ndetail identical with themselves, nd notrepresentativef somethinglse. The wit-nessably ecurrentetailsof ordinaryvery-day practices onstituteheirown reality.Theyare studiedn their nmediated etailsand not s signed nterprises.Is it thenthat ethnomethodologyn itsconcernswith"WhatMore" is critical fformalanalytic nvestigations?s it thatethnomethodologys one more n a familiarline ofacademic ociology'sn-houseritics,stirringhe waters he bettero fish herein?Therehave been uthors f ethnomethodolog-ical studieswhosereputationserepromotedbyofferingo themembersf theworldwidesocial sciencemovement aysofupgradingtheir raft. Your science s cockeyed.Weneed to sit downand diagnoseforyou ustwhereyou'regoingwrong."Ethnomethodol-ogy has yetto deliverpromised epairs oformal nalytic ocial scientificnterpriseswithoutosing tsownphenomena.Ethnomethodologys notcritical f formalanalyticnvestigations.ut neithers it thecase thatEM, andthatmeansA CatalogofEM Investigations,as no concernwitharemedial xpertisendhasnothingopromiseor deliver. Ethnomethodologys appliedethnomethodology.owever, its remedialtransactionsre distinctiveoEM expertise.That expertises offered or phenomenawhose ocal, endogenous roductions trou-bled in ordered henomenaletails f struc-tures. M doesnotoffer remedialxpertisethats transcendentalothesephenomena.nthese hegeneralityfEM's remedial xper-tise s indifferento (independentf) theuseofpolicies fgeneric epresentationalheoriz-ingandmethods f constructivenalysis ospecifyhegeneralityf remedial xpertise.


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 9Havingbeenfound ut,EM's findingsredescribedwith hequestions Whatdid wedo? Whatdid we learn?More to thepoint,whatdidwe learn,butonly n and as liveddoings, hatwe can teach?And how canwe

teach it?" EM's findingsre tutorial rob-lems.They renotdifferenthan edagogies.They were learned in settings n whichteachingnd learning eingdone in concertwith otherswere locallyand endogenouslywitnessable yand"relevantotheparties."In these respects heywere essentially n-avoidable nd withoutemedy.ThatEM's findingsrepedagogies as anobvious ocus nethnomethodologicaltudiesof workand occupations. ts findings refound there in the phenomenaof twoconstituentsf theShop FloorProblem:1)shopfloor chievementsndtheir ccompa-nying areful*7 escriptions,nd (2) shopfloor heorizing. heyare found here lso,andeverywherelse, incareful* escriptions;in the praxeologicalvalidity f instructedactions;8 nd in one of EM's distinctiveresultsand its centralphenomenon: hepraxeological alidity f instructedction s(i.e., "exists s," "is identical ith," is thesameas") thephenomenon.heseresults recollected in EM studies of work in theprofessionsndsciences.Flatly,none of EM's questions re con-cernedwithwho s ahead na contest etweenrival laimstoadequate cience nthe ocialsciences. nstead, nd ust as flatly,he twodisciplines,FA and EM, are both andsimultaneouslyncommensurablyifferentand unavoidably elated.Whatdo the twotechnologiesaveto do with ach other? hisis EM's prevailinguestion. hisquestionsthe enter f EM's bibliographies.1.3 FormalAnalytic iteraturesnd TheirEM Alternates

A collection f EM investigationsstab-lishes and specifies, y making nstructably7 Careful, pelledwith n asterisk efers odescrip-tions hat re available t theworksiteomisreadingsthe irstegmentf n nstructedction. his sexplainedfurthern 3.1 thePraxeologicalValidity f InstructedAction.8The following s an explicating hrase for the"praxeological alidity f instructedction":at and astheworksitemisreadingdescriptions instructablyhework ffollowing hich xhibitshephenomenonhatthe ext escribes.

observable, territoryf neworganizationalphenomena.These consist of the pairedachievements:) topical iteraturesfformalanalyticnvestigationsndtheorizing,ccom-paniedby 2) their thnomethodologicallter-nates.Thecollection'smpiricalpecificsrethe work of an internationalompanyofauthorsof books, articles, dissertations,master's ssays, seminar apers,and occa-sionalnotes.In the pairsthat ompose thecollection,EM alternateso FA literaturesrealternates,not alternatives. ase by case they arespecific lternates. embers f a pairmakedemonstrably isjunctprovisionsfor thecorpus tatus ftheordinaryctivitieshatpairdescribes. he EM alternatesre ncom-mensurable, symmetricallylternate he-nomena f order.The achievementsf formalnalyticheo-rizingnd nvestigationsre lways ccompa-niedby ethnomethodologicallternates,ndthey reaccompaniedverywhere. hereverin an actual nvestigationne is found, heothers also found.Whereverhegroundsanalytically trampled, its specific eth-nomethodologicallternates findable.Themoreheavily heground as beentrampled,and wherevert has been trampled or thelongest ime, he more ertainly ill itsEMalternate e findable.When t is found, hemorecurious s its prior bsence in main-streamiteratures,or ts bsence s a positivephenomenon nd an accomplishment fimmortalrdinary ocietynotless than rethosedescribed yFA investigations.9Inorder o describe A literaturesnd theirEM alternates have appropriatedhe termcoeval:10whereone arises,theother risesalongsidend with t.Coevalbringsocenterstage and underlines thnomethodology'spremieruestions:What o FA literaturesndtheir M alternatesonsist f in anyactualcase? Just nanyactual case? Whatdo theyconsist f at theworksite,s theworksite,first ime hrough?FA investigationsnd EM studies re bothand simultaneouslyncommensurablyiffer-ent ndspecificallyelated. M knows his obe so, empiricallynddemonstrably,ia the

9 In an aspect ftheir urious bsence,EM alternatesare buried y thework fmainstreaminghem. ikeanyotherprocedurallypecifiedphenomena f orderthework fmainstreamings done ndetails fstructures.10Maynard ndClayman1991) firstsed this ermodescribe he lternates.


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10 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYCatalog ofEM Investigations. M knows thisin instructableaysthatFA does not haveempiricalccess to and that tCAN notgetaccess to. EM has the unavoidable askofexplaining hese claims and demonstratingthem.Do FA literaturesnd EM alternatesarise ogether?rethey elated? henhowdothey rise ogether?ow are they elated?Justwhatdo theyhave to do witheachother? ut notas thought-fullheory ritingwithwhich theory riter, otbeing equiredto know t first andor tobe constrainedyjust what in its procedurally" orderedphenomenaldetails he is talking aboutempirically,an have it in the way he canimagine ndhowever t is neededto do hisFA theorizing;oingwith n imagined tateofaffairs hatevers needed o carry ff nargumenthat s available in a Borgesianlibrary12f theories o choosewhateverddsto a literaturef topical ontroversies.Durkheim'sphorisms taughtograduatestudentsrom hefirst ayofgraduate ork:"The objectiverealityof social facts issociology's undamentalrinciple." heaph-orism staken ery eriouslynboth rogramsof nvestigationsndbyboth echnologiesfanalysis, FA and EM. Their takes aredifferent;heyare incommensurablyiffer-ent. Nevertheless heyare inextricablye-lated. For one thing-one organizationalthing,nd a socialfact n tsownright-theyareasymmetricallylternate.13Thatmeans hat oucanuse ethnomethod-ology to recover in phenomenal rdereddetails-in a phenomenal ield of ordereddetails the work that makes up, at theworksite, he design, administration,ndcarryingff finvestigationsith heuse offormalnalytic ractices. ou can't do it theotherwayaround.That s to say, youcan'tusethemethodsf formalnalysis o recoverthework nd thefindingshat thnomethod-ology s comingup with. So their akesonDurkheim's phorismndeed are not only

