Ethical theories: religious ethics · Web viewEnvironmental and business ethics Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: the issue of how humans should

A2 Ethics: Environmental and Business Ethics

G582: A2 Religious EthicsApplied Ethics

Environmental and business ethics

Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:

the issue of how humans should relate to the environment, its resources and species;

secular approaches – the Gaia hypothesis;

issues in business ethics: the relationship between business and consumers; the

relationship between employers and employees;

the relationship between business and the environment; business and globalisation;

the application and the different approaches of the ethical theories listed above to environmental and business ethics.

The ethical theories as applied to the applied ethics topic listed above:

o Natural Law

o Kantian Ethics

o Utilitarianism

o Religious Ethics

o Virtue Ethics

Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically.

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Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the issue of how humans should relate to the environment, its resources and species

Human-centred (anthropocentric) approach

Only human life has intrinsic value

Nature has only instrumental value

Nature is valuable only in so far as it improves human life.

Conservationism: we ought to preserve, recycle and reduce usage of natural resources to maintain/improve human wellbeing.

Michael La Bossiere: the extinction of species is not bad unless it impacts negatively on human well-being. Extinction at the hands of humans can be justified as it is natural (Darwin’s survival of the fittest).

Deep Ecology

Leopold:

Arne Naess (1973): nature has intrinsic value and as such everything in nature has rights (ecosophy)

Naess is critical of Christian view according to which humans are more important than nature.

The principles of deep ecology:

(1) the flourishing of all life is valuable

(2) Biological diversity is valuable

(3) Humans have no right to diminish this value except unless this is for essential human needs

(4) The flourishing of all life would benefit from a decrease in human population

(5) We are currently interfering too much with nature

(6) Political policies towards the environment should change to stop this

(7) We should focus on quality of life rather than material wealth

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Christian view

Dominion

Genesis:

Plato: ‘[nature] has made all animals for the sake of man.’

Humans more important than other parts of God’s creation as we are created in God’s image (imago dei)

Humans given authority over the Earth, animals and plants.

Stewardship

Key ideas:

o Preserving natural resources

o Protecting natural resources

o Maintaining the environment for future generations

Humans given responsibility to look after the Earth

Parable of the Talents (Matthew 25:14-30)

Creation spirituality

St Francis of Assisi: God can be found in all nature

Humankind is part of nature, not separate from it

Augustinian theodicy

One of the consequences of the Fall was that our relationship with nature was thrown out of balance, and needs to be repaired if we are to improve our relationship with God.

Key points

Stewardship – gives us responsibility to look after the environment Old Testament promoted care for the environment Andrew Linzey: Christ’s death offers redemption to all living things Genesis could support the Gaia Hypothesis:

o Humans are part of the biosphere – created by god just like everything else living

o Respect for the environment is key (not exploitation)o Our failure to be stewards will lead to disaster (destruction of the human

race)

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Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of secular approaches – the Gaia hypothesis

James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis

Gaia = ‘a complex entity involving the Earth's biosphere, atmosphere, oceans, and soil’

The biosphere ensures that conditions are suitable for life (hospitable) The Earth self-regulates, maintains itself – is itself a living organism Humans are not superior to other lifeforms

Evidence for the Gaia hypothesis

Constant temperature of the Earth despite increase in Solar energy Composition of the atmosphere stays constant Ocean salinity stays constant When there have been huge and devastating events (like that which wiped out the

dinosaurs), life in some form has continued There are some creatures that live in symbiotic relationships (e.g., pilot fish and

sharks) Daisyworld simulation

Issues with the Gaia hypothesis

Dawkins argues that Darwin’s Theory of Evolution disproves the Gaia Hypothesis

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Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the application and the different approaches of the ethical theories to environmental ethics

Utilitarianism

Relativist and consequentialist approach: maximise happiness. Future generations are going to suffer unless we address environmental problems

now. Act Utilitarianism (Bentham): hedonic calculus applied to each individual situation

(Greatest Happiness Principle) Quantitative approach (Bentham): quantity of pleasures important (consider how

many people are affected Rule Utilitarianism (Mill): what general rules would we agree make the world a

better place? Qualitative Utilitarianism (Mill): quality of pleasures important – these include a

consideration of the environment Harm Principle (Mill): we can only cause harm to someone else to prevent them

cause a greater harm – so we need to think about how our actions cause people around the world harm

Preference Utilitarianism (Singer): other animals have preferences too that should be respected (e.g., the preference to live rather than die).

