Ethan Frome · Web viewAbraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, as shown in Figure 6.5 in the textbook, identifies five distinct levels of individual needs: from self-actualization

Chapter 6: Motivation and Reinforcement

CHAPTER 6

MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is motivation to work?2. What are reinforcement theories, and how are they linked to motivation?3. What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?4. What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?5. How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance help tie together insights of

the motivational theories into an integrated motivational model?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter students should be able to:

1. Provide a definition of the term “motivation” and explain the vital role of motivation in business organizations.

2. Discuss the differences between reinforcement theory and the major content and process theories of employee motivation.

3. Discuss reinforcement theory, and the different types of reinforcement strategies.4. Explain the law of contingent reinforcement, the law of immediate reinforcement,

and shaping.5. Discuss the difference between continuous and intermittent reinforcement.6. Discuss the content theories of motivation, including the hierarchy of needs theory,

ERG theory, acquired needs theory, and the two-factor theory.7. Discuss the process theories of motivation, including equity theory and expectancy

theory.8. Differentiate between an expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.9. Describe the concept of job satisfaction and discuss the relationship between job

satisfaction, employee retention and work performance.10. Discuss the integrated model of motivation provided in the text.11. Discuss, in a hostile manner, the overall importance of employee motivation in

organizational behavior.

MATERIAL IN THE OB SKILLS WORKBOOK AND WEB SITE SUPPORTING THE CHAPTER

Fast Company Articles The Company of the FutureDanger: Toxic Company

Cases for Critical Thinking Case 6: It isn’t Fair

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On-Line Case Southwest Airlines (Interactive Case)

Experiential Exercises Exercise 11: Teamwork & MotivationExercise 12: The Downside of Punishment

Self-Assessment Inventories Assessment 7: Two Factor Profile

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This chapter provides a thorough review of employee motivation and reinforcement in the workplace. The chapter begins by defining the term “motivation” and introducing reinforcement theory and the content and process theories of motivation. The first theory covered is reinforcement theory. The authors talk about classical and operant conditioning, and then moves on to discuss the different reinforcement strategies, including positive reinforcement, scheduling of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.

The middle portion of the chapter focuses on the process and content theories of motivation. The process theories covered include Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Alderfer’s ERG Theory, McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. The process theories covered include Adam’s Equity Theory and Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. Each theory is discussed in sufficient detail to provide a good grasp of the nature and importance of the theory.

The final section of the chapter focuses on job satisfaction and the relationship between job satisfaction, employee retention, and work performance. The authors conclude the chapter by proposing an integrated model of employee motivation.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. What is MotivationA. Reinforcement, Content, and Process TheoriesB. Motivation Across Cultures

II. ReinforcementA. Classical and Operant Conditioning B. Reinforcement StrategiesC. Reinforcement Perspectives: Usage and Ethical Issues

III. Content Theories of MotivationA. Hierarchy of Needs TheoryB. ERG TheoryC. Acquired Needs TheoryD. Two-Factor Theory

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IV. Process TheoryA. Equity TheoryB. Expectancy Theory

V. Integrating Motivation TheoriesA. Job SatisfactionB. Job Satisfaction, Retention, and PerformanceC. Integrated Model of Motivation

CHAPTER NOTES

I. What is Motivation

A. Introduction

1. Motivation refers to forces within an individual that accounts for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

a. Direction refers to an individual’s choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives (e.g., whether to exert effort toward product quality or toward product quantity).

b. Level refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth (e.g., a lot or a little).

c. Persistence refers to the length of time a person sticks with a given action (e.g., to try to achieve product quantity and give up when it is found difficult to attain).

B. Reinforcement, Content, and Process Theories

1. The theories of motivation can be divided into three broad categories.

a. Reinforcement theories emphasize the means through which operant conditioning takes place.

b. Content theories profile different needs that may motivate individual behavior.

c. Process theories seek to understand the thought processes that determine behavior.