" By way of a reminder,n ethnomethodologyproceduralmeans aborofa certainncarnate ethodo-logicalsort: t theworksiterogressivelynd develop-ingly oming pon hephenomenonia thework nandas of theunmediated,mmediatelynddirectlybservedphenomenal-fieldetails f producingt.

t2 Jorge ouis Borgestalks bout "The Library fBabel." We learnedngraduatechool that t is a freedemocracyf theories. ou pickupwhatever ouneed.13 The EM Catalogdescribeshis ndother elationsna collectionf"renderingheorems."ee GarfinkelndWeider1992).

alternate; hey re asymmetricallylternate,and thatthey re asymmetricallyelated sitself social fact.In the contemporary orldwidesocialsciencemovement,The objective eality fsocial facts s sociology's undamentalrinci-ple" is understoodrocedurally,lthoughotas procedurally is understood in eth-nomethodology.n the ountless nalyticrtsand sciences of practical action of theworldwide social science movement, heaphorismn substantiallyxplicateddetailsconsists f and s demonstratednthe orpusstatus f investigationsarried utwiththepolicies, methods,and results of formalanalytic echnology. herein, oo, theapho-rism is variouslyunderstood ccording oneed and occasion s FA's aim, tasks,work,procedural emands, chievement,nd fun-damental henomenon.EM also accords the aphorismheavyprocedural mphasis,but distinctivelyo.Ethnomethodologicallyhe aphorism s un-derstood ike this. From the outset of itsinvestigations,M addressed arious ettingsof mmortal14rdinaryocietywhoseparticu-14 Immortalsborrowed rom urkheims a metaphorfor nywitnessableocal setting hosepartiesredoingsomehumanob that anrange nscale from hallwaygreetingo a freewayrafficam where here s this oemphasize bout them:Theirproductions staffed yparties o a standingrap game.Of course he obs arenotgames, let alone a crap game. Thinkof freewaytraffic low n Los Angeles.For thecohort f driversthere, ust thisgangof them,driving,making raffictogether,re somehow, smoothly nd unremarkably,concertinghedrivingo be atthe ivedproductionf theflow's ust thisness: amiliar, rdinary, ninterestingly,

observablynand as observances oable nd done gain,and always,only, ntirelyn detailfor verythinghatdetail could be. In and as of the ust thisness thehaecceities) fdriving's etails, ustthis taffredoingagain ustwhat n concertwithvulgar ompetence heycando, for ach another ext irstime; nd t s this fwhat heyredoing, hatmakes pthedetails f ustthattrafficlow:That lthought s oftheir oing, nd as ofthe low heyre"witnessablyrientedy"and"seeablydirected to the production f it," they treat theorganizationalhing s of their oing,as of their wndoing,but not of their eryown, singular, istinctiveauthorship.ndfurther,orustthiscohort,twillbethat fter hey xit thefreewaytherswill come afterthem o do again he amefamiliarhingshat hey-justthey-justthese fus as drivings oings re n concertdoing.Immortals used to speakof humanobs as of whichlocal members, eing in the midst of organizationalthings, now, f ustthese rganizationalhings hey rein themidst f,that tpreceded hem ndwillbe thereafterthey leave. It is a metaphor or the greatrecurrenciesfordinaryociety, taffed, rovided or,


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 11lar staffs o concerted heir ctivities s toexhibit opics of order* s their ctivities'achieved henomenaf order*n andas realworld ettings,nrealtime,15 ndtherein sthe most ordinary chieved organizationalthingsn the world. Anyand all topicsoforder*6 were taken to be eligible forethnomethodological respecification asachieved henomenaforder*,ommonplaceachievements,een but unnoticed, pecifi-cally uninteresting,nd specifically nre-markable work f the treets."It s ethnomethodologicalbout M studiesthat hey howfor mmortalrdinaryoci-ety'ssubstantivevents n material ontentsjustandonly nany ctual ase, that nd usthow vulgarly ompetentmembers oncerttheir ctivities o produceand display,todemonstrate,o make observablyhe case,locally,naturallyccountable henomenaflogic and order,of cause, classification,temporality, oherence, consistency, ndanalysis, fdetails, f detailsnstructures,fmeaning,mistakes, rrors,ccidents,oinci-dence, acticity,eason, ruth,ndmethodsnand as of the unremarkablembodiedlyordereddetails of theirordinaryives to-gether.Fromtime o time, n one publicationranother,heir elevance or ociologywouldbe summarized ith restatementfDurkhe-im's aphorism. or its investigations,th-nomethodologyookthis o mean theobjec-tive eality f socialfacts, n that nd usthowevery society's ocally, endogenously ro-duced,naturallyrganized, aturallyccount-able, ongoing, ractical chievement, eingeverywhere,lways, only, exactly nd en-tirelymembers'work,withno time ut, andwithno possibilityf evasion,hidingout,passing, ostponement,rbuyouts,s therebysociology's undamentalhenomenon.17produced, bservedndobservable,ocally ndaccount-ably n andas of an "assemblage f haeccieities." Mplaces heavy mphasis n "immortal."t is a recurrentthementheEM catalog nda source f tstopics.'5 Various tutorialproblems n the EM Catalogempiricallyespecifyeveralmeanings fstandard imeandvarious stablishediterary eanings.n its oncernswith ime, udnow'swork s particularlyich.

16 Order* pelledwith n asterisks a proxy or nyand all topics f ogic,meaning, eason,method . .t7 I understandhisrestatementfDurkheim's pho-rism o be EM's center. understandhis estatementndteach tas EM's distinctivend central tatementf itsaims, tasks,program, olicies, methods, esults, ndteachings.t has been a recurrentheme nmy courses

EM tookt'8 hat heworkingsf mmortal,ordinary ocietyare the origins, sources,destinations,ocus,and settingsf achievedphenomena f order*. rovisions or chieve-ments forder,whetherheseprovisions revernacular r technical, ay or professional,begin,have their ourse,and finish n themidst f these rdinary orkings.EM takes t thatmmortalrdinaryocietyexists as, consists of, is identical withachieved phenomenaof logic, meaning,method, eason,rational ction, truth, vi-dence, science,Kant's basic categories, rHume's, or the primordialsf anyone lse,anyof which s a lotofterritorynasmuch sGeneral deas of the Universal bserver recommonly sed in the social sciencesandhumanities o topicalize and justifyvalidknowledge f everypossible thing n anypossibleworld. 9Durkheim'sphorismThe objective eal-ityof social facts s sociology's undamentalprinciple"s specifiednthe nvestigationsfthe EM catalog. n theCatalog's investiga-tions, heobjective eality fthe ocial factsis made nstructablybservable nd nstructa-bly reproduciblen andas themostordinaryand familiarorganizational hings n theworld.The differentakeson Durkheim's pho-rismbytheformalnalyticrts ndsciencesof theworldwide ocial science movementand seminars tUCLA since1954and nconferencestvarious niversities.t is the explicit ubject fvariouspublications e.g., Garfinkel,1988; Garfinkel ndWeider1992, Chapter 0). It is explicitlyhematicndissertationsor which was chair at UCLA andUCIrvine, r on which served here r elsewhere. t isspecified n themes and topics throughouthe EMCatalog f nvestigations.t8 Took it, that is, beyondhermeneutics,eyondinterpretiveociology, ertainlyeyondHusserl'sLeb-enswelt rthemattersebated y Schutz ndGurwitsch,beyondwriters f theory uch as Parsons,Coleman,Foucault, rMerleau-Ponty.ossibly ndmostpromis-inglymore han nyof these, ook tbeyond urkheim'ssocio-empiricalpistemologyhathas been elucidatedrecentlyy AnneRawls 1996).19My allusionhas itssource nAnneRawls's (1995)startlingrticle"Durkheim'sEpistemology: he Ne-glected rgument."awls howsDurkheimohavebeenthe original uthor f thatunderstandingnd of itsresearchrogram.he shows nthedetailed exts fTheElementarwyormsoftheReligious ife,as thebook'sprincipalroject,hat hiswasDurkheim'srogram;hatthebook'sargumentontinuesheprogramfhiscorpus;thathe named ociology s theprogram's isciplinarysource; ndthat roject nd egacyhave beenneglectedbyalmost 0 years f Durkheimiancholarship.


