ETHICS - Weebly · 2019. 5. 11. · 1.7 ETHICS AND OWNERSHIP REVISION 9608 – SECTION 1 6 OWNERSHIP INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY One of the more controversial areas of computer ethics concerns

1.7 ETHICS AND OWNERSHIP

REVISION 9608 – SECTION 1 1

ETHICS QUESTION 1 Paul works part-time for a large software company. The company sells security software to a number of banks. He also runs his own software company that produces and sells computer games. Six statements about computer ethics are shown below. Draw lines to indicate whether each statement describes ethical or unethical behaviour. ANSWER 1



QUESTION 2 Bobby is a senior programmer at a software house which produces intruder detection software. He also runs his own software company which develops and sells various computer applications. The

following table shows seven activities which Bobby carries out. Put a tick (✓) in the appropriate column to identify if the activity is ethical or unethical. ANSWER 2

QUESTION 3

The ACM and IEEE set out eight principles for ethics and professional practice. The categories, with a short explanation, are shown in this diagram.



Statement 1 Team leaders should subscribe to and promote an ethical approach to the management of software development and maintenance. Statement 2 Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of the profession. Statement 3 Software and related modifications meet the highest possible standards. (a) These three statements need to be added to the diagram. Circle the correct numbers on the diagram to indicate the positions for Statement 1, Statement 2 and Statement 3. (b) For each of these three workplace scenarios, unethical behaviour is demonstrated. Explain the principle(s) which are not being met. (i) Workplace scenario 1

A large project is devolved to project teams, each led by a project leader. One project leader fails to inform his manager that he has major concerns that:

their team’s software contribution is taking much longer to write and test than anticipated

• they are consequently at risk of spending over their allocated budget. (ii) Workplace scenario 2

The software house is about to train a number of programmers in a new programming language. Two employees are refusing to attend the training.

(iii) The company is developing some monitoring software which requires sensors placed in a nature reserve. One employee considers the sensors will be a danger to some of the wildlife, but is told by his manager that the matter is none of his concern. ANSWER 3 (a) product – 3 management – 1 self – 2 (b) (i) Management at fault need to keep whole project staff fully informed i.e. a MANAGEMENT issue This could impact on the whole project – i.e. a PRODUCT issue. JUDGEMENT of the project leader is poor. (ii) A SELF issue – staff should be expected to keep their skills up to date. It could be the EMPLOYER is not able to move quickly into new areas of work. (iii) This is a PUBLIC interest issue. The employee has used good JUDGEMENT in bringing the issue into open discussion.



QUESTION 4 What are Ethics? ANSWER 4

• Ethics can be defined as “moral principles that govern a person’s or a group’s behaviours”. • Ethical behavior is not necessarily related to the law. • For example, just because something is not against the law doesn’t mean it is OK to do it. QUESTION 5

What are Computer Ethics? ANSWER 5

• Computer ethics are concerned with standards of conduct applying to the use of computers. • Computer ethics can be understood as the branch of applied ethics which studies and analyzes

social and ethical impact of information technology. QUESTION 6

What are “Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics”? ANSWER 6 The Computer Ethics Institute has published their “Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics” to guide responsible computer use. They are as follows: 1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. 2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people's computer work. 3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's computer files. 4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. 5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness. 6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid. 7. Thou shalt not use other people's computer resources without authorization or proper

compensation. 8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people's intellectual output. 9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system

you are designing. 10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow

humans.

QUESTION 7

Briefly explain the 8 categories listed in the ACM/IEEE Software Engineering Code of Ethics. ANSWER 7

The Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice, produced by the Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Computer Society (IEEE CS) and the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), acts as a professional standard for teaching and practicing software engineering. It specifies ethical and professional obligations of software engineers and states the standards that standards society at large expects them to meet and what they should expect of one another. The code also tells the public what they should expect from software engineers. Code: Software engineers shall commit themselves to making the analysis, specification, design, development, testing and maintenance of software a beneficial and respected profession. In



accordance with their commitment to the health, safety and welfare of the public, software engineers shall adhere to the following 8 Principles: 1. Public: Software engineers shall act consistently with the public interest.

2. Client and Employer: Software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the best interest of their client and employer, consistent with the public interest.

3. Product: Software engineers shall ensure that their products and related modifications meet the highest professional standards possible.

4. Judgment: Software engineers shall maintain integrity and independence in their professional judgment.

5. Management: Software engineering managers and leaders shall subscribe to and promote an ethical approach to the management of software development and maintenance.

6. Profession: Software engineers shall advance the integrity and reputation of the profession consistent with the public interest.

7. Colleagues: Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of their colleagues.

8. Self: Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of their profession and shall promote and ethical approach to the practice of the profession.