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C. Motivation Across Cultures

1. Before we examine the motivation theories in detail, an important caveat is in order. Motivation is a key concern in firms across the globe. However, North American theories (and these are the only ones discussed in this chapter) are subject to cultural limitations.

2. The determinants of motivation and the best ways to deal with it are likely to vary considerably across Asia, South America, Eastern Europe, and Africa.

II. Reinforcement

A. Introduction

1. Reinforcement is the administration of a consequence as a result of behavior.

2. Managing reinforcement properly can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior.

B. Classical and Operant Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning is a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. The text uses the example of Pavlov and the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior.

2. Operant conditioning, popularized by B.F. Skinner, is an extension of the classical case to much more practical affairs. It includes more than just a stimulus and response behavior. Operant conditioning is the process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.

3. Classical and operant conditioning differ in two important ways.

a. First, control in operant conditioning is via manipulation of consequences while classical conditioning focuses upon the stimuli.

b. Second, operant conditioning calls for examining antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. The antecedent is the condition leading up to or “cueing” behavior. For example, in Figure 6.1 in the textbook, an agreement between the boss and the employee to work overtime as needed is an antecedent. If the employee works overtime, this would be the behavior while the consequence would be the boss’s praise.

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4. The law of effect is simple but powerful: behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated. The implications of this law are rather straightforward. If, as a supervisor, you want more of a behavior, you must make the consequences for the individual positive.

Teaching Tip: Lead a classroom discussion concerning the law of effect, using the example of grades in the classroom.

C. Reinforcement Strategies

1. Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) is the systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.

2. Positive Reinforcement is the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in a similar setting

a. Law of contingent reinforcement. The law of contingent reinforcement is the view that, for a reward to have maximum reinforcing value, it must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited.

b. Law of immediate reinforcement. The law of immediate reinforcement states that the more immediate the delivery of a reward after the occurrence of a desirable behavior, the greater the reinforcing effect on behavior.

c. Shaping. Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior.

d. Scheduling Positive Reinforcement. Positive reinforcement can be given according to either continuous or intermittent schedules.

Continuous reinforcement is a reinforcement schedule that administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.

Intermittent reinforcement is a reinforcement schedule that rewards behavior only periodically. As shown in Figure 6.3 in the textbook, intermittent reinforcement can be given according to fixed or variable schedules.

1. Variable schedules typically results in more consistent patterns of desired behavior than do fixed reinforcement schedules.

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2. Fixed interval schedules provide rewards at the first appearance of a behavior after a given time has elapsed.

3. Fixed ratio schedules result in a reward each time a certain number of the behaviors have occurred.

4. A variable interval schedule rewards behavior at random times.5. A variable ratio schedule rewards behavior after a random

number of occurrences.

3. Negative Reinforcement (Avoidance)

a. Negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of negative consequences, which tends to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in a similar setting; it is also known as avoidance

b. The strategy is also sometimes called avoidance because its intent is for the person to avoid the negative consequences by performing the desired behavior.

4. Punishment

a. A third OB Mod strategy is punishment. Unlike positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, punishment is not intended to encourage positive behavior but to discourage negative behavior.

b. Punishment is the administration of negative consequences that tend to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

5. Extinction

a. The final OB Mod reinforcement strategy is extinction – the withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior.

b. Whereas positive reinforcement seeks to establish and maintain desirable work behavior, extinction is intended to weaken and eliminate undesirable behavior.

6. Summary of Strategies

a. Figure 6.4 in the textbook summarizes and illustrates the use of each OB Mod strategy. They are all designed to direct work behavior toward practices desired by management.

b. Both positive and negative reinforcement are used to strengthen the desirable behavior of improving work quality when it occurs. Punishment is used to weaken the undesirable behavior of high error rate and involves either administering negative consequences or

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withdrawing positive consequences. Similarly, extinction is used deliberately to weaken the undesirable high error rate behavior when it occurs. Not also, however, that extinction is used inadvertently to weaken the desirable low error rate behavior. Finally, these strategies may be used in combination as well as independently.