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12 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYand ethnomethodologyre incommensurablydifferentut neverthelesshey re inextrica-blyrelated. ustncase themembersf a pairare compared rocedurally,heypresent oEM a preposterousroblem: he phenome-non of interest o EM is not thatthe FAliteraturesnd their M alternates akeup acollection nd itsproperties.he phenome-non of interests this:The phenomenon finterests thepreposterousroblem: amely,case by case, for achpair, he iteraturendits alternate:he phenomenonf intereststhe disjunct orpusstatusof its respectivebibliographies.his s an initial reposterousproblem. urtherreposterousroblems lowfromhat.Case by case, theLITALT20pairsarepreposterousroblems.2.1 A Collection fFA Literaturesnd TheirEM Alternates2

EM alternatesrespecific lternateso theFA literatures ith whichthey re paired.Theyaredemonstrably21lternaterovisionsfor he orpus tatus f theordinaryctivitiesthat n FA literatureescribes. his claim scriticalto the collection.A literaturesordinarilyeadfor amiliarlyrobativetudiesof itssubjects.When ts studies re read forthat,he eadingsapt obelookingnstudiesat handto a well-knownast (thereader'sincluded), eviewing,ollecting,nddeepen-ing stablishedtudies, romotingtradition,renewingtby singlingut lineof studies ofindwhatnext n linemightook like, andperhapso attachingnext tudyo the ine sto continuehe tructurehatwas used to findwhat next"could be and should e.The EM readings incommensurablyif-ferentn material etails n that nstead frenewing tradition,tdeliberatelyearchesliteratureor news to carryfurtherM'spreviouslyncoveredndestablished arkersofstrangelyeworganizationalhenomenanwhat nevertheless emainsFA's familiarterritory.heEM search s for WhatMore"the erritoryfferspinlanguage o describeit as a literature'sery wn ubject; ffersp,not nthe neffableeeingofsomething,utwitha languagethat s itselfpartof theterritory,ut that n its matters an't beimagined ut s onlydiscoverable. he EMreader, having caught on to something,

20 LITALT = FA literatures nd theirEM alternates.21 By demonstrable mean instructablybservable.

wouldn'twant nly o stipulate r magine t.New directionswould have already beentaken,owhywould newant o?And o on,andso forth.VariousEM authors avedescribedwork-site-specific, iscipline-specific,roceduralenactments f the "etcetera"clause, thedocumentary ethod f nterpretation,ndex-ical expressions ndtheir ssential biquity,reflexivebody/worldelations,details instructures, acit knowledge, the essentialmundaneityf reason nd calculative ation-ality, ndoracular easoning nd itsendlesscognates.These subjectshad their tart n1952after learnedbout hework fCalvinMooers. Graduate tudieswiththe use ofMooers' "Zatocoding" nd "Catalog"beganat UCLA in 1954. Theyweredeveloped nPhD dissertationst UCLA, and laterbyfacultyndstudentst other niversities:CSanta Barbara, Irvine,San Diego, York,Ontario nstitute orStudiesin Education,Manchester, oston, and elsewhere.Theyremaintandingubjects or M authors.Anotherubjects familiarndprevalentnformalnalyticiteratures:heaccomplishedtransparencynd specifically nremarkablesmoothnessf concertedkills f"equipmen-tally affiliated" hopworkand shoptalk.These are respecifiedthnomethodologicallywith "Heideggerianuses" of handicaps,illnesses, isability,ndtheir ffiliatedquip-mental aids to independentiving," s wellas with nvertingenses and otherbodily,characterological,rganizational,ndproce-dural"troublemakers." ith hese"trouble-makers,"work's incarnateocial organiza-tional details are revealedby overcomingtheir ransparencyn their opically rdinaryconcerted ecurrenciesfongoinglyevelop-ing phenomenal ieldsof ordered etailsofgenerality,niformity,nterchangeableopu-lations, nd therest-i.e., in ordered etailsof structures.Studies of many and various subjectsconcernedwith the workings f organiza-tional hings, ith r withoutheirvailabilityin FA literatures,eredonewhile schewingthepoliciesand methods f formalnalysis.Each investigation,or its empirical de-quacy,describedracticeshat rerecognizedby practitionerss doable, done, true, rele-vant o theparties,"22nd evenversimilitudi-

22 Credit is long overdue for Florian Znaniecki's


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 13nous23 EM studies deliberately bstainedfrom heuse of mentalmechanisms,sychol-ogized actions, linicalpsychological iogra-phies, signed objects, and hermeneutics.They are concernedwithpractices hat rechiasmicallyhained mbodiedlyothe nvi-ronment f ongoingly rderedphenomenaldetails.Descriptivelyrovided or, hese reabove all commonplace, otably nremark-able, in specifics hat re uninterestingutindispensable, nd somehow -and this iscritically f interest-theyre specificallyunmentionednestablishedescriptions.A very strong ollection f studieswasdone with deliberate, lear, and targetedemphasis n ethnomethodologicaliscipline-specific "hybrid"results.By "hybrid"mean tudies f work n which heanalystsuniquely nd adequately ompetento pro-ducethephenomenon,hecoherentniquelyadequate etails f which isdescriptionsanbe misread instructionally,s and at aworksite,o exhibit.24 mongEM hybrids,David Sudnow's studies, particularly fimprovisationn azz pianoplayingndpianopedagogy, re sine qua non. Hybrid tudiesalso come nto trongocus n EM studies fdiscovering ork n thenaturalciences.25Their studies stablished, mong analyti-callyfamiliariteraturesf nstructedctions,their M alternate,the praxeological alid-ity of instructedction." At and as theworksite,misreading descriptive ccountinstructionally,heworkoffollowing hichexhibits he phenomenonhatthe text de-scribes.The alternate as originalwith, irstproposed,ndelaborately eveloped y BrittRobillard ndChristopherack in theiroint(1937) Social Actions or arly nddeep explicationfthis nsistence. thank ames leming,mymentor ndfriendntheSociologyDepartmentftheUniversityfNorth arolina, or nsistentlyeachingt n 1939 as anacknowledgednd central elevancendiscipline-specificliteratures f social science theorizing. acks andSchegloffncorporatedt as a centralmethodologicalpolicynconversationalnalysis. he felicitous hrase stheirs.

