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Ethiopian rural communities: Where are they heading?

A Mokoro seminar

11 January 2013

1

Outline of seminar

• The WIDE3 longitudinal case-oriented research

• Forces for change in Ethiopia 2003-2011

• Comparison of the trajectories of two mostly dissimilar communities 1995-2012: Harresaw in Tigray and Aze Debo’a in Southern Region

• Comparison of the trajectories of two somewhat similar communities 1995-2012: peri-urban Shumsheha in Amhara and Adele Keke in eastern part of Oromia

Clarification questions

• The wider picture in 2012 – selected parameters in 14 communities ‒ The case of roads and bridges

‒ The case of irrigation

‒ The case of urbanisation

• Community livelihood trajectories 1995-2015 – the 14 community cases

Questions and discussion

The WIDE3 longitudinal case-oriented research

Do’oma

Gara Godo

Visiting a coffee

processing plant in Aze

Debo’a

Field worker in Luqa

WIDE3 researcher workshop

Nursery manager interview – Gara Godo

The Ethiopia WIDE Study

WIDE1 - village studies in 1995 in the fifteen rural communities selected as livelihood exemplars for the Ethiopian Rural Household Survey (ERHS)

WIDE2 – wide-ranging protocol research in the WIDE1 sites + five new ones in 2003 including a focus on well-being and ill-being

WIDE3 – research on modernisation and the longer-term impacts of development interventions in the 20 WIDE2 communities planned in three Stages:

Stage 1 – six communities with contrasting livelihood systems 2010

Stage 2 – eight drought-prone communities with contrasting livelihood systems 7 in PSNP weredas 2011/12 – analysis still under way

Stage 3 – planned for six communities with contrasting livelihood systems in areas with agricultural potential 2013

WIDE1 fieldwork conducted by male anthropologists and economists

WIDE2 and WIDE3 fieldwork conducted by male and female social scientists

Map of the 20 WIDE sites

5

Shumsheha: Vulnerable cereal; PSNP; tourism;

Do'omaa: Vulnerable cereal; resettlement (voluntary); PSNP

OdaHaro: Urban grain export

Harresaw: Vulnerable cereal; PSNP

Luqa: Pastoralist in transition; PSNP

GaraGodo: Highly populated enset; PSNP

Adado: Coffee and enset

Yetmen: Urban grain export; youth migration; irrigated vegetables

Girar/Imdibir: Enset, chat, eucalyptus, migration

AzeDebo'a Highly populated enset; PSNP

Odadawata: Urban grain export

Korodegaga: Vulnerable cereal; PSNP; irrigated vegetables

Geblen: Vulnerable cereal; PSNP; youth migration

.

Gelcha: Pastoralist in transition; PSNP

DebreBerhan: Urban grain export

Dinki: Vulnerable cereal; irrigated vegetables; emergency food aid

SirbanaGodeti: Urban grain export

Somodo: urban grain export; coffee

Turufe: Urban potato and grain export; commuting

Adele Keke: Vulnerable cereal; PSNP; chat

6

Case-oriented approach

• A focus on cases rather than variables

‒ Variable analysis tends to produce generalisations and one-size-fits-all policies

‒ Case analysis allows identification of key differences and is more useful for practical country sector policy planning and implementation

‒ Identification of major different types of rural community allows policies to be tailored to different circumstances

‒ Survey techniques can then help identify larger groups of communities belonging to the different types

• Cases of complex communities with trajectories:

‒ Internal ‘control parameters’ interacting with external factors

‒ Varieties of community type on path dependent trajectories constraining where each community could possibly head in future

‒ At a point in time a community may be reproducing, changing structurally, heading for extinction, or dithering

• Also possible to study key control parameters as cases

Forces for change in rural Ethiopia 2003-2011

Do’oma Gara Godo

Gara Godo coffee processing investment

Shumsheha school

Do’oma Mekane Yesus church

Statement of wereda mission - Harresaw

Forces for change in rural Ethiopia 2003-2011

• Government actors, policies and programmes (from SDPRP to GTP)

• Ruling party (post-2001, 2005, 2005-2010, and now)

• Religions and proselytism • Religions : Government-monitored official bounded space?