D. Reinforcement Perspectives: Usage and Ethical Issues

1. The effective use of reinforcement strategies can help manage human behavior at work.

2. Managerial use of these approaches is not without criticism, however, For example, some reports on the “success” of specific programs involve isolated cases that have been analyzed without the benefits of scientific research designs. It is hard to conclude definitely whether the observed results were caused by reinforcement dynamics.

3. Another major criticism rests with the potential value dilemmas associated with using reinforcement to influence human behavior at work. For example, some critics maintain that the systematic use of reinforcement strategies leads to a demeaning and dehumanizing view of people that stunts human growth and development.

Teaching Tip: An overview of the essence of behavioral psychology, which is based largely on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning theory and other topics covered in this chapter, is available online at {http://www.valdosta.peachnet.edu/~whuitt/psy702/behsys/behsys.html}.

III. Content Theories of Motivation

A. Introduction

1. Content theories, as noted earlier, suggest that motivation results from the individual’s attempts to satisfy needs.

2. Four of the better known context theories have been proposed by Abraham Maslow, Clayton Alderfer, David McClelland, and Frederick Herzberg. Each of these scholars offers a slightly different view of the needs individuals may bring with them to work.

B. Hierarchy of Needs Theory

1. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, as shown in Figure 6.5 in the textbook, identifies five distinct levels of individual needs: from self-actualization and esteem at the top, to social, safety, and physiological at the bottom

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Teaching Tip: A set of links to websites that focus on the work of Abraham Maslow is available at {http://www.wynja.com/personality/theorists.html}.The cover page for the site provides a picture of Maslow and a brief except from one of his most important articles.

Teaching Tip: A very thorough bibliography of the life of Abraham Maslow is available at {http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/maslow.html}.

2. Maslow assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators. For example, physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated, safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated, and so on.

3. Maslow’s view is quite popular in U.S. firms because it appears easily implemented. Unfortunately, however, research fails to support the existence of a precise five-step hierarchy of needs. The needs more likely operate in a flexible hierarchy.

a. Higher order and lower order needs. Some research suggests that higher order needs (esteem and self-actualization) tend to become more important than lower order needs (psychological, safety, and social) as individuals move up the corporate ladder. Other studies report that needs vary according to a person’s career stage, the size of the organization, and even geographical location.

Teaching Tip: In order to reinforce the above concepts pose the following situation to students: If the student was working full-time for $8/hr. and the manager offered a $300 bonus for attendance for the quarter, how effective would that be? If the student was earning $50,000 per year, and the same bonus was offered, how effective would the incentive be? What does this say about the importance of matching incentives with the “level” of the worker?

C. ERG Theory

1. Clayton Adlerfer’s ERG theory is also based on needs but differs from Maslow’s theory in three basic respects.

Teaching Tip: A set of links to websites that focus on the work of Clayton Adlerfer is available at {http://www.wynja.com/personality/theorists.html}.The cover page for the site provides a picture of Adlerfer and a brief except from one of his most important articles.

a. First, the theory collapses Maslow’s five need categories into three: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs.

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b. Second, whereas Maslow’s theory argues that individuals progress up the “needs” hierarchy, ERG theory emphasizes a unique frustration-regression component.

c. Third, unlike Maslow’s theory, ERG theory contends that more than one need may be activated at the same time.

2. Even though more research is needed to shed more light on its validity, the supporting evidence on ERG theory is encouraging. In particular, the theory’s allowance for regression back to lower level needs is a valuable contribution to our thinking.

D. Acquired Needs Theory

1. Psychologist David. I. McClelland identified three needs that he believed are important for understanding human behavior.

a. Need for achievement (nAch) is the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex tasks.

b. Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others.

c. Need for power (nPower) is the desire to control others and influence their behavior.

2. McClelland posits that these three needs are acquired over time, as a result of life experiences. He encourages managers to learn how to identify the presence of nAch, nAff, and nPower in themselves and in others and to be able to create work environments that are responsive to the respective need profiles.