23 Thanksto MartinKrieger's tudies f physicists'work.24 EM authors f indispensabletudies re MelindaBaccus, Stacy Burns, Richard Heyman, KatherineJordan,Kenneth iberman, ric Livingston,MichaelLynch, Doug Maynard,JayMeehan, Louis Meyer,Christopherack,AnneRawls,AlbertRobillard, ucySuchman,David Sudnow, PeterWeeks, and D. Law-renceWieder.

25 See Eric Livingston,Christopher ack, AlbertRobillard, atherine ordanndMichaelLynch.

programf medical esearch, edagogy,ndevaluation n the Pediatrics epartmentfMichigan tateUniversityrom 973-1984.Their rogram as notable orworking utand demonstratinghe conditionof EMadequacy: that the analyst'sethnomethod-ologicalfindingse taken eriouslyntheFAdiscipline hatwas studied.By being"takenseriously"I mean that at the worksite,practitionersilldemand fEMfindingsustas theydemandof FA findings hattheysatisfy the worksite-specific, iscipline-specific orpusstatus f FA investigations,and that M findingse incorporatednFAworkat hand or reasonsbe givenfornotdoing o.2.2 A Collection fPairs

Thefollowings a listofFA/EMpairs hatconsist ftopical iteraturesfformalnalyticstudies of work and their specific EMalternates.An enumerated ist of brieflyannotatedubjects f formal nalyticitera-tures and their thnomethod-ological lternatesboldtext]follows. The premier chievement f FAstudies f work s thegeneralityfwork ndoccupations, ot in occupations' estheticsbut as labor described n theirgenericallyrepresentedetails f structure:.g., in theirdetails of generality nd comparability,staffed y interchangeablend surveyablepopulations,hedescriptionseing esponsiveacross occupations, isciplines, nd litera-tures o inductivenference ithoutncoher-ence, etc. These are demonstrated ith

studies hat recarried utwith hepolicies fgeneric epresentationalheorizingndmeth-ods ofconstructivenalysis.Among hemostpowerful f these are thewell-knownndwidelypracticed nalyticprivileges f thetranscendentalnalystnduniversalbserver.Theirevident se provides o FA cases thatdescribe chieveddetails of generalityndotherstructuresf workand occupations,theirguarantee f adequatedescriptionndvalidknowledge.[1] Stacy Burns provides a specificethnomethodologicallternate. She de-scribes the gap in conventionaltudies oflawyers'work n law schooltraining.Afterreviewing ell-knownocialscience tudiesof law schooltraining, he writes:"Theseconventional tudiesbroadlyoutline,butare ultimatelyndependentf,thedetailed


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14 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYorderliness f how actual pedagogic nter-change unfolds n real time, n real spaceand in the firstplace in the law schoolclassroom.They re unable to specifywhatconnection,f any, theremay be betweenthe observabledetailand contingentrder-ing of pedagogic asks nthe aw classroomand the skills dentifyingf professionallycompetent legal practice. . . . Hence thelived and local orderliness dentifyingfpedagogy in the law school classroomremains predominantly nexplored ana-lytic territory.What is reported in thesocial scientific,ducational, nd jurispru-dential literature leaves largely unad-dressedmanymatters f centralpracticalconcern, elevance, nd consequentialityolaw professors nd their students(Burns, 1995). To conclude her point,Burns adds "As Heritagedescribes t,"thisgap "consists f all themissing escriptionsof what occupationalactivities onsist ofand all the missing analyses of howpractitionersmanagethe taskswhich,forthem, re matters f serious and pressingsignificance . . " (Heritage, 1984:299).

Practical ction ndpractical easonare vastlyworked ubjects.They range ntechnicalityrom healchemically rcanetothe commonplacesof pop technologies.Subjects re centeredcademicallyncanoni-cal investigationsf Wittgenstein,ewey,Simon, Schutz, and Evans-Prichard,nd,most nterestingly,n theethnodisciplinesnanthropologye.g., ethnoastronomy,thno-botany). n these iteratures,ecurrenciesfpracticalction ndpracticaleason remadeinstructablybservable nd exhibitedust inanyactual case in the coherence f generi-cally theorized, ormal nalyticdetails ofstructures. laborate but separate topicalliteraturesf practical ction re identifyingmainstaysf theseparate niversityepart-ments fpsychologyndsociology.[2] Calvin Mooers' "Zatocoding" and"Catalogs" respecifydescriptions, ules,definitions, lossaries, schemas, instruc-tions, nstructedctions, ctions s a rule,purposive actions, ends-means chemata,procedural accounts, operational defini-tions, context,science, oracular reason,divination . .In 1952 Calvin Mooers, at the time arecentgraduateofMIT, had designed ndneeded to sell and serviceto engineeringfirmshis "Catalog" and "Zatocoding"

systemfor the storage and retrieval ofsmall librariesofvaluable documents.Hedescribed, with marvelous delicacy ofexperiential pecificsgathered from hisjobs ofselling nd installing issystemndhelpingmembers fclientfirms omake itwork,that and just howcontext, racticalaction, categorizing phrases, reasons,search prescriptions, elevance, identity,definitions, losses, and glossaries wererenegade opics.Mooers' clientswere engineers. "Con-text"was an omnipresentenegade opic ntheir n-house iscussions bouttheZatoc-oding system nd in, about, and as theiractual in-course work of naming docu-ments, describing,filing,searching forrelevanttextsbut not being able or notwanting oprespecify hat t wouldhavetolook like before t was found;or findingjust whattheyneeded and discardingt asgarbage; or so naming,filing, earching,and recovering ocuments hattheir om-pany library in any of these ways ofoperatingn it and with t would,to theirwork atisfaction, ave incorporated heirdeveloping nd changingnterests.A userofthedictionarywouldselectanitemized tring f descriptors s a searchprescription.Upon the completionof asearch,the documentshatdroppedhad tobe examined to learn what grammaticreadings he tems ould be found ohave.The examinable oherence f a first ollec-tion was often deliberatelytemporary,undertakenust to see where twould ead.Was the document elevantly documentthat theprescription ad been directed ofind? These and denselyaffiliated ther"relevancies" could not be prespecified.Context s a locallyoccasioned, nstructa-bly achieved, repeatedlyand collabora-tively chieved,and achievable ocal phe-nomenonby and for a firm'sparticulargang was indispensable to assure thelocally ccasioned, ocally chieved fficacyas instructably eproduciblerecurrenciesof worksite ractices n detailsofstorage,numbers fdocuments, he"Catalog," alltogetherwith the "Zatocoding" proce-dure-as an in vivoworksite chievement,just in anyactual case.From 1952 until 1976 the Mooersiancatalogwas used to add and procedurallyspecify ules, rule-governedctivities, n-dexical expressions, bjectiveexpressions,


