EssentialStudySki/isfor ScienceStudents

DANIEL D. CHIRASUniversityolDenver

Brooks/ColeTT1 ThomsonLeaming.

Australia * Canada* Denmark* Japan* Mexico * New Zealand* PhilippinesPuertoRico * Singapore*Spain* United Kingdom. UnitedStates

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Publisher:JackCareyProjectDevelopmentEditor: Kristin MilotichMarketingRepresentative:Kelly FieldingEditorialAssistant:Daniel LombardinoProductionEditor: StephanieAndersenInteriorDesign: JudithMara RiottoPrint Buyer:Micky LawlerPrintingandBinding: WebcomLimited

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Contents

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 6

DevelopingGood StudyHabits I

SharpeningYour Memory s 7

GettingtheMost Out of LecturesandLabs 13

GettingtheMost Outof ReadingAssignments 23

ImprovingYour Test-takingAbilities ‘s- 33

Becominga Critical Thinker 45

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CHAPTER 1DevelopingGoodStudyHabits

Youwouldn’t setup a deskinGrandCentralStationto studyforanexam.Nor would you invite your friendsto your room to hangoutwhile youpreparefor animportanttest.Butmanystudentsmightaswell. Theystudyin thenoisiest,mostdistractivesettingtheycanfind, oftenin frontof theTVor onthecouchwith thestereoblasting.

Somestudentsarguethat theygetbetterresultsthatway. However,whentheir testsarereturned,the verdictis inescapable:Noise andotherforms of distractiondecreaseyour ability to concentrate.If you can’tconcentrate,it’s likely that you’re not learningmuch.

Getting good gradesin collegerequiresthat you studyin a quiet,distraction-freesetting.There’sa lot more to gettinggoodgradesthanpicking a goodspottostudy,though.You mustalsolearn1how togetintothehabitof studying,2 whenthebesttimeis foryou to study,3 howmuch time you shouldspendstudyingeachsubject,4 how to avoidprocrastination,and5 whentotakeyourbreaks.Thischaptercoverstheseandotherimportanttopicsthatwill helpyou improveyour studyhabits.Whenyou’vecompletedthechapter,takea momenttoreviewthesuggestionsgiven here,andmakea list of waysto improveyour studyskills.

T I P 1 s Study in a well-lighted, distraction-free environment.Quiet is the first requirementof an appropriatestudy spot.Selectarelativelynoiselessroomin yourhomeor library.Studyat a deskora tablewith a straight-backchair. Avoid sofasor easychairs;they ofteninvitesleepinessbecausethey’resocomfortableandrelaxing. Be certainthatthelocationis well lighted.A window lookingouton treesor a parkmightbesuitableif therearen’ttoomany distractionsthatwill drawyou awayfromyour books.Makesurethatyouhaveplenty of room to spreadout, too.Crampedquarterscancrampyour style. A good dictionaryandotherreferencebooksappropriateto thesubjectunderstudyshouldbewithinarm’sreach.Onceyou’veestablisheda suitablestudyspot,stickwith it.

T I P 2 Setaside a study time eachday.After you havesetup a placeto study,how areyou goingto pull yourselfawayfrom theTV or telephoneor friends?You’ll needwillpower, certainly, butestablishinganunbreakabledaily studytimemayhelp.Yourbestbet is to set asidea studyperiodeachnight, say from sevento teno’clockmoreon this later.Whentheclock strikesseven,it’s timetohit thebooks.Noexcuses.

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2 es EssentialStudySkillsfor ScienceStudents

T I P 3 es Reward yourself when you stick to your schedule.You mayfind that rewardshelp you stick to your schedule.If you like tojog, forexample,promiseyourselfa run after studying.Or, how aboutachocolatesundaeat the endof a studyperiod?If you’re a musicbuff, topoff theeveningby listeningto your favoriterecords.If you like to readorwatchTV, rewardyourselfwith a goodbook ora televisionprogram.

T I P 4 es Don’t skimp on study time.Many studentsfind it difficult tosit inoneplacefor very long.A three-hourstudysessionmay aswell bea three-yearjail sentence.To getgoodgrades,though,you havetodedicatesometimetostudying.Learningtakestime.

As a rule of thumb, mostteachersrecommendat leasttwo to threehoursof studypercredithourperweek.Therefore,if youaretakinga three-credit anthropologycourse,you shouldexpectto studyaboutsix to ninehoursperweek.