Teaching Tip: Discuss these concepts in detail. Which occupations would be best suited for individuals with a high need for achievement? A high need for affiliation? A high need for power? Matching the motivating needs of the individual with the situation is important not only for the employer, but also for the individual.

E. Two-Factor Theory

1. Herzberg’s two factor theory identifies job context as the source of job dissatisfaction and job content as the source of job satisfaction.

Teaching Tip: Herzberg’s seminal work, discussed below, was published in a Harvard Business Review Article entitled “Can’t buy me love” in January of 1968.

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a. Hygiene factors. According to this theory, hygiene factors are sources of job dissatisfaction. These factors are associated with the job context or work setting; that is, they relate more to the environment in which people work than to the nature of the work itself. In the two-factor theory, job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are totally separate dimensions. Therefore, improving a hygiene factor, such as working conditions, will not make people satisfied with their work; it will only prevent them from being dissatisfied.

b. Motivator factors. To improve job satisfaction, the theory directs attention to an entirely different set of factors – the motivator factors. These factors are related to job content – what people actually do in their work. Adding these satisfies or motivators to people’s jobs is Herzberg’s link to performance. These factors include sense of achievement, recognition, and responsibility.

Teaching Tip: Many students have a difficult time understanding Herzberg. Ask the class: How many people feel that you are motivated by money? Several students will respond. Then ask: after you received your last pay raise – did you work harder? Use the same approach to discussing the importance of the other hygiene factors, and motivators. Neither factor, by itself, tends to motivate behavior.

2. OB scholars continue to debate the merits of the two-factor theory and its applications. Many are unable to confirm the theory. Many criticize it as being method bound. This is a serious criticism, for the scientific approach requires that theories be verifiable under different research methods.

IV. Process Theory

A. Introduction

1. The various content theories emphasize the “what” aspects of motivation. That is, they tend to look for ways to improve motivation by dealing with activated or deprived needs. Process theories focus on thought processes. Although there are many process theories, we will focus on equity and expectancy theory.

B. Equity Theory

1. Adam’s equity theory posits that people will act to eliminate any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with others.

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a. Felt negative inequity exists when an individual feels that he or she has received relatively less than others have in proportion to work inputs.

b. Felt positive inequity exists when an individual feels that he or she has received relatively more than others have.

c. When either feeling exists, the individual will likely engage in one or more of the following behaviors to restore a sense of equity.

Change work inputs (e.g., reduce performance efforts). Change the outcomes (rewards) received (e.g., ask for a raise). Leave the situation (e.g., quit). Change the comparison person (e.g., compare self to a different co-

worker). Psychologically distort the comparisons (e.g., rationalize that the

inequity is only temporary and will be resolved in the future). Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison

person (e.g., get a co-worker to accept more work).

d. Consistent with the material presented above, research indicates that people who feel they are overpaid (perceived positive inequity) increase the quantity or quality of their work, whereas those who feel they are underpaid (perceived negative inequity) decrease the quantity or quality of there work.

Teaching Tip: Have students provide examples of inequities that they have perceived in the workplace, and the effect of those perceptions.

C. Expectancy Theory

1. Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory posits that motivation is a result of a rational calculation. A person is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that (1) effort will yield acceptable performance; (2) performance will be rewarded, and (3) the value of the rewards is highly positive. The interactive combination of all three influences motivation.

Teaching Tip: An excellent review of the fundamental concepts underlying expectancy theory, which is very visual and easy to follow, is available online at {http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/1650/htmlexpectancy.html

a. Expectancy. The probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance is called expectancy.

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b. Instrumentality. Instrumentality is the probability assigned by the individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes.

c. Valence. Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes.

2. Expectancy logic argues that a manger must try to intervene actively in work situations to maximize work expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences that support organizational objectives.

3. A great deal of research on expectancy theory has been conducted, and review articles are available. One of the more popular modifications of Vroom’s original version of the theory distinguishes between work outcomes for calculating valence. Researchers have separated extrinsic rewards – positively valued work outcomes given to the individual by some other person – from intrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are positively valued work outcomes that the individual receives directly as a result of task performance. A feeling of achievement after accomplishing a particularly challenging task is an example.