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 15rational decisionmaking n commonsensesituations f choice,glossing s a way totalk plain English, methods, schemesofdetails, propertied lasses of objects, andstructure-structuren the way its usecollects, nd seeks to exhibit bout practi-cal action,details in patterns,generality,comparability, ypicality,tandardization,uniformity,oherence n accordance withthe logic of inductive nference, nd theexistence opula "is" in the senses "thereexists" and "is identicalwith." A thirdtopic of formal nalysisincludes ccasionmaps26nd their ognates:repair manuals, models, mock-ups, tourguides, ssemblynstructions,reeway ign-ing, contractors'ath descriptions, edicaldecision trees, directions,rules, norms,games-with-rules,lueprints, usical cores,analytical artography . . FA is embarrassedbyoccasionmapsandbytheoccasioned seofmaps.Formal nalysts on'tknowwhat odo with hem.The occasioneduses ofmapsare treated s mentalisms nd turned ntofeaturesf theperceiver, erceived eaturesofa territory.or FA the real"map s madeuseless,renderedmerely erceived, y beingmade ubjective.[3] Occasion maps are low-cost,high-production oldmines. Whole librariesofanalytic cartographicalmaps and theircognates ffernspecific M alternates helocally occasioned,endogenously chievedproperties of logic, order, meaning,method, eason,rationality,ffectivero-cedure, followability,ompleteness, uffi-ciency, and the rest of occasion maps.These are the endlessly nalyzed topics ofintellectual istory.It is notpossibleto read from hemapthe work of followingthe map in away-findingourney.The traveler'sworkof consulting he map is an unavoidabledetail nthe ived,ongoingly,n-its-course,first-time-through,ravelingbody's way-filndingourney thatthemap is consultedtogetdone.Underthatworksiteondition,themap's consulted,nspectable, elevant-to-the-userproperties of logic, order,

26 In order o specify he iteratures,roups and 3 ofthe eight sections of text in Cartogralpical Innovations(Wallis and Robinson,1982) is a splendid ourceandguide. n addition,Norman hrower's lassic on maps(recently evised to be publishedby UniversityfChicago Press) is indispensable,s is the canonicaltextbookyArthurobinson.

meaning,factual adequacy, followability,completenessf nstructions,ufficiencyfinstructions,otational larity, nalyzableformat,methodic rocedure, nd the restare embedded in the territorially ndequipmentally istoricized ractices fthetraveling.Being so embedded they aresalient,27problematic, topical, unavoid-able, and [identifying]28f traveling'spractices n relentlessly hiasmically m-bodied details of those practices. Themap's properties forder* re exhibitednand as territorial rganizationalthings.These are the map's very own territorialorganizationalhings.As territorialbjectsin a phenomenal ield,themap's proper-ties of order* are chiasmically hained tothetraveling ody's way-findingractices;they re made available to thosepractices,as thosepractices.The map library t UCLA has a listofsketch maps that the Department ofDefense publishes, called landing maps,approachmaps, horizonmaps, etc. Fromthe pointof view of embodiedtraveling,theymustput in thehands of the troopswaysofrecognizingn actual shoreline othat theyminimizetheir casualties. Themaps have this occasioned characternotbecause they re faulted, utbecause theyare used.Occasion maps are analytic cartogra-phy'sstepchildren. ormal analytic tudiesof occasion maps have missed thesephe-nomena entirely.With the same carefultechnicalpoliciesand methodswithwhichformal analytic studies have describedoccasionmaps, thesephenomena re lost. A fourthopic of formal nalysisincludes scientific emonstrationsuch asGalileo's inclined lane demonstrationf the

27 "Salience" is used in an EM respecificationfGurwitsch's1964) result; hat s, the "coherence f agroup of data." He obtained this finding n histranscendentalhenomenologicalriticismfthegestalttheoryfform.28 "Identifying"s misleading. 'm using it as acollector orothermembersf itsfamilyhat re alsomisleading orEM studies-e.g., definitional,ssential,geneticallyssential, aradigmatic,riterial, rimitive,primordial,rimary,chema,deal, dealtype,Uhr-this-and-that,tc. "Identifying"s a temporarylaceholderfor the work it describeswhen it is respecifiedethnomethodologically.orthe imebeing amusing tas a naturalanguage escriptor.talludes othework tis used n vivo odescribe.No oneneeds obe inevitablymisled.


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16 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYreal motion of free-fallingodies in theliteraturesfscience tudies. t also includesmodels ndanalogies n thenaturalciences,such s Rasmussen's se ofmapsto describethe development f methods n electronmicroscopyRasmussen, 994)and studies fwork nthenaturalciences.[4] In thephenomenal-fieldroperties fGalileo's inclined-plane emonstration fthe [real motion]29f free-fallingodies,the achievedcoherence f objectshas verymuch to do with naturallyaccountablework.30 o do Louis Narens' "righthand"and "lefthand" pathsfromnstructionsothe demonstrated real motion]of free-falling odies,described s S/T2 = K."There's a gap in the literature" inscience ibraries. made inquiriesfirst oseveral ibrarians n thephysics ibrary tUCLA, and, whentheycouldn't help, tothe ibrary irector.Weretheredescriptivematerials vailable whose adequate peda-gogicrelevance onsists n that and in thewaythat they pecify hefirst nd secondsegmentsof Lebenswelt pairs?3' Thesewould be materials hat are pedagogicallyrelevant oteaching'sworksitesn physics.Were any materials vailable? Could anybe found for any of physics teaching'sworksites, from introductory abs forundergraduates o arcane settings f col-laboratingprofessional aculty?After heshowedme severalvolumes nd describedseveralothers, nd afterhe listened o myreasons why theywere not what I waslookingfor,thedirector eplied,"There'sa gap in the iterature."

Gestalt henomena:hemes, opics,subjects, emonstrations,n gestalt sychol-ogy conatituten importantA literature:gestalt llusions, igural lternatesn experi-mental perception e.g., "ambiguities"),CAD modelsand modeling.A classic FAstudywas that f Heider ndSimmel1944),who, in orderto study he psychology fperson perception,developed a moving-picture ilm f 2 1/2minutes' uration ithvariousgeometriciguresincluding largetriangle, smalltriangle,nd a circle)that29 Square bracketsn bold, [ ], markoffan EMproceduralccount f thephenomenonhat s describedwith hename nthe nclosed rackets.30 See my tudy f thephenomenal-fieldropertiesfGalileo's inclined-plane emonstrationn Garfinkel(forthcoming).31 Lebensweltairs rediscussesn 3.2 below.

moved around space also occupiedby astationaryectangle. hey askedsubjects oview the film nd answer uestions uch as"Whatkind fperson s thebig trianglelittletriangle,ircle)?"and they skedsubjects otell he tory fthemovie n a few entences.In their nalysis f subject's nswers, eiderand Simmelproposed hat ubjects aw thefiguresnthemovie nterms fdistal timulithatweremediatedccording omoreproxi-mal features f the field in which thosestimuliwere embedded. n his own bookHeider arguesthat hese mediating eatureswere stages in intervening ariables ofvarious orts. here re comparablexamplesand elaborations n various subjects anddemonstrations-forxample, n studiesofgestalt llusions, n figural lternatesalter-ations).[5] Visual horizons are perspicuoussettingswith whichEM topicsof figura-tions fdetail,phenomenal ields, hiasmicrelations of body/world airs, renderingtheorems,transcendentaldata, and therest are made instructably bservableasachieved phenomena, ust in any actualcase. By pointing ut thesocial gestaltists,Heider and Lewin, Maynard lets a jinniout of the bottle."With theirfilmHeiderand Simmel comeso, so close' and lose thephenomenon"Douglas W. Matnard, per-sonal communciation).His study is apropaedeuticcase for a collectionof FAinvestigationshatcome"so, so close" andlose the phenomenon.Maynard suggeststhat "withinHeider's accountare indica-tions fhowsubjects ctuallyperceive,notaccording o relativelynert nd extrasen-suous stages and variables that accordstimuli ometranscendentalmeaning,but,perceptionoccurs according to in situ,sensuously-produced,unctional ignifica-tions formedbetween the geometricfig-ures, theirparts,and additionalconstitu-ents whosepresentationnfoldsn timeastime tself s produced through heproce-dures of actors. Subjects see one thingpreceding nother nd the other succeed-ingtheone, therebyssembling chronol-ogy out of an inextricably nner orendogenous rderthatthen nforms nd isinformed y ust whata geometric iguremightbe as a typeofperson" (Maynard,1995).Indexingthe classic gestaltdomain ofillusionsand figural lternates n experi-