Rulesaremadetobebroken,however,andthisoneis noexception.Forsomeclasses,suchasscienceor math,youmay find it necessarytodevotefive hoursof studyfor eachcredithour.For others,anhourmay suffice.Apply theruleof thumb,butadjustit accordingtoyour needs.If you arehavingtroublewith a class,increasethestudytime. It will payoff in thelongrun.Besuretomakeyour adjustmentearlyon soyoudon’t fall behind.

Clearly,no two coursesare alike-norare any two students.Justbecausea friend getsby withonehourof studybeforean examdoesn’tmeanyoucan.Hemay havetakena similarcoursein highschoolor mayhavereada lot on thesubjector maysimply bea faster learner.

Chapter5 pointsout thatstudyingeachsubjecta little everynightwillgreatly improveyour retentionandwill helpyou avoid cramming-thesurestway tostressyourselfandforgetthemostinformationin theshortesttime.

T I P 5 es Train yourself to study more.If threeor four hoursof studyper dayseemslike aneternity to you, tryworking up to it gradually.Forexample,during thefirst week,pledgetostudyonehoureachnight.To makethis a little lesspainful,youcanbreakeachhour into twenty-minutestudysessionsfollowedby five- to ten-minutebreaks.An alarmclock mightbehelpful to keeptrackof thestudyperiods.Whenthealarmgoesoff, finishyour thoughtandtakea break.Dosomeexercises,or takea quick walk. Thiswill helpyou stayawake.Raidtherefrigerator,or listento somemusic.Whenyourbreakis over,sitdownfor anothertwentyminutes.After that session,you maywantto rewardyourselfwith a specialtreat.A mentalpaton thebackis alwaysa goodidea.

Soonyou will find thattwentyminutespassin a flash.You maywantto increaseyour studyperiodsto thirty or forty minutesfollowedby tenminutebreaksto clearyour headandrelaxyour musclesmoreon thislater.

Gradually,overa fewweeks,you canincreaseyour totalstudytimetotwo hoursa nightandthenthreeor four hours.You will beamazedat howquickly threehourspass.You will find thatlearningto concentrateonyourstudiesfor severalhoursat a timemay helpyou immenselylater in life.

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DevelopingGoodStudyHabits es 3

T I P 6 es Study whenyou are mostalertSomefolks aremorningpeople;theypop out of bed,brightandchipper,readyto tacklethe world.Otherstendto comealive a bit later in theday,maybeaftera few hours of bumping into things.Still othersfunctionoptimally at night. In short,everyonehasa timewhenthemind ismostalert.Usethat timeto studyif you can.By studyingduring thesepeakperiods,you absorbthegreatestamountof informationin theshortesttime.

If you areuncertainwhenyour peakefficiencyoccurs,try keepingarecordof yourmentalalertnessfor a week.Fouror five timesa day,makea notationaboutyour mentalstateon a calendaror in a notebook.If youfadequickly afterdinner, it is bestto spendthat timerelaxing. If you aredrowsyfirst thingin themorningbutjoin the living by ten, schedulesomeof your studyingafter thathour.

Somepeoplehaveseveralpeaksof mentalacuity.Othershavenonewhatsoever.Theyalwaysfeela bit groggy.If this is thecasefor you,tryinggettingtobedearlierorsleepinglater. Improvementsindiet andincreasedexercisecanalsobebeneficial.If thesestepsdon’t help,youmight wanttoconsultwith a physiciantoseeif you havea medicalconditionthataffectsyour wakefulness.If you’reemotionallytroubled,you might wanttovisita therapist.Emotionaldifficulties canoften drainus of energy.

Severalstudieshaveshownthatstudentsretainmoreinformationiftheirstudysessionis followed by sleep.A few hourscanelapse,but longperiodsbetweenstudyandsleeptendto erasefactsfrom your memory.This is why I recommendedtheseven-to-tenstudyperiodearlier in thechapter.

The key to successfulstudyis choosingthe mostefficienttime. Whystudyfor fourhourswith a brainthatis working at half its capacity,whena two-hoursessionat peakbrainefficiency will get thesamejob done?Hitting peakefficiencyhelpsfreeuptimefor otheractivities.

T I P 7 es Avoid procrastination.Nohumanviceis ascommonasprocrastination-puttingwork off untilanothertime. Unfortunately,procrastinatorsalwayspayfor this badhabit.In college,putting off studyingor termpapersusuallycreatespanicandstressandoftenresultsinpoorgrades.

How doyou avoidprocrastination?Perhapsthemostimportantstepyoucan take is to setasidea timeto studyeachday.Make it partof yourdaily routine.Letyour friendsknow aboutyour studytimesotheywon’ttemptyou with betteroffers.