QUESTION 8

What is the Professional code of conduct for a computer system developer? ANSWER 8

A Code of Conduct is not law, but it is a set of rules that apply when you are in an organization such as your college. Examples might include “Don’t watch pornography at the office”. This would be legal at home, but if you did it at the office, you could be fired. In addition, a code of conduct may contain laws such as “Don’t install pirated software”. The British Computer Society has produced a list of standards for the training and development of Information Technology workers. It covers the following issues: 1. The Public Interest – Safeguarding public health; respecting rights of 3rd parties, applying

knowledge of relevant regulation.

2. Duty to employers and clients – Carrying out work according to the requirements, and not abusing employers’ or clients’ trust in any way.

3. Professional duty – uphold the reputation of the profession through good practice, support fellow members in professional development.

4. Professional Integrity and Competence – maintain standards of professional skill and practice,

accepting responsibility for word done, avoiding conflicts of interest with clients.

An example of a code of conduct in use in an office is as follows:

• Don’t play games

• Don’t watch pornography

• Don’t gamble

• Don’t plug your own peripherals into your computer

• Don’t install software on work machines without permission.



OWNERSHIP INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

One of the more controversial areas of computer ethics concerns the intellectual property rights connected with software ownerships.

Some people, like Richard Stallman who started the Free Software Foundation, believe that software ownership should not be allowed at all.

He claims that all information should be free, and all programs should be available for copying, studying and modifying by anyone who wishes to do so [Stallman, 1993].

Others argue that software companies or programmers would not invest weeks and months of work and significant funds in the development of software if they could not get the investment back in the form of license fees or sales [Johnson, 1992].

Today’s software industry is a multibillion dollar part of the economy; and software companies claim to lose billions of dollars per year through illegal copying (“software piracy”).

Many people think that software should be ownable, but “casual copying” of personally owned programs for one’s friends should also be permitted [Nissenbaum, 1995].

The software industry, since there are several different aspects of software that can be owned and three different types of ownership: o Copyrights o Trade secrets o Patents

One can own the following aspects of a program: o The “source code” which is written by the programmer in a high-level computer language

like Java or C++.

o The “object code”, which is a machine-language translation of the source code.

o The “algorithm”, which is the sequence of machine commands that the source code and object code represent.

o The “look and feel” of a program, which is the way the program appears on the screen and interfaces with users.

CONSEQUENCES OF USES OF COMPUTING: LEGISLATION

The way you use data and computers is subject to the law of the country you are living in.

Across the world different countries have different laws, for the exam you only need to learn about the laws that affect the UK.

You must be familiar with the following legislation:

Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992

The Health and Safety Act was passed in 1992 and set out to promote excellence in managing health and safety in the work place.

There are strict guidelines on how a desk is setup including provision for monitor positioning, adjustable chairs, etc.



Health and Safety is paramount when using computers for prolonged periods of time.

Sitting in front of a computer screen typing and/or using a mouse is not a natural act for a human being and may result in health problems such as Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI), back and eye issues.

An example of a sensibly laid out work place.

The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 state that an employer must: o Make sure screens are adjustable and have antiglare filters o Provide supportive chairs that are adjustable o Provide foot supports o Provide breaks in computer work routine o Pay for eye treatment if necessary

Any employer failing to do this may be subject to a criminal investigation. COPYRIGHT, DESIGN AND PATENTS ACT 1988

The Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988 affects how people can acquire, use and share ideas, software and media.

Patent

A patent is a form of intellectual property which an individual or organisation owns the right to for a fixed period of time, allowing them to charge people for the use of it.

After that time has expired the idea is in the public domain.

Patents include the design of the light bulb (1841) and the ejector seat (1916).



Computing has seen patents in hardware and more recently in software.

There are many people who believe that software patents are damaging to Computer Science, as they stop innovation and stifle creativity.

A famous case was BT trying to patent the hyperlink.

If this had been successful, then every time a hyperlink was used (every page on the World Wide Web), someone might have had to pay money to BT for the privilege.

Other people see software patents as important in defending the intellectual property of inventors, if someone creates something new they should be rewarded for it.

Other software patents include: the MP3 and GIF.

Countries such as India do not have software patents. Copyright

Software copyright refers to the law regarding the copying of computer software.

Many companies and individuals write software and sell it for money, these products are copyrighted and you cannot copy the code or the program without the permission of the maker.

This, they believe protects the work of the programmers, rewarding them for their efforts.

Copyright symbol Public domain symbol Copy-Left symbol

Other companies and individuals release software under Free and Open Source software (FOSS) licenses.

These licenses allow users the right to use, study, change, and improve a program’s design through the availability of its source code.

Some adherents of FOSS believe it creates better software in the long term, and others believe that no software should be copyrighted.