• The rise of Protestant and Pentacostal churches

• Population, urbanisation, greater mobility, pressure on natural resources (land and water), un(der) employment

• Education, greater access to information

• Private sector actors and investment (foreign and domestic)

• Foreign Direct Investment rise (v. low basis) • Limited private domestic investment • Large-scale land leases

Comparison of the trajectories of two mostly dissimilar communities 1995-2011:

Harresaw and Aze Debo’a

Harresaw

Aze Debo’a

Youth, education and migration in two food-insecure communities in Eastern Tigray

and Kambata

This part of the presentation is about how the rural communities of Harresaw in Eastern Tigray and Aze Debo’a in Kambata, Southern Region cope with the issue of youth, more of them with some education and seeking to establish independent livelihoods; And how there (and maybe in many other Ethiopian communities with similar characteristics), international mostly illegal migration of young women and young men has become an important option – with multifaceted implications for the communities’ possible futures.

The micro picture

The macro picture World Bank Country Partnership Strategy (August 2012)

Increasing number of households for who farming is no longer a viable way of life

Thousands of university and college graduates who have other aspirations

Between 2 and 2.5 million young people enter the labour market every year

Compared to 2.5 million people in paid employment in 2011 (1.5 in formal sector)

The CPS first pillar is about ‘fostering competitiveness and employment’

Youth are cited as the main group concerned by un/under-employment.

GOE Growth and Transformation Plan (October 2010)

Strategic direction for youth: Facilitate the growth of self employment and formal / informal employment opportunities…

Job opportunities: industrial sector, infrastructure, green economy

SME development: organise and build attitude of youth, especially literate, in creating job for themselves

Landless rural youth encouraged to engage in non-farm income generating activities; support (packages, skill & business mngt training, credit, facilitating markets)

Major emphasis on expanding urban extension and linking up with TVET

Nothing to say on migration…

Introduction to the communities

Aze Debo’a Harresaw

Gara Godo

Gara Godo garden

Coffee and enset garden

Trying drip irrigation

Dam (1996)

Harresaw and Aze Debo’a

Aze Debo'a: Kambata; enset; densely populated; coffee; investor; PSNP wereda; midland, hilly; rain Jan-Sept; floods; erosion; 4km Durame; on road

Harresaw: Tigrayan; vulnerable cereal; recurrent drought; PSNP; highland, mountainous; 2,700 metres a.s.l.; irrigation

Socially homogeneous but very different:

Harresaw 100% Tigrayan & Orthodox Christian

Aze Debo’a 99% Kambata (>35 clans); 95% Protestants (different churches)

The communities in 1995 (1)

History of conflict & drought-related hardship, perhaps more violent and higher famine-related mortality in Harresaw.

Migration historically important coping strategy

Response to war and famine in Harresaw

More diversified and response to even greater land scarcity in AD.

But terrible memories of resettlement (people moving vs. moving people).

Both remote/remote-ish, no electricity/communications.

> 55% female-headed households in Harresaw ; AD one of the most densely populated Peasant Associations in a most densely populated area.

EPRDF/TPLF-led Transitional Government of Ethiopia

Liberator in Harresaw

People in Aze Debo’a more reserved, strong clan institutions regaining ground.

Core farming livelihoods (cereal vs. enset/coffee) undermined

Population growth, deteriorating environment

Recurrent drought in Harresaw

Ever rising land scarcity (higher in AD)


Government support to livelihoods

Emerging extension (outreach), fertiliser available but too expensive

Greater government activity in Harresaw: post-war rehabilitation programme (credit, inputs, livestock)

Water scarcity in Harresaw but irrigation development (ongoing dam construction);

In AD people highlighted negative effects of regionalisation and inflation, and lack of credit

Good water potential, no government interest.

Trade, various off/non-farm activities and migration indispensable in both communities

Migration in AD (especially more skilled) hindered by regionalisation

Trade more important in AD (coffee as cash crop).

Youth – What for them?

Education valued but competing with (esp. poorer) hhs’ labour/income needs.

Establishing independent livelihood getting harder

Lack of access to land

In AD emerging lack of return of higher education level except if college level.

Harresaw in 2012

Gara Godo

Gara Godo garden


Rehabilitating watershed

Expanding electricity


Aze Debo’a in 2012

Gara Godo

Gara Godo garden

Some terracing

Hybrid livestock production

Coffee

The communities in 2012 (1) Petty urbanisation (electricity in centres, mobile network coverage): 2008/10

Better connection to outside world

Improved allweather road in Harresaw; rich hhs invest, children study in nearby towns

Dense links with Durame in AD – on the way of becoming a rural sub-urb?