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 17mentalperception,Maynardasks whether"therecouldbe "more" to thoseprocessesglossedbytheterms erception,onscious-ness, cognition, tc. In a classroomcon-text,workingwithgestaltfigures, ercep-tion nd itsproductionannotbe separatedfrompublic descriptionshat tudents ndprofessors roduceand attend to as jointcoursesof action. In embodiedtellings ftheir seeings members bring into being"panels-of-a-cube," "fronts," "backs,""tallness,""width,"6depth,""alternatingconfigurations." hese emerge n and astemporalized narratives enacted boththrough talk and through the body'sgesturesthat concertedlymodel and re-hearse visualizations s classroom-specificaccomplishments"Maynard,1995).Also, EM's "Heideggerian" uses ofincongruities f bodily impairments ndbrain njuries nd illnesses re perspicuousin revealingthe ("hidden") transparentworkofachievedcoherence. Phenomenamade instructablyb-servablenformal nalytic etails fconcert-edly recurrentchievements f practicalactionsare so providedforby FA thataphenomenon,hatever hephenomenonndwhatever ts scale, is made instructablyobservable s the workof a populationhatstaffstsproduction.n instantopulationssurveyable. t is exhibited n surveyableparticularsf bodycounts nd dimensional-ized demographics.heseare elucidated ithvariable nalysis, uantifiedrguments,ndcausal structures. nalyticdescriptionsfpopulationsnhabit he iteraturesfdemog-raphy,heU.S. Census,the urvey ndustry,university-basedocial sciences, rofessionalschools, nd therest.[6] Endogenouspopulations re specificEM alternates.An instant henomenon forder-freeway travelingwaves, servicelines,conversational reetings-alongwithendogenously xhibiting ts other detailssuch as [unmotivated lowing ahead] intravelingwaves, [the apparent line thatexhibits n orderof service] n formattedqueues, [thehearableabsence ofa greetingin return] in conversationalgreetings-exhibits as another detail its staffas apopulation that produces it. More, thephenomenonxhibits ts staff s an inter-changeable opulation.More, t exhibitstsstaff s a surveyable opulation.The work

of a phenomenon's roduction xhibits tsstaff s a population. The Dictionary of OccupationalTitles is a premier ollectionof formalanalytictudies fwork, ndanextraordinaryachievementnthe ocial sciences. n formalanalyticstudies of work, entries n theDictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), ontheone hand,and analytic thnographiesfwork,on the other, an be adequately eadand understood nterchangeablyitherassynopses r as elaborations f each other.Their nterchangeabilitys thereinhe ubjectof a massive iteraturen bibliographiesfsocial analysis, for in that relationtheyspecify,atisfy,nd areexhibits fthe orpusstatus f their etails fstructure.Therein,DOT entries are sources forwell-known dvisories that serve acrossstudies f work nd occupationss analyticethnographicetailing evices: e.g., "goaloriented ehaviors," context-dependence,""rational roblem olving," local settings,""tacit knowledge," "skills," "the villageversus hecity." Coursebibliographiesffertechnicaluides otheirxistence nd correctuse inestablishedopics funiversityepart-ments ndprofessionalchools.[7]Variousuniversity epartmentseachethnomethodologicalxpertisen studies fwork and occupations. Their requiredemphasis s on ineradicable,unavoidable,indexical propertiesof adequate descrip-tions of work, etc. They require thatattention e paid to theuniquely dequatecompetence f theanalyst/practitioners arequirement for describing methods ofwork. This involves indifference o thetranscendentalnalyst, nd eschewing heuniversal observer. "Ethnographic de-scriptions" are accounts of worksite-specific relevances"that consist n-courseofoccupation-specific,nstructablybserv-able, instructably eproducible oherenceof ordered phenomenaldetails of struc-tures. Remedial expertise s directed toelucidating, s its targets,generic repre-sentationalheorizing, eplacing t with hephenomenon s the originand source oftrouble.2.3 ThreeAdvisories

Advisoriesn EM studies fwork realsoavailable foruse as ethnographicetailingdevices.Theseareofferednvarious istsby


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18 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYvarious uthors s one or anothergenda nthe eminarst UCLA. Advisories ere apedand developed o deliberatelyrovide or ndexhibit he relevanceof uniquely dequatecompetence o the describedwork of itspractitioners,ho are also itsanalysts. heirdescriptionsrewrittenydesign o be readpraxeologically-i.e., to be misread-asworksite-specificnstructionsor heir bserv-ability, followability, ompleteness, uffi-ciency, heir odily/equipmentalntertwining,their n-course volving elaboration, heirautochthonousoherence, heir utonomouscriticism,ndthe est nprocedurallynactedcoherent etails fstructures.I offer hree xamples f such specificallyEM advisories: ) theuses bypractitioners/analystsf an "etceteralause"; 2) their sesof the nterpretivelossdescribed yMann-heim s thedocumentary ethod f nterpre-tation; nd3) their ses of thepropertiesfindexical xpressions.1) It was news that and just how an"etcetera lause" can be used to provideaccordingo ocaloccasion,for ompletenessandgeneralizabilityna collection f rules. tcan be used as well to providefor otherpropertiesfrules-e.g., followability,uffi-ciency, dealityfmeaning,actualdequacy,universality,ecessity,ndanyof therest.2) Another dvisory s the documentarymethod f interpretation.he reader needonlyrecall the vexed jobs of reading ndwritingareful, mpiricallydequate escrip-tionsof work.The documentary ethod finterpretations a convenient loss for thework f ocal, retrospective-prospective,ro-actively volving rdered henomenaletailsofseriality,equence, epetition,omparison,generality,ndother tructures.he glossisconvenientnd somehowconvincing.t isalso very powerful n its coverage-toopowerful.t getseverythingntheworld orpractitioners/analysts.ts shortcomingsrenotorious:n any ctual ase it s undiscrimi-natingand just in any actual case it isabsurdly rong.3) From hebeginningfEM studies, hewell-known ropertiesf indexicalexpres-sions have offerednd continue o offeressheroic ossibilities. hepropertiesf ndexi-cal expressionsre witnessablenly ocallyandendogenously.his s known o one andall. Thereinhey re known nd are availableto one and all in that they consist ofpractitioners'ulgarly ompetentkills.The