T I P 8 es Plan your time efficiently.Many of themostsuccessfulpeoplearegreatmanagersof time.Theyworkfastand wastefew hours.The efficient useof time reducesstressandincreasesproductivity.

To begin to learnhowto planyour timebetter,takea blanksheetofpaperanddrawsevencolumnsonit-one for eachdayof theweek.Labelthecolumnsalongthetop Monday throughSunday,andwrite in yourwakinghoursalongtheleft-handsideofthepage.Nowfill in thecolumns,

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4 es EssentialStudySkillsfor ScienceStudents

notingeachscheduledclass,seminar,lab,andrecitation.Indicatetimesforbreakfast,lunch,anddinner,andfill in somesuitabletimefor exerciseorrelaxation.Finally,mark off severalhoursfor studyeachday,andnoteadditionalhourson the weekend.

Try your schedulefor a weekor two,thenmodify it asneeded.Keepyour schedulewith you at all timessothatif somethingcomesup,youcancheckyour commitments.If you decideto"blow off" a studyperiodfor agameof volleyball, say,scheduleanotherperiodto makeup for lost time.

T I P 9 es Make to-do lists eachday.To optimize the limited numberof hours availableto you eachday,considermakinga daily list of thingsto do.Eachmorningafteryou getoutof bed,jot downa list of the thingsyouwouldlike toaccomplishduringtheday.Ifindit helpfultobeginmylist at theendof thepreviousday.ThatwayI don’t forgetimportantobligations.Be sureto includeall of your classesand labs,errandsyou needto perform, and studyperiods.I’d evenrecommendschedulingentertainment,exercise,andrelaxationtime.Otherwise,it’s tooeasyto skiptheseimportantaspectsof life.

You may find it helpful to notetheactualtimeyou will spendin eachactivity. Your to-do list might takethe form of a schedule:

Breakfast 7:30-8:00Sociology 8:30-9:30Chemistry 9:30-10:30Study 10:30-11:30Lunch 11:30-12:30Study 12:30-1:30Chemistrylab 1:30-4:30Volleyball 4:30-5:30Dinner 5:30-6:30Studychemistry 7:30-9:30Studysociology 9:30-10:30

Thiskind of to-do list assistsyou in keepingon trackandmeetingallof your obligations.Alternatively, you may wanttoindicatejust thetimerequirementsfor eachactivity. On aSaturday,for example,your list mightlook like this:

Studychemistry 2 hoursStudysociology 2 hoursLibrary researchfor paper 2 hoursStudymath I hourSoftball game 2 hours

Whateveryou do,berealistic.Don’t includesomanythingsonyourlist that it will takeyou two daysto completethem.Overschedulingisfrustratingandstressful,and it canwork againstyou in the longrun byincreasingyouranxietylevel.Biteoff alittle atatime. Thethoughtof sittingdowntostudyorganicchemistryfor threehoursisenoughtokill justabout

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DevelopingGood StudyHabits es 5

anyone’sspirit. But how aboutonehour or forty minutes?That’s a littlemoremanageable.

You may find thatsettinganalarmclockor anykind of timer atthebeginningof your studysessionhelpsyou tobuckledown.With theclockticking away,you’ll feel theurgencyto study.

As notedearlier in the chapter,besureto rewardyourself.Whenyoucrosssomethingoff your list of thingsto do,congratulateyourself.Whenyou aredonewith thewholelist, treatyourselfto a gameof racquetball,adip in thepool, a soft drink, or a favoriteTV show.

T I P 10 esKeep your mind alertKeepingyourmindalertisoneof themostimportantwaystoincreaseyourefficiencyandreduceunnecessarystudytime.As you areprobablyaware,sleepis essentialfor mentalalertness.A healthydiet andexerciseare alsovital, asareefforts to reducestress.

As notedearlier,you shouldstudyduringyour hoursof peakefficiency.But evenso,continuousreading,problemsolving,and reviewofnotescanfatiguethemindanddull thememory.To avoid this,try stoppingeveryoncein awhile for abreak.You mayfind thatabreakeverytwo hoursworksbestfor you,oryou mayneedto breakeverythirty to forty minutesExperimentto seewhat timeintervalworksbest.

Whatdoyou do whenyou stop?Perhapsthebestwayof restoringyourmentalacuitysharpnessis to exercise.Two minutesof runningin place,jumpingjacks,or aerobicsareoftenenoughto awakenyou.Try this for aweekaftereachstudysessionto seeif it increasesyour efficiency.

If you arenot favorably disposedto exercise,you may find studybreaksa perfecttimeto do householdchores:washingdishes,laundry,orcleaningup aroundthehouse.Whateveryou do, though,getyour limbsmoving. If youcan’tseemto wardoff mentalfatigue,youmight considera shortnap.