Ever increasing landlessness (new women’s rights in AD, reallocation but insufficient in H)

Environmental conservation high priority; some success but limited, long term undertaking! Weather more erratic in both

Agricultural income

Harresaw Aze Debo’a

Irrigation: 15-20% hhs; local daily labour; more products sold. But: rain dependent.

Hybrid breeds, vet services, high market price encourage livestock production. But: fodder, drought risks.

Higher agric income for many since 4 years.

More cash crops, high price. But: small plots (most), high input costs. Limited irrigation (12 hhs), no support.

Hybrid breeds (35% hhs), vet services, high market prices encourage livestock production. But: fodder, lack of credit.

Overall: unclear, a few quite richer.


Non-/off-farm activities have remained indispensable

Harresaw Aze Deboa

Local daily labour main livelihood option for 60-70 people + many young people.

PSNP PWs for approx 60% hhs; small complement for better-off hhs.

A few new activities linked to petty urbanisation (shops, services, tea/drink houses, local jobs e.g. phone operator etc.).

Trade (small- and medium-scale) on local markets and with Afar (salt, hides and skins, goods); delala; skilled work.

Local daily labour (new!) main option for >40 adult men and many young people.

PSNP PWs for 1/3rd community.

Increased agric trade: small retail (coffee, fruits, many M/F youth) to larger-scale Other trade.

Employment (>50); skilled work (>30).

Coffee plant (investor): seasonal (3-4 months) mainly young women (300-350).

Trajectories 1995-2012 – What for the youth?

Contexts – Agricultural growth (livestock, irrigation/H, coffee/AD; more broad-

based, higher in H?) but unevenly distributed potentials and returns; vulnerable to drought;

– Local farming economies not self-sufficient. Alternative options relatively limited.

Higher unmet expectations of more educated youth – Increased landlessness affect them in particular

– Constraints on livelihood options for youth (limited/no ‘youth packages’, no or limited access to credit/capital, lack of jobs)

– Higher level of education achievements but for what

– Greater exposure to ideas, information, role models from outside including successful migrants.

Some differences – Urbanisation - more of a factor affecting youth in AD than Harresaw

– History of Kambata opposition vs. Tigray ‘common front’ - Youth in AD more likely to be (covertly) against govt in AD

– Protestantism exerts a very strong influence on youth in AD.

What do young people do

Gara Godo

Gara Godo garden


Bicycle rent and service in Harresaw

Crushing stone in Aze Debo’a

Kebele manager in Aze Debo’a

Co-op shop keeper in Harresaw

What do young people do

Gara Godo

Gara Godo garden

Seasonal coffee plant work in Aze Debo’a

Retail sale on local markets

Shoe shiner and repair in Harresaw

Trajectories 1995-2012 – What for the youth? (2)

Much increased outmigration, especially among the youth - Changed patterns:

Reduced male seasonal migration (Eritrea no longer feasible in Harresaw)

Much increased mainly illegal migration abroad

– Saudi Arabia in Harresaw; male and female; prompted by 2008/9 drought, mass livestock loss and debt; now welfare/capital raising strategy

– In AD - South Africa for male (high risks high returns); Gulf countries for female

Female migration – New features

– In Harresaw, even women migrate to Saudi Arabia, divorcing and leaving children behind

– In Aze Debo’a, women migrate in cities, flower farms, Gulf… Unthinkable ten years ago.

Migration in 2012 in Harresaw and Aze Debo’a

Harresaw Aze Debo’a Numbers involved

350-500 leave every year; young women (50 last year, 5% of migrants).

Even teachers migrate (37 in wereda in 2010/1 incl Harresaw head teacher).

On average 20 young men every year travel to SA; in 2011, 50 young women left for Gulf countries.

Costs A few thousand birr (4,000-5,000); costlier for women.

Families rent land, sell assets to be able to send household members; relatives already in Saudi send money for others to join.

Trip to Gulf country: 7,000 birr.

South Africa: 30,000 birr riskier and longer route; 100,000 bribed visa, direct travel.

Families sell land, woodlot, assets. Migrants send funds. Young men pool funds, send one who finances others later.

Potential benefits

Salaries: men 6,500-12,500 birr/month; women 6-7,000 birr/month.

Savings/remittances tens of thousand birr. E.g. 50,000 birr (debt payment + savings + remittances) + house in H; houses in Atsbi or Wukro; investment in car/truck or in shop start-up.