propertiesreubiquitous. hey re essentiallyunavoidable nd withoutemedy r alterna-tive.They are also specificallyrdinarynduninteresting,nd n both fthese espects,nassuring s achievedphenomena oherentsense, reference, nd correspondence oobjects, theydo so achievedlyn uniquelyadequate etails.These reuniquelydequatedetails of structures. y that s meant hatthesephenomena xhibitheirocally taffedproduction s the commonplacework indetails fpopulations.Theseproperties ark heirbservabilitysphenomena ine qua non in EM studies fwork.Their xistences demonstrable-theirexistences both nstructablybservable ndinstructablyeproducible-in ll studies ofwork.Theiradequateobservabilitys staff-specific, worksite-specific,iscipline-spe-cific.These properties f indexical xpressionsare unique to incarnate nvestigationsfimmortal, rdinary ociety.They are notproperly sed as cognitive unctions. heyare improperlysed as transcendentalizedintentionalitiesfanalyticonsciousness.hephenomena hat the devices are used toelucidate annot e found rrecoveredfthedevices are interpretedsychologicallyr iftheethnographicescriptionsre explicatedas psychologizedctivities. nd, nanycasewhere hey readministereds predescribedcodes,theresult an be lucid,perfectlylearanalyticethnographicescription,nd thedescriptionwill have missed the subjectmatter, ts probity, nd the point of thedescription, ithno accompanyingignthatthey remisunderstood.The lessons reclear: n order o lose thephenomena hatthe devices describe,givethem ver othe ntentionalitiesf conscious-ness. And n order o assure heir oss inanyactual ase,do so with hemethodsfgenericrepresentationalheorizing.Indeliberatelyareful* escriptionsftheirwork, M practitioners/analystsrovided ortheprocedural resence f indexical xpres-sions withrespect o persons,biographies,identities, ettings, quipment,costumes,gestures,rchitecture,ndlanguage, ernac-ular ndtechnical,nunavoidable elevanciesto theparties.By attentiono these,practi-tioners/analystsn careful* escriptivexpo-sitionmake instructablybservablework'suniquelyoherentefinitenessfdetails; heirclarity,onsistency,oherence,nd the rest


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 19of work's observableproperties f logic,meaning, eason, ndmethod. heir tudiesof workdescribe, pecify,make nstructablyobservable, atisfy,nd are exhibits f theunique dequacy equirementfmethods;heuniquely dequate competence f analysts/practitionersho can be taken eriously ylocal companies and by "our shops" ofpractitioners hose work the analystsde-scribe; nd theobservablen-course,ngoingcarrying ut of descriptionsn empirical,instructablybservabledetails of structureswhile exercising thnomethodologicalndif-ference opolicies,methods,nd thecorpusstatus f formal nalytic nvestigations.llthiswhilemaking o use oftheprivilegesftranscendentalnalysis and the universalobserver,ndwithoutowdlerizingssues ofstructure,hile at every oint atisfyinghedemands fempirical dequacy or laimsofcorpus.3.1 The PraxeologicalValidity f nstructedAction

The many chievementsy theworldwidesocial sciencemovementntheusesof formalanalytic echnologyre pointless o dispute.Among hese chievements,A technology'spremierchievements the orpus tatus f tsbibliographiesf studies. rom heoutset fEM investigations,hecorpus tatus fFA'sbibliographies as providedethnomethod-ological nvestigationsith hemesf nstruc-tions nd instructedctions n topics galoreforrespecificationss distinctivelychievedphenomena f order* n and as the greatrecurrencies f immortal, rdinary ocietywithoutacrificing,owngrading,owdleriz-ing, avoiding,or losing ordinaryociety'sendogenous,naturallyccountable chieve-ments f structure,r changing hesubject,andwithoutip-synchinghenaturalciences.EM does not deny FA's achievements.WithoutdenyingFA's achievements, heinvestigationsf theEM catalog of radicalphenomena f order* repeatedly] ose theempirical uestion: Whatmore s there oinstructionsnd instructedctionsthanFAdoes, did, everdid, or can provide?"DistinctivenvestigationsntheEM catalogofachieved adical henomenaf order* earparticularlynduniquely n instructionsndinstructedctions.Cases of nstructedctionsfrom heEM cataloghave beendescribedngames-with-rules;n a gamewithrules,the

completenessf itscollection fbasicrules;in any case of rule-governedctions,thecompletenessf a collection f rules; n theMooersianatalog; nformattingnqueues; nthe ocal,occasioned, ndogenouslychievedproperties f logic, reason, method,andstructuref occasionmaps;in EM pairs; nLebenswelt airs; and in thepraxeologicalvalidity f instructedctions. In the EMcatalog these are propaedeutic ases withwhich to emphasize,with studies of in-structedctions,the enormously revalentand commonplace kill of praxeologizingdescriptiveccounts.3.2 Praxeologizingescriptive ccounts

In endlesslymanydisciplines, s localoccasiondemands, ractitionersrerequiredto read descriptiveccountsalternatelysinstructions.heydo so occupationally,s askilledmatterfcourse, s vulgarlyompe-tent, pecificallyrdinary,ndunremarkableworksite-specificractices. hese rechainedbodilyand chiasmically o places, spaces,architectures,quipment, nstruments,ndtiming. Withina discipline,practitionersrequire uchcompetencef each other,notexclusively ut centrallyust in any actualcase, and then unavoidably nd withoutremedy, assing, vasion,or postponement.Whenoccasioncalls for division fwork,practitionersan be foundto concert heireffortso assurea praxeological eading tsrecurrent,mooth, ninterruptedchievementby theculturallynd organizationallyocalstaff f tsproduction.The EM catalogexamines, s astronomi-cally,massively revalent ork, ariouswaysinwhich n account hats readably escrip-tive-say diagrammatically,r as freewaysigning,ras wall announcements,r in theproseof declarativeentences-canbe readalternativelyo that he eading rovides orphenomenonntwo onstituentegmentsf apair: 1) the-first-segment-of-a-pair,hichconsists fa collectionf nstructions;nd 2)thework, ust nany ctual ase offollowingwhich omehowurnshefirstegmentntodescriptionfthe air.32

32 I emphasize f thepair. This is in contrast o acommon nd evenhackneyed se thatwouldread thispassage ike this:Followingnstructionsomehow urnsthem-i.e., thedisengaged nd disengageablenstruc-


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20 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLYCall 2) the-second-segment-of-a-pair.allthe pair an instructed ction, and call theworkof reading descriptiveccount, asrelated onstituentsf an instructedction"praxeologizingescriptiveccounts."Forboth echnologiesf social analysis-fortheadministeredolicies,methods, ndcorpus fformalnalysis FA) and for hoseof ethnomethodologyEM)-somehow iskey. Both FA and EM are preoccupied iththeir echnicalobs and as theirechnicalobsof empirically pecifying raxeologizing'swork.Both eekto replace omehowwith ninstructablybservableust how. Each doesso withdistinctive oliciesand methods fanalysisn distinctivenalytic ormats.Characteristically,A does thespecifyingjob by designing nd administeringeneri-cally heorized ormats.nstructions > andinstructions-in-use] are describedngener-ically represented elationsof correspon-dence.The analysisfurnishesmpirical e-scriptionsf < >, and[ ], inoneor anotheroftheir elations.With hese, hepair'sactualadequate orrespondencesmadedecidablenany ctual mpiricalase.EM does the pecifyingob differently.nEM's early interests, > and [ ] intechnicallychieved elations eredescribedas achievementsf "interpretiveork" suchas "etcetera" ndthedocumentaryethodfinterpretationn ordinaryactfinding. aterstudies xaminedocally produced, ndoge-nously chieved, aturallyccountable oher-ent haecceities hat constitutes coherentinstructedctionsthephenomenal ieldsofordinaryuman jobs." These studies xam-

inedthe twosegmentsf docile instructionsand theirmplementationhen n vivo theyaredistinguishednd with hedistinctionheyareprovidedorn vivo informalnalyticallyand other classically specified,remediallysoughtrelationsof adequate description,adequate facticity, dequate followability,adequate ompletenessf nstructions,ndsoon. Since 1972 EM studies f work n theprofessionsndscienceshave added to theseprevious M focusingshat nstructions >and instructions-in-use] are related s EMasymmetricallternates r EM pairs, asLebenswelt airs, and as thepraxeologicalvalidityf nstructedctions.It swith hese ater nterestsndwith hesetions-into a description f followingthem. SeeLivingston1986).