T I P 11 esStudyalone.Many studentsheadoff to the library eachnightwith a cadreof friends.Althoughthe camaraderieis great,this arrangementoftendeteriorates.Onemembercracksajoke,anothernoticesa particularlyattractivestudentnearbyandnudgesyouto look, anotherwhispersincessantly.At theendof a three-hourstudysession,you mayhavegottenonlya halfhour’sworthof work done.

Studyingismorethanjustsitting downwith thebooksfor a fewhourseachnight. You can’tlearnby osmosis.If that’sall it took,we’d all beNoblePrize-winningscientistsoraccomplishededucators.To studyeffectively,you mustbeableto concentrate.You simply can’t learnmuch if you’reconstantlybeing distractedby your friends’ antics.

Studyaloneunlessyou’re engagedin productivegroupstudymoreon this in Chapter5. Find a spotawayfrom your friendswhereyou canconcentrateonyournotesandreading.Stayawayfromothernoisygroups.You’ll berewardedmanytimesover. By spendingyour timemoreeffectively, you’ll haveplenty of timefor socializinglater.

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6 es EssentialStudySkillsfor ScienceStudents

T I P 1 2 esKeepa record of all tests,termpapers,and other majorcommitments.During the first week of classes,most professorshandout a coursesyllabus-anoutlineof the topicstobecoveredeachsession,witha list oftestdatesandduedatesfor papers.Putall thesedateson anengagementcalendaror,perhapsevenbetter,a wall calendarsoyoucankeeptrackoflargeperiodsoftime.Schedulingimportantevents,suchastests,will assistyou in budgetingyour time. Forexample,if you find thatyou havetwotestson thesameday,you’ll know thatyou needto startstudyinga littleearlierfor them.

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CHAPTER 2SharpeningYour Memory

Memoryis a funny thing. Somepeopleseemtobeendowedwith a goodmemory,andothers...well. . .let’sjustsaythey’renotsolucky. Forstudentswithpoormemories,factsareoftenelusive.Lecturematerialgoesin oneearandouttheother.For them,life canbea frustratingordeal.Collegecanbea nightmare.

Fortunately,it doesn’thaveto bethis way. Memoryis like a muscle:Themoreyou useit anddevelopit, themorepowerfulit gets.Thischapterdiscussesa three-stepmethodfor sharpeningyour memory.

T I P 1 Practiceself-affirmation.Why isit thatsomepeoplecanrememberfacts,dates,anddefinitionswithcomputerlikeprecision,while othersstruggleto remembertheir ownphonenumbers?Is it becausesomepeopleare smarterthanothers?Perhaps.In manycases,though,certainpeopleseemsmarterthanotherssimply becausetheyknow howtorememberthingsbetter.In otherwords,they havedevelopedusefulskills thathelp them remember.

Equally important,they’veprobablydevelopeda winningattitude:Theyknowtheycanremember,andtheywant toremember.In contrast,youmaybetrappedin a self-fulfilling cycle:"I can’tremember.I havea rottenmemory.I don’t wantto remember.I won’t remember."

Thosedaysmustcometo anend.You canremember.You havethepotentialtohavea goodmemory.If youwanttorememberthings,youcan.Tell yourselfthesethingsoverandoveragain.

This technique,calledself-affirmation, is a way of changingyourattitudeandbuilding confidence.It canhelpyoubreakdownsomeof thewalls thatpreventyou from realizingyour full potential.By gettingrid oftheold messages"I can’tremember",you freeupyour mind toperformoneof the functionsit’s designedtoperform-storinginformation.

T I P 2 es Practicethe PMC method.Developingyour full memorypotential will taketimeandsomepractice,butit’s well worth the effort. Persistencewill payoff handsomely.

The techniquepresentedin this chapterisone of myown devising.Itinvolvesthreesteps:1 payingattention,2 makinginformationmemorable,and3 correlatingnewfactsandconceptswith thingsyou alreadyknow.I call it the PMC method.Canyou guesswhy?

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8 es EssentialStudySkillsfor ScienceStudents

T I P 3 es- Payattention.Many of usgo throughlife in a daze:daydreaming,taking in thesights,listeningto musicwhile theworldgoesby. Wepayonly marginalattentionto our environment.In manyrespects,our mindsarein neutral.

To improveyour memory,you mustfirst getoutof thisbadhabit.Youmustlearnto payattentionto theworld aroundyou.You mustactivateyourmind, andwhenyou doyou’ll find that yourmindwill beginto fill upwith interestingfactsandconcepts.