V. Integrating Motivation Theories

A. Job Satisfaction

1. Job satisfaction is the degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about their jobs.

2. Among the many available job satisfaction questionnaires that have been used over the years, two popular ones are the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) and the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). Both address aspects of satisfaction with which good managers should be concerned for the people reporting to them.

B. Job Satisfaction, Retention, and Performance

1. The importance of job satisfaction can be viewed in the context of two decisions people make about their work.

a. The first is the decision to belong – that is, to join and remain a member of an organization.

b. The second is the decision to perform – that is, to work hard in pursuit of high levels of task performance.

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2. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and performance? There is considerable debate on this issue, with three alternative points of view evident.

a. Argument: Satisfaction Causes Performance. If job satisfaction causes high levels of performance, the message to managers is quite clear. To increase employees’ work performance, make them happy. Research, however, indicates that no simple and direct link exists between individual job satisfaction at one point in time and work performance at a later point.

b. Argument: Performance Causes Satisfaction. If high levels of performance cause job satisfaction, the message to mangers is quite different. Rather than focusing first on peoples’ job satisfaction, attention should be given to helping people achieve high performance; job satisfaction would be expected to follow. Research indicates an empirical relationship between individual performance measured at a certain time period and later job satisfaction.

c. Argument: Rewards Cause Both Satisfaction and Performance. This final argument in the job satisfaction-performance controversy is the most compelling. It suggests that a proper allocation of rewards can positively influence both performance and satisfaction. The key word in the previous sentence is proper. Research indicates that people who receive high rewards report high job satisfaction. But research also indicates that performance-contingent rewards influence a person’s work performance. In this case, the size and value of the reward vary in proportion to the level of one’s performance accomplishment.

C. Integrated Model of Motivation

1. Figure 6.8 outlines the integrated view. Note that the figure has much in common with Vroom’s expectancy theory and the Porter-Lawler framework just discussed.

Teaching Tip: A very provocative interview with Jeffrey Pfeffer on the importance of utilizing a “people-based strategy’ in an organization is online at {http://www.strategy-business.com/thoughtleaders/98308/page1.html}. The article, which touches on the topic of motivation, focuses on the importance of the commitment and effort of a firm’s employees as a precursor to sustainable success.

Teaching Tip: A brief review of the theories of motivation discussed in this chapter is available at: {http://www.churcher.com/FOSM/foundations-of-senior-management-7575.htm}.

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KEY TERMS

Classic conditioning – A form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior.

Content theories – Profile different needs that may motivate individual behavior.Continuous reinforcement – A reinforcement schedule that administers a reward

each time a desired behavior occurs.Equity theory – Adams’ equity theory posits that people will act to eliminate

any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison withothers.

ERG theory – Alderfer’s ERG theory identifies existence, relatedness, and growth needs.

Existence needs – Are desires for physiological and material well-being.Expectancy – Is the probability that work effort will be followed by performance

accomplishment.Expectancy theory – Argues that work motivation is determined by individual

beliefs regarding effort/performance relationships and work outcomes.Extinction – The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior. Extrinsic rewards – Rewards that are given to the individual by some other person in

the work setting.Growth needs – Needs that are desires for continued personal growth and development.Higher order needs – In Maslow’s hierarchy are esteem and self-actualization. Hygiene factors – In a job context, hygiene factors are sources of job dissatisfactionInstrumentality – The probability that performance will lead to various work outcomes.Intermittent reinforcement – A reinforcement schedule that rewards behavior only

periodically.Intrinsic rewards – Are rewards that are received by the individual directly through

task performance.Job satisfaction – The degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about

their jobs.Law of contingent reinforcement – Is the view that, for a reward to have maximum

reinforcing value, it must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited.Law of effect – The observation that behavior that results in a pleasing outcome is likely

to be repeated; behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to berepeated.

Law of immediate reinforcement – Is the concept that the reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior for maximum reinforcement value.