Families invest in agriculture (e.g. tools).

Two young men from zone became millionaires and have big shops in SA.

About millions… E.g. man robbed 100,000 Rand, then saved 1.4 million birr + remittances (25,000 several times); house, hotel, Isuzu truck in Durame.

Families invest in agriculture (e.g. renting in land for cash crops).

Migration in 2012 in Harresaw and Aze Debo’a (2)

Migration to Saudi in Harresaw more widespread than to South Africa and Gulf in Aze Debo’a.

But in AD, migration in South Africa potentially higher return; women migration likely to further rise.

Significant effects in all domains (livelihoods, human & social reproduction, community management, ideas) at individual, family and community levels.

Economically: higher consumption, local economic investment (community, nearby towns, rural-urban links), springboard for a ‘better life’.

Socially: higher welfare, addressing youth dependency and voiceless-ness, a way to meet social/family expectations and fulfil own aspirations.

Migration divides “progressives”: desirable/indispensable vs. unacceptable vs. should be legalised and govt-facilitated.

Possible futures? Depending on balance between

• Farming – How much can it become less risky

• Agricultural (and other) trade - How fast can infrastructure develop to facilitate market integration

• Off-/non-farm activities – What kind of, locally and around, esp. for youth

Trade & off/non-farm activities: Potential advantage to AD (Durame) if sustained infrastructure development in zone (road asphalting).

Farming: Structural constraints (small holdings, environment and weather) will not change (bar land policy change) or slowly (environment rehabilitation).

Irrigation: Potential yet to be developed in AD but caution required! Probably close to reaching its limit in H.

Migration: likely to remain necessary, and to increase even in its illegal form.

Deep impact on communities’ economy and social fabric, esp. strengthening of rural-urban links, may put them on a structurally different trajectory.

Upward, stagnating or downward, will depend on sustainability of migration.

This in turn, depends on whether/how it will be addressed as a policy issue.

Comparison of the trajectories of two somewhat similar communities 1995-2011:

Peri-urban Shumsheha and Adele Keke

Urbanisation and irrigation in two food-insecure communities near Lalibela

and Harar

Adele Keke

Shumsheha

This part of the presentation is about how the rural communities of Shumsheha in Amhara and Adele Keke in Oromia are changing through urbanisation and irrigation; And how there (and maybe in many other Ethiopian communities with similar characteristics), regional planning and market linkages or lack thereof are critically shaping urbanisation and irrigation experiences

The micro picture

The macro picture - urbanisation CONTEXT

Ethiopia’s urban areas are among the fastest growing in Africa, with urban populations rising at about 4% a year.

IDA &IMF Joint Note on GTP (Aug 2011)

Increasing number of households for who farming is no longer a viable way of life

As Ethiopia aspires to MIC, urbanisation not just inevitable, but key to economic growth

WB CPS (Aug 2012)

STRATEGY

AIM:

• create employment opportunities and accelerate urbanisation

FOCUS ON RURAL-URBAN LINKS:

• Promote vertical and horizontal linkages between agriculture and industrial sector

• establishing transparent, efficient and effective agricultural marketing system [through] communication, transport, and product storage and other marketing infrastructure

GOE GTP (Oct 2010)

The macro picture - irrigation CONTEXT

Dominance of agriculture in economy and employment – plus high population growth – means performance of agri sector remain central to overall growth and poverty reduction for many years to come

WB CSP (Aug 2012)

STRATEGY • Four-fold increase in spending on agriculture,

including for food security

• long-standing focus on smallholder farming (and promotes stronger private sector involvement)

• Policy direction: scaling up productivity of labour and land; diff strategies for diff agro ecological zones, specialization and diversification; strengthening agri marketing system.

IRRIGATION: • fundamental to scaling up productivity, coping

with delayed/ unpredictable rains, climate change challenges

• Integration : water supply, irr development, river basin administration, watershed management

• Expansion of small scale irrigation given priority

GOE GTP (Oct 2010)

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Shumsheha: irrigation and fruit

Adele keke sorghum and chat

Adele Keke, Harar

Irrigation channel Trading at Lalibela market

Water well and pump Chat

Unpaved road to Lalibela

Asphalt road to multiple towns

Shumsheha, Lalibela

Adele Keke, Harar

Shumsheha and Adele Keke

Adele Keke: Chat + vulnerable cereal; highland; 7,098 people, 25 villages; salt lake