later nalytic ormatshat opics ndthemesof nstructedctions recollected ndcome ofocus n EM studies especifyinghenaturalsciences s discoveringciencesofpracticalaction.Conditions f adequacy n EM investiga-tions re used in each of theseto respecifyFA's formats, > and [ ], and theirrelations. y "adequacy onditions"smeantthat M investigations,neach ofthegroups,ask "Whatdidwe do?Whatdidwe learn?":(i) Whatdid we learn that s other hanwhat A does, did, everdid, or canprovide?(ii) Whatdid we learn hat A recognizesas massively ndunavoidably revalentndavailable oFA inworksite-specificetails?(iii) Whatdid we learn thatFA dependsupon the existenceof forFA's worksite-specificachievements, or FA's pride ofprofessionnd technical tock in trade ofinstructablybservable dequateprofessionsof worldliness nd reality,and for theinstructablybservable orpusstatus f itsbibliographies?(iv) Whatdid we learnthatFA uses andrecognizes M everywheren and as its invivoworksite-specificractices?These are practices hatFA practitionersjust nany ctual aseknow ndrecognize reunavoidable,without emedy, nd withoutalternatives. he practices re indispensableto practitioners,nd practitionersemandthem.Just n any actual case thepracticesidentify A practitioners' ork, theyareknown o FA's practitioners,nd arerecog-nizedbythem obe that.n all these espectsthepracticesre specificallyninterestingopractitionersnd are ignored.Known topractitionersnd recognized y them n allthese espects,hepracticesreknown o andrecognized ythem ategorically.And,FApractitioners,eingdeeply arefulin endlessenterpriseshatfor FA's variousdisciplinaryeasonsmustmake theadequa-cies of their chieved rofessionsf worldli-ness and reality nstructablybservable ngenericallyheorized tructuresf practicalaction, herein o notknowwhat o do withthese ractices.EM catalog nvestigationsespecifyA'sanalyticormats.achof thedifferentroupsof studies does so distinctively ith itsparticularnvestigations.n each groupofstudies hepractices hat re specified M-wise are knownto and recognized y FApractitioners;heir xistences demanded y


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ETHNOMETHODOLOGY'S PROGRAM 21them nd depended pon;their xistence sspecified nd made instructablybservablein, about, s and n establishedanguages, sof worksite-specificompetent ractices fshopworkndshoptalk;or A's practitionersthey re unavoidable,withoutemedy, ith-outalternatives;hey dentifyA competentaccountingracticesnworksite-specificit-nessable detail. And in worksite-specificdetail hey re specificallyninterestingndignored.EM asks: What in the world is soobstinatelynd relevantlymnipresent?hatin theworld s so unanimously nown ndrecognizedyFA practitioners?herentheworlds it found?Andhow?The issue is this: n the entiretyf FA'scorpus, WhatMore" snowherepecifiedrspecifiable. orcan "WhatMore"to nstruc-tions nd nstructedction efoundwith A'smethods. henustwhat n theworld sbeinglookedfor?Justwhat s to be found?Justwhere? ust ow?The investigationsn theEM catalogofferselected answers to these questions.Theanswers over selectedperspicuous ettingsfromheEM catalog.Whatdidwe do?Whatdidwelearn?What anwe do? Andwhat anwe learn? M investigations,longwith heiraccompanying M policies and methods,compose catalog ftutorialroblems. heirepistemologicalndontologicaltatuss thatof a catalogof tutorial roblems. hese aregroundsn EM investigationsorrepliestothese ueries.

REFERENCESBorges,Jorge ouis. 1962. "The Library f Babel" in,Labyrinths: elected Stories and Other Writings,edited y Yeates. rbyNewDirections.Bums, Stacy. 1995, "Practicing aw: A Study ofPedagogic nterchangen a Law School Classroom."Unpublished anuscript.Garfinkel, arold. 1988. "Evidence for Locally Pro-duced,Naturally ccountable henomena fOrder*,

Logic, Reason, Meaning,Method, tc. in and As ofthe EssentialHaecceity f Immortal, rdinaryoci-ety," ociological heory 8, V.6, No.1, pp. 103-109.. 1994. "Seven Cases with Which to SpecifyHowPhenomenal ieldsofOrdinary ctivities re Lost".Unpublished anuscript.. Forthcoming.A Catalogue of Ethnomethodolog-ical Investigations,ditedby Anne Warfield awls.Boston:Basil Blackwell.Garfinkel, arold and D. Lawrence Weider. "TwoIncommensurable,symmetricallylternate echnol-ogies of Social Analysis,"Pp. 175-206 in Text nContext, ditedby GrahamWatsonand RobertM.Seiler.Newbury arkCA: Sage.Gurwitsch,Aron. 1964. Fields of Consciousness.Pittsburgh:uquesneUniversityress.Heider, Maryanneand Fritz Simmel. 1944. "AnExperimentaltudy fApparent ehavior."AmericanJournal f Psychology.7:243-259.

Heritage, ohn.1984Garfinkelnd Ethnomethodology.Cambridge: olity ress.Livingston, ric. 1986. The Ethnomethodologicaloun-dations of Mathematics.London: RoutledgeandKegan Paul.Maynard, Douglas. W. 1995 "Gestalt TheoryandEthnomethodology."npublished anuscript.Maynard, ouglas W. and StevenE. Clayman.1991."TheDiversityfEthnomethodology.Annual eviewofSociology 7:385-418.Rasmussen, icholas. 1994. "Through notherookingGlass: The Phenomenal nd Culturalmport f theElectronMicroscopen Mid-Centurymerica."Un-publishedmanuscript.Rawls,AnneWarfield. 995. "Durkheim's pistemol-ogy:The NeglectedArgument." npublishedmanu-script.Schegloff, mmanuel. 1987. "Analyzing ingle Epi-sodes of Interaction: n Exercise in ConversationAnalysis."Social Psychology uarterly 50)2:101-114.Sudnow,David. 1978. WaysoftheHand. Cambridge:Harvard niversityress.. 1979. Talk's Body. New York: Alfred A.Knopf.. 1983. Pilgrim in the Microworld. New York:Warner ooks.. 1996. The Sudnow Method. Princeton: TheSudnowMethod,nc.Wallis, Helen M. and ArthurH. Robinson. 1987.Cartographicalnnovations.Map Collector ublica-tions 1982 Ltd. in associationwith he nternationalCartographicssociation.Znaniecki,Florian. 1937. Social Actions.St. Albans:Canfield ress.

Harold Garfinkels Professor meritus fSociology, epartmentfSociology t UCLA. His researchinterests with he roblem f ocial order.

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Ethnomethodology's Programme (Garfinkel)