Lower order needs – In Maslow’s hierarchy are physiological, safety, and social needs.Maslow’s hierarchy of need theory – A theory of motivation that offers a pyramid of

physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.Motivation – Refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction,

and persistence of effort expended at work.Motivator factors – In a job context, motivator factors are the tasks people actually

do and are the sources of job satisfaction.Need for achievement – Is the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex

tasks.

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Need for affiliation – Is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others.Need for power – The desire to control others and influence their behavior.Negative reinforcement – The withdrawal of negative consequences, which tends to

increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in a similar setting; it is alsoknown as avoidance.

Operant conditioning – The process of controlling behavior by manipulating, or “operating” on, its consequences.

Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) – Is the systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwantedwork behavior.

Positive reinforcement – Is the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

Process theories – Seek to understand that thought processes that determines behavior.Punishment – The administration of negative consequences that tend to reduce the

likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.Reinforcement – The administration of a consequence as a result of behavior.Reinforcement theories – Emphasize the means through which operant conditioning

takes place.Relatedness needs – Needs that are desired for satisfying interpersonal relationships.Shaping – The creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive

approximations to the desired behavior.Stimulus – Something that incites action.Two-factor theory – Identifies job context as the source of job dissatisfaction and job

content as the source of job satisfaction. Valence – The value to the individual of various work outcomes.

SELF-TEST

Suggested Answers to Questions

Multiple Choice

1. B 6. D2. B 7. B3. C 8. A4. A 9. B5. B 10. B

True-False

11. F 16. F12. F 17. T13. F 18. F14. T 19. F15. F 20. T

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Short Response

21. Briefly compare and contrast classical conditioning with operant conditioning.

Answer: In classical conditioning, learning occurs through a conditioned stimulus (a stimulus that was neutral but now draws forth a conditioned response), such as when dogs are taught to salivate (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus). Such conditioned responses are involuntary or reflexive. Operant conditioning emphasizes learning that is achieved when the consequences of a behavior lead to changes in the probability of its occurrence. Unlike classical conditioning, the behavior resulting from operant conditioning is voluntary and not reflexive.

22. Briefly discuss how reinforcement is linked to extrinsic rewards.

Answer: Reinforcement is linked to extrinsic rewards through the law of effect, which states that behavior resulting in a positive outcome (or extrinsic reward) is likely to be repeated and behavior resulting in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

23. What is the “frustration-regression” component in Alderfer’s ERG theory?

Answer: The frustration-regression component in Alderfer's ERG theory allows for a lower level need to become activated or reemphasized upon the frustration of a higher level one. For example, if a person is thwarted in satisfying growth needs on the job, such as by a lack of responsibility, the theory suggests they may focus instead on satisfying existence or social needs, such as asking for greater benefits in a labor contract.

24. What is the “multiplier effect” in expectancy theory?

Answer: The multiplier effect links expectancy, instrumentality, and valence multiplicatively together as determinants of motivation, that is M = E x I x V. This means that all three must be present and positive for motivation to occur. A theoretical zero for E, I, and/or V will create motivation equal to zero.

Application Essay

25. While attending a business luncheon, you overhear the following conversation at a nearby table. Person A: “I’ll tell you this, if you make your workers happy they’ll be productive.” Person B: “I’m not so sure, if I make them happy maybe they’ll be really good about coming to work but not very good about working really hard while they are there.” Which person do you agree with and why?

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Answer: Frankly, we can't agree totally with either Person A or Person B. The heart of the issue rests with something called the "satisfaction-performance controversy" in our textbook. The controversy involves a core issue in this conversation-whether or not satisfaction causes performance. It appears that satisfaction alone is no guarantee of high levels of job performance. Although a satisfied worker is likely not to quit and to have good attendance, his or her performance still remains uncertain. In the integrated model of motivation, performance is a function not only of motivation and effort, but also of individual attributes organizational support and reinforcement. Thus we would be cautious in focusing only on creating satisfied or happy workers. We would try to create satisfied workers and high-performing ones. We would try to make sure that contingent rewards for performance create satisfaction. We would also try to make sure that the satisfied worker has the right abilities, training, and other support needed to perform a job really well. Assuming that satisfaction alone will always lead to high performance seems risky at best; it leaves too many other important considerations left untouched.