Shumsheha: Vulnerable cereal ; low-mid land; hilly; 4,530 people, 9 villages; a few rivers

Similarities: Shumsheha: recurrent drought and food insecure; PSNP; NRM issues; close to Lalibela and airport; irrigation

Adele Keke: recurrent drought; PSNP; NRM issues; on a main road linking to multiple towns; irrigation

Socially different: Shumsheha: Amhara Orthodox Christian 97%, Muslim 3% Adele Keke: 99% Oromia Muslim

The communities in 1995 Derg years: forced army conscription (Sh, AK); mass resettlements in response to famines 1979 and 1985 (Sh); forced villagisation 1970-80s (AK)

EPRDF/TPLF-led Transitional Government of Ethiopia: early 1990s – in control (Sh); political instability, rebel activity, influential traditional clan leaders (AK)

People living in extreme poverty: (more so in Sh)

• Core farming livelihoods (cereals, chat in AK) not meeting needs as population growth + deteriorating environment (NRM and weather conditions) = pressure on land

• Near towns but no electricity/communications

• Trade, various off/non-farm activities in both communities; seasonal agricultural migration (Sh)

Government support to livelihoods: emerging extension (outreach) but no irrigation; NRM activities; relief assistance

Government and NGO services: health still inaccessible and unaffordable to most; primary schools established in 1980s but very few children going to school;

Women second class citizens in political, economic, social spheres

Shumsheha in 2012


Adele Keke in 2012

The communities in 2012: overview Many people’s lives have improved

• growth in agriculture cash crops: due to irrigation (chat – AK; fruit and veg – Sh), diversification, other inputs

• better infrastructure: electricity in centres, mobiles, internal roads, linkages to markets, water access

• better access to improved services: health posts and health extension workers, popular interventions – anti-malaria, family planning, vaccinations, nutrition; more primary schools in the kebeles, nearby secondary and higher

• Improved social protection with PSNP – 28% pop, 40% hhs (Sh); 18% pop, 27% hhs (AK)

But

• land pressure is severe affecting livelihoods, productivity

• issues over unaffordable or forced ineffective inputs (fertiliser, pesticide, improved seeds, breeds etc.)

• services are still patchy in quality: facilities, staff, training, equipment, budget

• not all are meeting their capabilities: vulnerable categories (old, disabled, chronically ill, female-headed households with low labour capacity); intra-household variances; remoter villages – plus growing group un(der)-educated youth

• PSNP – conflict, exclusions, perception of limited access to linked credit

The communities in 2012: irrigation (1)

irrigation identified as the springboard for both communities to transition from food insecurity to self-sufficient, sustainable local economies

Technology and inputs Importance Issues

Sh

• River/stream-based • Manual watering,

narrow earth canals, concrete dams, canals, and pumps (7), drip irrigation

• Irrigation expert assigned at wereda level

• NGO investment

• Said to be high potential (2 rivers, 13 streams)

• 358 hhs (27%); 111.32 ha; 10% hhs grow cash crop alongside rain fed food grain production

• Highly dependent on stream/spring capacity, rain shortfall leads to streams drying up too early

• Differential access • Floods for some • Lack of capital • Potential conflict with

Lalibela use

AK • Lakeside underground water (Chinese inspired) (machine-dug water wells, pumps + pipes)

• Some govt training and credit

• 35 water wells and 146 water pumps

• 2-3 chat harvest; also vegetables

• Poorer and farther from lake not benefiting

• Kebele chair thinks potential is under-exploited

The communities in 2012: irrigation (2)

Irrigation undoubtedly most important economic driver for both communities but there are risks

Irrigation has had a greater effect in AK (“a rich place”) because

• It has been developed more (private initiative…)

• Market access remained poor in Sh (poor road, lack of transport)

• The demand for AK’s production (chat) is booming

Risks in both communities include

• Opportunities for producing irrigated cash crops and developing other sectors (dairy, honey) but need for region-wide approach to avoid glutting markets

• While demand is high, actual potential not yet known

• Need for government intervention to ensure access

• Potential for conflict over water rights – inter/intra kebele

The communities in 2012: urbanisation (1)


Growth of neighboring urban area – and links to it - important change

driver for both Shumsheha and Adele Keke

Location Road Transport

Sh 9km Lalibela 9km on unpaved sometimes inaccessible road; 24 km on asphalt road from airport bypassing Sh

Little. Tourist transport too expensive. Some trucks. On foot, with donkeys. Steep hill. Takes 2 and a half hours to walk up.