In theclassroom,payingattentionmeansjustwhatit says.You cannotsit in a classroom,gazingoutthewindow andthinking aboutlastnight’sdate,andexpecttogetmuchoutof thelecture.Sit up straight,takenotes,andkeepyourmind on thetopic.Sometimesit evenpaysnot tolookat thespeaker.Annoyingmannerisms,unusualdress,andunruly hair candistractyou.Don’t let yourmind besnaredby thedistraction.If youfind yourattentionwandering,try lookingaway.Watchtheboard,orkeepyour eyeson yournotebook.Takemorenotes.You will be amazedhowmuchmoreyou hearif you payattention.

Anotherway to heightenyour level of attentionis to askyourselfquestionsbeforehand.You’ve no doubtnoticedthat long-standingquestions tend to linger in your mind like a hungry animal waiting to besatisfied.Whenthefact that answersyourquestionpresentsitself, themindgraspsit andrarely letsgo.

You canusethisnaturalphenomenontoyour advantage.Here’show:As notedearlierin thebook,mostprofessorshandouta syllabus,orcourseoutline,at thebeginningof thesemester.In a sense,thesyllabusis a roadmapofthecourse.To makethemostuseof it, consultit beforeeverylectureto determinethe topic of discussion.Or, ask the professoror a fellowstudentwhatthe topicofthedaywill be.After you find out, pausefor afewminutesto think up somequestionsaboutit.

As anexample,supposeyourlectureisoncellularenergyproduction.Stopandthink aboutit. Whatquestionscometo mind?

1. Wheredoesa cell produceenergy?2. Do all cellsmakeenergy?3. Whatisenergy?4. Whatdo cells makeenergyfrom?

Theseimportantquestionswill probablybeansweredduring the lecture.You’ll retainthenew information moreeasily if your mind is primedbeforehand.

After you formulateyourquestions,stopfor a momentto reviewwhatyou alreadyknow.In otherwords,activateyour memory.Pull outfactsyou’ve learnedin otherclasses.Get thewheelsturning.

Payingattention,therefore,involvesatleastthreechangesinbehavior: attentivenessin class,posingquestions,andreviewingwhat youalreadyknow.Thesesimplestepsputthemind in gear.

You canusethesetechniquesto improveyour readingskills as well.For instance,beforeyou beginto readanassignedarticleor a chapterinyour textbook,takea momentto questionwhatis goingtobecovered,then

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reviewwhatyou alreadyknow moreon this inChapter4.Thefew secondsit will takewill payhugedividendsin thelongrun.

To begin, look at the title of the articleand note the questionsitsuggests.Supposethetitle is "Symbolismofe.e.cummings’poetry." Whatquestionscometo mind?

1. Who ise.e.cummings?2. Whatis symbolism?3. Whendid thepoetlive?4. Whatwashis favoritesubjectmatter?5. Is hea British or anAmericanpoet?

Next,look at thesubheadingsandaska few questionsabouteachone.Photographs,drawings,andgraphsin thereadingmaterialalsobearsomestudy.Readthe legends,andaska few questionsabouteach.You mayfindit helpful to jot downyour questions.

After questioning,reviewwhatyou know aboutthesubject.Maybeyouhavealreadyread a poemby e.e.cummings.Whatdo yourememberabout it? Takefive to ten minutesto questionand review, then beginreading.Not all of yourquestionswill beansweredall of thetime, andnewfactsfor which you didn’t havequestionswill come up. That’s to beexpected.

T I P 4 es Find ways to make information memorable.Payingattentionmeansputtingyour mind in gear.Making informationmemorable,step2 of the PMC method,meansdoing somethingto makewhatyou learnstickwithyou. It’s a wayof makingthingshardertoforget.You canusea varietyof techniquestomakethingsstick inyour memory.Forexample:

RepetitionMnemonics:initialsandwordsPoems,lyrics, andmemorablesayingsWordrelationsRootsandoriginsof wordsPicturesanddiagrams

Unfortunately,memorydevicesfail from timeto time. Whatdoesn’t?However,the moreattentionyou give to creatingthem and the morepracticeyou getwith them,themorereliablethey’ll become.

Repetition.Forsomepeople,repeatinga newfactsilentlyorout loudwillsuffice tomakeit linger inmemory.Try this. Whenyouwanttoremembersomething,sayit toyourselfor sayitout loud. Supposeyoumeetsomeoneandwanttorememberhername.Onewayis to repeatit severaltimesin theconversation."Hello, Natasha.How areyou?Natashaisa prettyname.Isit Russian?I’ve nevermet a womannamedNatasha."Later,whenyouleave,repeatthenameonelast time. "So long, Natasha.Give mea call."