FOSS licensed products are heavily used in running the World Wide Web and in the creation of popular websites such as Facebook.

Open Source licenses generally mean that if you create software that makes changes to open source code, and choose to release it, you must release your new code under the same Open Source license, this is called Copy-Left.

Some free software is in the public domain, meaning that you can use it for whatever purpose you wish, if you make a software product involving changes to public domain sources code, you don’t have to release your code into the public domain.

Copyright in most works last until 70 years after the death of the creator if known, otherwise 70 years after the work was created or published (50 years for computer-generated works).

In summary the act specifies that users are not allowed to: o Use copyright material without permission o Use patented design without permission o Edit programs without permission o Copy or distribute software without permission



COMPUTER MISUSE ACT 1990

The Computer Misuse Act 1990 deals with people who crack computer programs or systems.

Crimes might include removing the Copyright protective measures from a commercial software product, breaking into a school database to change grades, hacking into a companies’ website and stealing customer credit card details, creating viruses and Trojans, and so on.

It was recognized in the late 1980s that the increase in business and home use of computers required legislation in order to protect against their exploitation.

To this end, in 1990 the Computer Misuse Act was established.

Under the act, 3 new offences were created. It prohibits:

1. Unauthorized access to computer material o There must be proof that the perpetrator accessed the data, and that he was

unauthorized and wasn’t aware of the fact that he was unauthorized.

2. Unauthorized access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further offences o To prove ulterior intent, it must be shown that they wished to use the information in

order to commit a further offence. 3. Unauthorized modification of computer material

o Unauthorized modification also includes deliberate introduction of a virus onto a computer system.

“Obtaining access” means: o Causing the computer to perform any action the results in it.

Copying/moving data, erasing/altering data, using a program. Or causing the computer to output programs or data.

A difficulty with computer crime is that it can cross physical and national borders.

The Computer Misuse Act recognizes this fact and gives British Courts the jurisdiction where a “significant link” with Britain can be demonstrated in instances of computer-related crime.

America has its own Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.



DATA PROTECTION ACT 1998

The Data Protection Act 1998 controls the way that companies, organisations and individuals handle personal data.

It states that: 1. Data may only be used for the specific purposes for which it was collected.

2. Data must not be disclosed to other parties without the consent of the individual whom it is about, unless there is legislation or other overriding legitimate reason to share the information (for example, the prevention or detection of crime. It is an offence for Other Parties to obtain this personal data without authorization.

3. Individuals have a right of access to the information held about them, subject to certain exceptions (for example, information held for the prevention or detection of crime).

4. Personal information may be kept for no longer than is necessary and must be kept up to date.

5. Personal information may not be sent outside the European Economic Area unless the individual whom it is about has consented or adequate protection is in place, for example by the use of a prescribed form of contract to govern the transmission of the data.

6. Subject to some exceptions for organisations that only do very simple processing, and for domestic use, all entities that process personal information must register with the Information Commissioner’s Office.

7. The departments of a company that are holding personal information are required to have adequate security measures in place. Those include technical measures (such as firewalls) and organizational measures (such as staff training).

8. Subjects have the right to have factually incorrect information corrected. REGULATION OF INVESTIGATORY POWERS ACT 2000

The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act was passed in 2000, and introduces the power to intercept communications with the aim of taking into account the growth of the Internet.

It regulates the manner in which certain public bodies may conduct surveillance and access a person’s electronic communications.

Supporters of the act claimed this was an excuse to introduce new measures, some of these included being able to force someone to reveal a cryptographic key foe their data, with failure to do so resulting in up to 2 years imprisonment.

As we have seen in packet switching, data can be read in transmit between hosts.

However, the act goes further than allowing this: o Enables certain public bodies to demand that an ISP provide access to a customer’s

communications in secret. o Enables mass surveillance of communications in transit. o Enables certain public bodies to demand ISPs fit equipment to facilitate surveillance. o Enables certain public bodies to demand that someone hand over keys to protected

information. o Allows certain public bodies to monitor people’s internet activities. o Prevents the existence of interception warrant and why data collected with them from being

revealed in court.



SOFTWARE LICENCE

A software license is a legally binding agreement that specifies the terms of use for an application and defines the rights of the software producer and of the end-user.

All software must be legally licensed before it may be installed.

Proof of purchase (purchase orders, receipts, invoices or similar documentation are acceptable) must be maintained by individuals or departments.

Software licensing can be a confusing subject.

There are different types of licenses and licensing contracts, and different vendors may use different terms to describe their licenses.

Here are some key terms to help you navigate through these murky waters. Software License Types

Individual (Single-User) o This license type allows the program to be installed and used on one CPU which is not

accessed by others users over a network. o The software will only be used on a single computer, and other users will not be able to

access or run the software while connected to your computer. o Types of individual licenses are:

1. Perpetual License: o Allows the customer to install and use the software indefinitely. o Technical support is included for a limited term, usually 90days.