AK 16km Haramaya, Aweday, 26km Harar, 26km Dire Dawa

Asphalt (Chinese – 2006)

Regular transport, 6 birr to Harmaya (30 mins); 10 birr to Aweday (45 mins); 13 birr to Dire Dawa (1 hr); 12 birr to Harar (1 hr)

The communities in 2012: linkages (1)

v farmlands owned in other kebeles

v rent land for grass

v marriage

v primary and secondary school

v traditional medicine

v use the vet services

v access the main road

v cross AK to get to secondary school in Adele 01

v marriages

v wereda court

v health centre

v secondary school

v livestock inputs

v fertiliser

v pesticide

v seed varieties

v mobile HIV/AIDS VCT

v health services (hospital, clinics )

v college education

v electronic items (TV, satellite dish, mobile)

v clothes, shoes, cosmetics

v mattresses, blankets

v commodities (sugar, salt etc.

v labour

v agricultural outputs: chat, potatoes, livestock, hens, eggs, milk, sorghum

v primary, secondary school

v health centre

v spades

v clothes

v fertiliser

v pesticides

v seed varieties

v kerosene

v commodities

v chat

v milk

v traditional healer

v vegetables v agricultural outputs: potato, chat, sorghum, vegetables

v clothes

v farm equipment

v consumables: rice, oil, pasta

v fertiliser, seed, fodder v health services

(hospital, clinics)

v holy water

v Very limited migration for education and jobs

KERSA

HARAR

HARAMAYA

AWEDAY

DIRE DAWA

NEIGHBOURING KEBELES

Addis Ababa

International

(e.g. Saudi

Arab ia)

Other universities in

Ethiopia

The communities in 2012: linkages (2)


“Transport is civilization. … We need better access to the outside world. If there is transport, the poor and the landless youths could create different job opportunities.”

(woman from Shumsheha – middle wealth)


Access to

Producer markets

Employment

Other livelihood opportunities

Services

Transport corridors/ urban

sprawl


Producer markets Lalibela for fruit and veg, honey, shoats (Sh); Haramaya/Aweday/Harar/Dire Dawa for local consumption and export of chat, some veg, some shoats, milk (AK)

Employment Lalibela airport and tourism (Sh); construction and other (Sh, AK)

Other livelihood opportunities

commodity trading (cereals; animal feed; Coca-Cola - AK); Petty retail (consumables); Delalas/fixers

Services Health, education (secondary, TVET), wereda administrative services

Transport corridors / urban sprawl

Pros (livelihoods e.g. retail), cons (health risks, social evils)

Possible futures? Suburbanism as survival and/or prosperity? Reinventing the Rural through irrigation?

Adele Keke –

• Growth through booming chat trade (established chat production culture, chat high prices, irrigation, easy access to chat markets)

• Position on main road critical

• Risks associated with ↑chat dependency – for individuals, for the community

• Differential access to irrigation (and urbanisation) leaving some behind?

• Low level support for youth groups…

Shumsheha –

• Less dynamic: difficult access to local markets, limited utilisation of irrigation

• Bypassed by main road and by wereda city administration

• On the brink of new future? How fast / quantity / type financial and technical support for irrigation and market access

• Higher degree differential hh trajectories?

• Some successful youth groups but others inactive…

Other to consider: trend for considerable international migration; tourism in Sh; external parameters: regional and zonal plans

The case of roads and bridges The case of irrigation The case of urbanisation

The wider picture in 2012 – selected parameters in the fourteen Stage 1 & 2 communities

The case of roads and bridges

Do’oma Gara Godo

Luqa irrigation Road from Luqa to Arba Minch

Building on main road – Adele Keke Beseka bridge - Gelcha

Unfinished bridge on road from Do’oma to main road

The case of roads and bridges

• The importance of internal paths, roads and bridges

‒ Walking times to the kebele centre/feeder roads/main road may be > 2 hours

‒ Movement in sites with steep areas is restricted if paths are poor

‒ If internal roads and bridges are good carts/motorbikes and bajaj can travel

‒ If internal roads are allweather they can continue to do so in rainy seasons

‒ If internal roads are good trucks can easily come into the community to load tomatoes, sand and gravel, eucalyptus etc. and machine to extract honey can access too.