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10 is. EssentialStudySkillsfor ScienceStudents

You cando thesamewhenyou read,study,or takenotes.If yourprofessorintroducesa newterm,write it downandsayit severaltimestoyourself. Do thesamewhenyou arestudying.

Mnemonics:initials andwords.Themindsometimesneedsa little extraassistance,especiallywhenfacedwith a lot of new information.Othertricks canbe used.Oneof thoseismnemonics.Mnemonicsarememorydevices-tricksthat help you remember.Suppose,for instance,yourenvironmentalscienceteacher tells you that the key to building asustainablesocietylies in five principles:conservation,recycling,renewableresources,restoration,andpopulationcontrol.How canyourememberall of this?Onewayis totakethefirst letterof everywordand form,ifyoucan,anotherword. In thiscase,you areoutof luck.You comeupwithCRRRP,butthatmay notbeenoughto jog your memory.Alternatively,you might think of thewordcarp.

Thephrase"Matt Hill, V.P." may bemeaninglessto you, but to abiochemistrystudent,it representsthe first lettersof the tenessentialamino acidsmethionine,argiine,threonine,tryptophan,histidine,isoleucine,leucine,lysine,valine,andphenylalanine.

This techniquecanbeusedin thesciences,wherelonglists of factsmustoftenbecommittedto memory.It canalsobeusedin thehumanities-for example,to remembera list of Romanticpoetsor countriesthatexportrubber.Thenexttimeyou havetorememberalist of items,try usingtheir initials to makea wordandseehow muchfasterit isthanjust plainmemorizing.

Poems,lyrics, andmemorablesayings.Poems,lyrics, andmemorablesayingscanalsobeusedto log informationin your brain. Considerthisphrase:"Thesimplewayto rememberChuck,if the tank’stoohotyou’reoutof luck." It may soundlike nonsenseto you, but to a scubadivingstudentit’s a way of rememberingCharles’sLaw, which statesthatpressureincreaseswith temperature.Thus,leavinga full airtankon a hotbeachcouldbedisastrous."CharlesPit" might be aneasierreminder:Charles’sLaw saysthatpressureincreaseswith temperature.

Be creative.Takethewordsyou wanttorememberandmakea poemorsayingif you can.If this doesn’twork, try the initials. Goodteacherswillhelpby suggestingmnemonicsfor rememberingnewinformation.

Wordrelations.Mnemonicsarejust oneelementin your growingbagofmemorytricks.Wordrelationsis anotherimportantdevice.For instance,supposeyou want to rememberthat a high-pressuresystemrotatesclockwise,while a low-pressuresystemrotatescounterclockwise.How doyougo aboutthis?It’s easy.Thinkof your kitchen.High on thewall istheclock. Below it, thecounter.Whatcouldbeeasier?A high-pressuresystemrotatesclockwise,and a low-pressuresystemrotatescounterclockwise.

Rootsand origins of words. Breaking words apart into their roots, suffixes,andprefixesoftenhelpstojogthememory.Forexample,a chemistrystudenttryingtolearnthe termexothermicreactionscanbreakthe first word

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SharpeningYourMemory is 11

into itsparts.Ex meansfrom, andthermicmeansheat.Exothermicreactions,then,arethosethatgive off heat.Try breakingapartnewtermsthatyou wantto learn.A few secondswith the dictionarycanlock a wordpermanentlyintoyour memory.

Sometimestheoriginsof wordsare sointerestingthat theyhelpyourecallwhatthewordmeans.Theword comet,forexample,comesfromtheGreekwordmeaninghair. Energyfrom thesunpushesa comet’sgasanddustawaytoforma luminouswhitetail thatlookslikehair. Sanguinecomesfrom theLatin word forblood. In English, sanguinemeans"bloodred."Theword towdryisa contractionof St.Audrey,a cheapandshowydresser.

Takea fewsecondswhenyouencountera newterm.Breakit aparttoseeif youcanmakesenseoutof it. If thatdoesn’thelp,andit won’t always,look upthewordin thedictionaryto searchoutitsorigins.

Picti.tresanddiagrams.Otheruseful tools thatcanhelpyou rememberinformation,especiallyprocessesandrelationships,arepicturesanddiagrams.Drawingpicturesis anespeciallyusefulway to learnstructuresofcells or partsof the body. Drawingsanddiagramsareoften easiertorememberthan just plain words.Onevery useful tool for organizingmaterialis theconceptmap,which isdiscussedin Chapter3.