Key points

An anthropocentric view Motivating for humans – we should look after the world to improve our lives Peter Singer: the preferences of animals needs to be included in cost-benefit

analyses If an act produces good environmental consequences it is right, otherwise it is

wrong. So preserving a rare species of turtle might be better than preserving pandas (which don’t do much)

Issueso How far in the future do we need to think in order to know the extent of our

actions.o Should we preserve pandas simply because they cause us happiness?

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Kant’s Ethics

Absolutist approach based on DUTY Only humans have intrinsic value – anthropocentric approach to the environment We could universalise ‘do not exploit the environment’ as it is not in our best

interests to do so. Kant thought that the way we treat animals is a good indicator of how we would

treat other people. Blood sports are not right (they do not result from Good Will) It is rational to respect the environment.

Key points

Only humans have moral value Instrumental value given to other parts of nature Kant thought it was wrong to mistreat animals ‘Respect the environment’ is universalisable and a law we would want in the

Kingdom of Ends

Aquinas’ Natural Moral Law

Purpose of humans is to ‘glorify God’ Scientists tend to deny the teleological classification of nature (natural

organisms are not defined in terms of their purpose) Scientists do use the idea of purpose and function to explain the world though Attributes value to things which fulfil their potential – an argument for deep

ecology God has given nature value ‘Doing good’ means that we allow things to flourish

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Virtue Ethics

Humans can only flourish if we flourish as part of the environment The virtuous person would treat the environment well. Use archetypes e.g., Jesus and St Francis of Assisi to help model our behaviour.

Key ideas

We should develop good habits towards the environment – recycling (a virtue) stops us from being wasteful (a vice)

Virtuous people are virtuous in all aspects of life – so we should try to cultivate good virtues towards the environment

The virtuous person is a good person towards others and nature A virtuous person knows how to balance life – some of nature can be used for us,

and some should be protected: a middle way between deep ecology and shallow ecology (anthropocentric view)

MacIntyre: we should be caring to those weaker than us – both humans and nature

Roger Scruton: we should be sympathetic towards animals when they suffer, and rejoice in their happiness when they are joyful.

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Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of issues in business ethics: the relationship between business and consumers

Micro-ethics: how businesses and consumers should interact.

Advertising: Consumers should not be misled

Sales: Consumers should be over-charged

Products: products should be safe

Social responsibility: a business has responsibilities to stakeholders (shareholders, employees, consumers, wider society)

Friedman: the responsibility of a business is to increase profits for its shareholders

o Business men are not trained as social workers (it is the government’s responsibility to look after citizens)

Anyway which social groups/causes should a business support?

o Corporate businesses have no right to spend its customers’ money on social welfare

o The free-market sets prices (supply and demand)

Problem: price of portable electricity generators will increase in times of need (eg Hurricane Katrina – New Orleans)

Do we want to say it is morally wrong to exploit the needy in this way?

No customers = no profit

Multinationals charged with unethical practices

o E.g., Nestle in Africa – employed nurses to recommend its own formula milk over breast-feeding. However babies became ill as the local water supplies were not clean

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Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of issues in business ethics: the relationship between employers and employees

Adam Smith

Employer and employee exist in an interdependent symbiotic relationship

The employer needs the employees as labour, and the employees need the work.

The free-market ensures this happens (supply and demand).

Karl Marx

The labour force (proletariat) is exploited by the employers (bourgeoisie).

Capitalism oppresses the workers who are alienated from the product of their labour (which is owned by the employer).

Responsibilities of employers

To pay employees fairly

Safe working conditions

No child labour

Cooperatives are jointly owned by employees (John Lewis, the Cooperative) who are then also shareholders.

Dilemma: profits or social responsibility (cheaper workforce overseas)?

Ted Snyder: profits should be the most important consideration for a business.

Employee-employer relationship is strained with the concept of whistleblowing, when an employee goes public on a malpractice or injustice they discover the business has perpetrated.