• The importance of feeder roads

‒ For those communities that do not border main highways the quality of feeder roads and bridges and the frequency of transport affects the exporting of products, importing of inputs and consumer goods, access to higher health and education services, etc

• The importance of main highways

‒ The quality of main highways also affects the activities just described

‒ The quality of these roads is particularly important for longer-distance export of fragile crops such as chat (e.g. Adele Keke) and tomatoes (e.g. Do’oma)

‒ The upgrading of a main road crossing the community may have a strong influence on settlement (e.g. Luqa).

52

Roads and bridges

Internal roads and paths

Problems: all sites in rainy season

At all times of the year: Korodegaga, Adele Keke, Harresaw, Geblen, Dinki

Feeder roads

Problems: Korodegaga, Shumsheha, Dinki

Improved: Gelcha, Harresaw

Bridges

Lack of/problem (external): Korodegaga 2010, Do’oma 2012

Internal lack/problem: Gelcha (2012, Girar (2010)

Main roads

No major problems but

Only now asphalted (AD/Durame zone capital)

Not built (regional budget shortfall) (Do’oma)

The case of irrigation

Do’oma Gara Godo

Luqa irrigation

Gelcha irrigation

Shumsheha irrigation Harresaw dam

54

Irrigation potential

Big irrigation (potential)

Koro-degaga

Gelcha Do’oma Adele Keke

Smaller irrigation (potential)

Yetmen Dinki Luqa

Medium irrigation potential

Harre-saw

Shum-sheha

Yellow font communities have PSNP Outlined communities researched in 2010

55

Irrigation type

Rivers

Gravity

Do’oma

Shum-sheha

Dinki Luqa

Pumps

Yetmen

Spate

Gelcha

Mixed

Koro-degega

Harvested & ground water &

pumps

Reservoir

Harre-saw

Wells

Adele Keke

Black font communities have some drip irrigation Outlined communities researched in 2010

56

Little known irrigation potential – other activities

Coffee/chat/eucalyptus

Aze Deb’oa

Gara Godo

Girar

Migration

Aze Debo’a

Gara Godo

Geblen Girar

Rainfed agriculture & commuting

Turufe

A few farmers in Aze Debo’a had dug wells and pumped water but no wereda plans

The case of urbanisation processes

Do’oma Gara Godo

Gara Godo municipality

Expansion of Lake Beseka - Gelcha

Fridge in Adele Keke

Harresaw dam

Protection of communal land - Harresaw

Going to town - Gelcha

London café Luqa

Durame market – 4 kms from Aze Debo’a

58

Urbanisation processes

External urban creep from outside the Kebele:

Turufe (2010), Girar (2010), Gelcha (2012)

Internal urban creep from kebele centre:

Harresaw, Gara Godo, Do’oma, Shumsheha,

Yetmen (2010), Geblen (2010)

Sub-urbanisation commuting:

Shumsheha, Aze Debo’a, Adele Keke, Turufe (210)

The case of urbanisation processes

A few sites too far away from urban influences for direct effects: Dinki, Korodegaga. Luqa: emerging roadside concentrated settlement

Urbanisation processes

• Growth of informal sector

• Diversification of livelihoods

• Thickening linkages: trade, services (health and education), wage-labour, brokerage

• Recreation: youth TV/video, drinking, commercial sex etc.

• Adopting urban lifestyles (clothing, housing, food)

• influences from urban areas on ideas (religious change, urban youth influencing behaviour)

• Investment in urban areas and communications (rich housing and shops, transport carts, motorbikes)

• International migration interacting with urbanisation

Community livelihood trajectories 1995-2015

61

Structural change

Suburban-isation

Turufe Adele Keke

Shum-sheha

International migration

Aze Debo’a

Harre-saw

Good irrigation potential

Gelcha Do’oma Koro-

degaga

Community livelihood trajectories 1995-2011 and to 2015 (?)

Shashemene Haramaya Lalibela South Africa The Gulf

62

Structural reproduction

Good economic growth

Yetmen Girar Gara Godo

Core livelihood stasis

Dinki Luqa

Core livelihood decline

Geblen

Community livelihood trajectories 1995-2011 and to 2015?

Geblen 2010 future uncertain – ‘dithering’ Luqa 2012 maybe dithering as well (away from core livelihood, roadside settlement)

Thank you

More soon…

Documents

Ethiopian rural communities: Where are they heading?mokoro.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/5.Ethiopian_rural_communities... · Ethiopian rural communities: Where are they heading? A Mokoro