T I P 5 es Correlate new facts and conceptswith previousknowledge.Payingattention,step I of thePMC method,meansputtingyour mindingear.Making theinformationmemorable,step2, meansworking to makefactsandconceptsstickinyourmemory.Step3 involvesefforts tocorrelatenewfactsandconceptswith the informationyoualreadyknow andto tienewfactsandconceptstogetherto createa cohesivewhole.

Correlationmeanstying things together-makingsenseof the bitsand piecesof information you arelearningand havelearnedin othercourses.Insteadof beingcontentwith a mindfull of factsandconcepts,takea fewmomentsto seewhattheymean.Thisstepaloneoftenmakesthedifferencebetweena B studentandanA student.Correlationis usefulinall aspectsof study,especiallyin reviewinglectureorreadingnotesasyoupreparefor a test.

How doyougo aboutcorrelatingtheinformationyou’re learningwithwhatyou’vealreadyencounteredin your life? Theansweris simple:bytaking a few minutesto searchyour memory for related information.Suppose,for example,thatyou readthatyoungchildrenwhoseparentssmokesuffer twice thenumberofupperrespiratoryinfectionsas childrenwhoseparentsrefrain from this habit. Takea momentto think aboutfriendsandrelatives.Did anyof theirparentssmoke?Did theysuffer fromanincreasednumberof colds?

You canalsocorrelatewith other factsabout lung disease.Forinstance,you might recall from a previousclassthat childrenare moresusceptibleto pollutantsthanadultsarebecausethey tend to breathedeeperthey’regenerallymoreactive.This might explainwhy theyaresusceptibleto pollution from theirparents’cigarettes.

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12 is. EssentialStudySkillsfor ScienceStudents

Besidesrelatingwhatyou’relearningtopastlessons,correlationalsoinvolvesa concertedeffort topieceall thenewfactstogetherto createanunderstandingof thewhole.In otherwords,it involvesstepsto assemblethe big picture.Themostsuccessfulstudentsdo it regularly.Graduatestudents,law students,andmedicalstudents,for example,will havearoughtimein schoolif theyjust cramfactsinto their heads.

Here’sa suggestionfor assemblingthebig picture:After studyingasectionof your notesor readinga chapterin your book,summarizeit inyour own words,usingthefollowing guide:

1. Whatarethemainpoints?2. How hastheauthorsupportedthesepoints?3. Whatnewfactsdid I learn?4. In whatareashasmyexistingknowledgedeepened?5. Whatdoesthis informationmean?6. How canIuseit?

Youcanassemblethebigpicturein theshoweror onyourwayto andfrom classes.Havea good talk withyourselfas you hike or ski or swim.Imagineyourselfin frontof a classroom,explainingtheinformationyoujust learned.

Not only doescorrelatingfacts tie information together,but it alsohelpskeepyourmind active,andit makesinformationtrulymorememorable.It hasanotherbenefitof greatimportance:It helpsyou becomeathinkeras well asa memorizer.

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CHAPTER 3Getting theMost Out ofLecturesandLabs

Lecturesare thebackboneof a collegeeducation.Gettingthemostoutoflecturesrequiresstudentstobegoodnotetakers.In fact,exemplarynote-takingskills areessentialtosuccessincollegebecausemanyprofessorstestfrom theirlecturematerial,askingfewquestionsfrom thetextbookreadings theyassign.Note taking also helpsstudentskeeptheir attentionfocused,preventingthemind from drifting off to farawayplacesor todistractionsin theclassroom.

Thegoal of note taking during a lectureis simply this: to createalegible,easy-to-followsummaryof yourprofessor’stalk. Easyasthatmaysound,it takesa certain skill and a lot of practiceto takegood notes,especiallyin scienceclasses,whereteachersoftenusea varietyof visualaids-suchasoverheadtransparenciesandslides-tosupplementtheirlectures.

To understandthecomplexityof the taskathand,considerwhatgoesonin a lecture.First,you mustlistenandunderstandwhatisbeing said.You mustthenanalyzetheinformation,thoughthepaceof manylecturersleavesfar too little timetothink aboutwhatis being said.Next,youmustsort throughtheincomingmaterial,selectingwhatyou wantto write inyour notes.Finally, you mustjot the informationdownquickly soas notto missthenextpoint. That’sa lot of brainwork andhandworkin quicksuccession.With somehelpful tips,though,you will find that thetaskisdoable.

Laboratoriespresenttheir own challenges.Thesestructuredlearningenvironmentsrequire studentsto do most of the work. With a littleguidance,though,you canexcelin labwork andgetgoodgradesforyoureffort.