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Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of issues in business ethics: the relationship between business and the environment; business and globalisation

Business and the environment

Kyoto Conference

Kyoto Protocol - agreements to reduce pollution (especially CO2 emissions) and combat global warming

USA refused to sign the agreement as they felt it would damage their economy.

Carbon offsetting

A way to compensate for carbon emissions

Corporate responsibility

Oil companies pollute the environment due to ‘accidents’ E.g., BP in the Gulf of Mexico

Business and globalisation

Globalisation: ‘integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and spread of technology.’ (Bhagwati)

Global market place Easier to resource raw materials

Impact on LEDCS

Wealth not distributed to LEDCs Local people exploited (poor working conditions, low pay) for cheaper production

Impact on MEDCs

Globalisation leads to unemployment in those areas traditionally used for manufacturing (e.g., West Midlands – car industry)

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Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the application and the different approaches of the ethical theories to business ethics

Utilitarianism

Maximise happiness. A few children in LEDCs can suffer if there are more people who benefit from

cheap clothes (according to a quantitative theory) Profits only give lower pleasures to companies. Preference Utilitarianism – everyone’s preferences should count – should lead to

more equality. Fair-trade might help this? Harm Principle

Key points

Utilitarianism offers a practical way of weighing up different considerations Cost-benefit analysis – do the pros outweigh the costs? Do the benefits of the

product outweigh the costs of labour? A business would fail if it didn’t give people what they wanted (what makes them

happy) Issueso Treats stakeholders as means to an end (profit)o No protection of people’s rights (Bentham: rights are ‘nonsense on stilts’)o Mill: only the higher pleasures should be pursued and promoted – should a

tobacco company stop making cigarettes, which cause harm and only lower pleasures?

o Bernard Williams: George (a pacifist) needs a job to support his family. The only job available is in a biological weapons factory – he is well qualified for the job. If he doesn’t take it, someone else will. Utilitarian must say he should take the job to maximise utility. But this doesn’t take into account George’s integrity.

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Kant’s Deontological Ethics

Absolutist views Could you universalise ‘exploit your employees’? - No. Kant gives example of shopkeeper who charges a fair price because he thinks it is

right to do so, and another who does so to make more profit (more customers). Only the first has done the right thing

Treat others as ends in themselves- pay fair wages Don’t use others to simply increase profits Clash between Kant (duty is to the moral law) and Milton Friedman (duty is to

increase profits)

Key points

Only acting out of duty to the moral law is praiseworthy Acting selfishly is wrong – Kant’s shop-keeper illustration Customers not to be treated solely as means to profit Trade should be conducted fairly and honestly Duty to people outweighs other hypothetical imperatives Issues

o Friedman believes duty of a business is to make profit for shareholders. But a Kantian needs to balance this duty with duties to customers and employees. How?

o If people are more important than profits, businesses would fail.

Virtue Ethics

Business people can only flourish if they develop the virtues. Business people should be virtuous Business supports the state/society – so a virtuous business is good for society –

leads to harmony and productivity Issues

o Which virtues are relevant? Machiavelli: business leaders need to be sometimes cruel and deceitful MacIntyre argues the business virtue of ‘being bureaucratic’ (efficient,

manipulating and controlling) is not a good way of being a person – they are unlikely to lead to eudaimonia

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Christian Religious Ethics

Treat others fairly Jesus’ Golden Rule Man cannot be servant to two masters. True wealth is measured in spiritual terms, not financial ones. Some of Jesus’ teachings are about how we should behave in business

Parable of the Talents Parable of the Rich Fool Honesty

Protestant work-ethic: hard work is what God wants The love of money is the root of all evil, not money itself Money can be put to good use – Christian philanthropy Liberation Theology:

Capitalism exploits the weak Capitalism leads to an unjust society Priority should be given to care for the poor Gustavo Gutierrez Parable of the Sheep and the Goats

Natural Moral Law

Purpose of humans is to ‘glorify God’ ‘Live well in society’ is a primary precept - shows business should be fair

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Documents

Ethical theories: religious ethics · Web viewEnvironmental and business ethics Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: the issue of how humans should