2. Subscription License:

o Allows the user to use the software for a specified time period. o This license usually includes technical support and access to upgrades and patches

released during the term of the subscription. o At the end of the term the user has several options:

Renew the subscription Purchase a perpetual license at a discounted cost Remove the software from the computer

3. Freeware License:

o This license type is offered as freeware by the author and does not require paying any fee for use.

4. Shareware License: o This is a license to use software for a trial period and then, if you continue to use

the software, you must pay a shareware fee or cease using the software. Special Channel Licenses 1. OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer:

o These licenses cover software for stand-alone PCs and notebooks and MUST stay bundled with the computer system and NOT distributed as a separate product.

o This software will be identified or labeled “For Distribution Only With New Computer Hardware”.



2. Education or Academic Software: o Software marked for distributed to educational institutions and students at reduced prices. o This software is usually labeled that it is an academic product and for use only by academic

or educational institutions.

3. Not for Resale (NFR) Software License: o Specific and restricted licenses that are made available by software vendors directly to the

distribution channel and are typically marked NFR with explicit conditions that it is NOT FOR RESALE.

o The NFR software is not licensed for normal commercial distribution.

4. Concurrent Use: o This license type requires that you purchase licenses for the maximum number of people

who will be running the software simultaneously. Freeware

In general, freeware is available at no cost and with no restrictions.

Freeware tends to be simple software designed to perform one or two tasks. Shareware

Shareware is free to try out.

You usually have to pay if you want to continue using it.

Some shareware relies on the honesty of users to pay up when they should. Open Source Business Software

Open source software can be freely adapted by anyone with the knowledge and inclination to do so.

The open source system has created many useful pieces of software that are the product of loose collaboration between many people, all over the world.

Freemium Software

This is a relatively new model for software.

It mainly applies to online software that you access over the Internet.

With freemium software certain basic features are free, but if you need more advanced functions, you will have to pay for them.

TYPES OF LICENSES Proprietary License

Most software licenses are “proprietary” licenses, meaning the software publisher grants a license to use one or more copies of software, but that ownership of those copies remains with the software publisher.

The user must accept the license before they are permitted to use the software. GNU General Public License

These are agreements under which much “open source” software is licensed.

End users may do things like change the source code, but any refinements of the software must also be made available under a GNU GPL license.

Often referred to as “free, copyleft” licenses, the software may or may not be distributed for a fee – “free” refers to the ability of users to change and distribute modifications of the software, not to cost.



End User License Agreement (EULA)

Also called “clickwraps” or “shrink wraps”, EULAS indicate the terms under which the end-user may use the software.

Agreements with organisations or companies often take the form of contracts between the organisation and the software publisher or vendor, and specify the terms of use for all users from the organisation, superseding any EULAs which may come with the software.

Workstation Licenses

These are licenses that permit the installation of an application on a single computer.

You may not install the software on more than one machine unless you purchase a license for each additional machine.

Most workstation license agreements allow you to make a single backup copy of the software as long as that backup copy is used only to restore the software onto the same machine, or a separate if the software is removed from the original computer.

Concurrent Use License

There are licenses that permit you to install the software onto multiple machines as long as the number of computers using the software at the same time does not exceed the number of licenses which you have purchased.

Concurrent use licenses are usually used in conjunction with “license manager” software that prevents the number of licenses from being exceeded.

At UNCG, ITS uses KeyServer software that monitors and controls the use of concurrent use licensed software.

Site Licenses

A site license permits the use of software on any compute at a specified site.

Unlimited site licenses allow the installation of software on any number of computers as long as those computers are located at the specified site.

Some site licenses permit the installation on computers owned by a particular entity (such as a university) regardless of the physical location.

Some vendors refer to their licenses as site licenses but restrict the number of computers on which the software may be installed.

The only way to know for sure is to read the license specifics. Perpetual License

These are licenses without expiration dates, which permit use of the software indefinitely, without requiring a recurring fee for continued use.

Most software that individuals buy for use on their home computers are perpetual licenses. Non-Perpetual Licenses

These are licenses that “lease” the software for use for a specified period of time, usually annually or sometimes bi-annually.

Users are required to remove the software from their computer if they cease paying the license free.

License with Maintenance

Some license agreements allow the user to purchase “maintenance” or “software assurance” along with the original license fee, which entitles the user to receive new versions of the software for one to two years until the maintenance agreement expires.

Documents

ETHICS - Weebly · 2019. 5. 11. · 1.7 ETHICS AND OWNERSHIP REVISION 9608 – SECTION 1 6 OWNERSHIP INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY One of the more controversial areas of computer ethics concerns