Teaching Tip Scenario:Assume that you know an individual who has a habit (such as smoking) that is

irritating and offensive to you. You have decided that you want the person to cease that behavior. Discuss how you would use Operant Conditioning to change the behavior. Discuss your reinforcement strategy(s) and scheduling of reinforcement.

Case in point

The Founder and CEO of POLARIS, Page Dawson, is trying to use her leadership skills to bring about a major change at POLARIS: the use of a type of group known as “teams”. Somehow she needs to communicate the benefits of teams to POLARIS managers and employees so that they will be motivated to successfully implement the team concept. Clearly motivation is going to be important in gaining support for the change and its successful implementation.

Page overheard some of the employees discussing the rumor that POLARIS would be implementing the use of teams. One employee said: “I think everything is working okay the way things are right now. I do not see the benefit is the use of teams. How is it going to help me? Working conditions are fine, I have no complaint about anything AND I do not see how I could be any more productive than I already am under the way things are done now. In fact, it could mess me up. I like to work independently and not be held back by other people.” The employees then went on to discuss the various things, which could go wrong if they were organized into teams. They seemed to feel that it could not work so they did not want to bother trying the approach.

Page thought that maybe the best way to convince the employees that it would work would be to provide them with an opportunity to have positive experiences working in groups. It would be important to control events in such a way that the experiences would

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be positive and could be used as the basis for selling the team concept rather than providing an argument for resisting change.

She selected people she knew to be creative and artistic but not normally able to express that creativity on the job. And put them together into a temporary group to accomplish a task, which could be quickly completed and then used a company meeting to praise their accomplishment. She formed other such temporary groups and she frequently would drop in on their activities to “catch them doing things right” so that she could praise them for what they were accomplishing and encourage them to do even more. Instead of encouraging “tattling,” she encouraged employees to provide written recognition and thanks for what other had done to help them. She erected a large sign outside the building facing the employee parking lot where she could provide recognition to group accomplishments. More and more people began to feel that not only could they do more but that it would pay off if they did more.

Still, not everything was perfect in the various work groups activities: there were still occasional complaints that some people who did less work were getting the same praise or bonuses as those did more work.

Multiple Choice Questions:

26: In trying to motivate her employees, Page recognized that there might be an opportunity in that some of her employees “… creative and artistic but not normally able to express that creativity on the job” so she sought to find a way those needs could be met. She was using the ideas of Maslow who set forth theconcept of:A) Hierarchy of needs.B) Maintenance and motivational needs.C) ERG.D) Valence.

Answer: A) Page: 6-111

Defend your answer: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

27: Page noted that employees were satisfied with pay and working conditions but that meeting such maintenance needs would not motivate them to change. In essence, she recognized a concept set forth by:A) AlderferB) Herzberg.C) Likert.D) Maslow.

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Answer: B) Page: 6-114

Defend your answer: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

True /False Questions:

28: In helping employees meet motivational needs through job content, Page was using extrinsic rewards.

Answer: FalsePage: 6-118Defend your answer: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

29: By constantly attempting to reward and recognize group accomplishments, Page was using the law of effect.

Answer: TruePage: 6-105Defend your answer: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Fill in the Blank Questions:

30: Page attempted to use ___________ in rewarding desired behavior and – to the maximum extent possible, she tried to do so continuously.

Answer: ReinforcementPage: 6-106Defend your answer: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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31: The ___________ model explains why Page encountered “complaints that some people who did less work were getting the same praise or bonuses as those who

did more work.”

Answer: EquityPage: 6-115Defend your answer: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Ethan Frome · Web viewAbraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, as shown in Figure 6.5 in the textbook, identifies five distinct levels of individual needs: from self-actualization