T I P 1 e.Know the subjectof each lecture before youwalkin the door.Many studentswalk intoalectureunawareof thetopicoftheday.if they’relucky, their professorwill devotea few minutesat thebeginningof thelectureto anoverview-thatis, listing the topicsthatwill be discussedduring the classperiod.Someprofessorswill evenwrite anoutlineon theboard.Unfortunately,mostprofessorssimply say,"Today,we’regoingtobetalkingaboutsuchandsuch,"andleaveit atthat.In thiscase,the lecturemayseemlike a disconnectedsetof facts, figures,concepts,and terms.

If your professordoesnotoffera daily outlineoftopics,youmight askhim or her to provideone.Otherwise,you mustdo thework yourself.

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Beforeeachlecture,look up thetopic of the dayon your classschedule.Study the assignedchapteror readingmaterial.At the very least,thisentailsa few minutesof timespentlookingover themainheadingsandstudyingthekey words,tables,andfigures.You might alsowantto readthetopic sentencesof eachparagraph.Thisprocedurehelpsimmensely,ensuringthattheinformationyou hearin lecturewon’t betotallyforeign.While otherstudentsarelearninginformationfor thefirst time, you’ll hearwordsandconceptsthatarefamiliar toyou,helpingyou retainthemmoreeasily.Chapter4 discussesthistopic inmoredetail,outlininga strategytohelpyou previeweachreadingassignment.

Theimportantpointis that if your professorwon’t supplyyouwithanoutlineof eachday’s material,you mustlearnthetopic yourselfbeforeenteringthe class.While you’re at it, it is also helpful to spenda fewminutesbeforeeach classreflecting on anyfactsyou know aboutthesubjecttobediscussed-thatis, correlatingthenewinformationwithwhatyoualreadyknow.Spendsometimeaskingquestionsas well. Thisis partof thetechniquefor payingattentionthatis describedin Chapter2.

T I P 2 Spendsometime before each lecture readingprevious notes.Reviewingyour notesfrom previoussessionsbeforeeverylectureis auseful learning tool. It helpsyou keepup with the lecture material,reducingthe timeyou’ll needfor studylater on. It also helpsyou recallimportantfactsandconceptsthat maybealludedtoin the lecture.That is,it refreshesyour memory,reviving informationyou will beexpectedtoknow in order to understandnew concepts,facts,and terms.If you’reconscientiousaboutreviewinglecturenotes,it’s much less likely thatyou’ll feel lost. So,get to classa bit early, andspendfive to tenminutesquickly readingthroughyour notesfrom thepreviouslectureor two. Youwon’t besorryyou did.

T I P 3 Attend lecture regularly.This rule needslittle explanation.For many of us, learning requiresrepetition.Wemusthearandreadinformationa numberof timesfor it tosinkin. Lectureisoneof thosetimes.Study sessionsaremeantto fix factsandconceptsin your memory.If you don’t attendclassand takenotes,chancesareyou won’t getmuch outof thecourse-unless,of course,you’re a geniusorextremelyadeptat learningoutsideof class.

Importantasattendinglectureis, somestudentsskipclassfrequently,confidentthattheycanlearnthematerialfromotherpeople’snotesor fromthereadingassignment.Bearinmind, however,thatborrowednotesmaybefar from perfect.Theymaycoveronly 20 to50percentof whatwassaidin thelecture;importantinformationmaybemissing.In addition,thenotetakermayhavegotten factswrong.

T I P 4 es Write as legibly as you can.A surprisinglylargenumberof studentshavetroublereadingtheir ownlecturenoteswhenthey try tostudythemsometimelater.As a result,they

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missimportantpoints,andtheirexamgradesusuallyreflectthis.Write aslegibly asyoucan. If yournotesarea mess,rewritethemortypethemthatsameday.

T I P 5 Study your noteswithin a few hours of each lecture, andfill in the missing information.If you decideto redoyour lecturenotes,usethat timeto studythem,asrecommendedinChapter5. In otherwords,don’t justcopythemmechanically; think aboutthem.Try to fix theinformationin yourmemory.

Besideshelpingyou to learnthematerialyou justencounteredinlecture,reviewingyournotesprovidesanopportunitytoadd informationthatwasmentionedin lecturebutthatyou failed to write down.To makethis processeasier,besuretoleaveextraspacewhenyou’retaking themthefirst time.

Evenif you don’t needtorewriteyournotes,it ishelpful tostudythemwithin a few hoursof lecture.Onetechniquethat’squite usefulis to try torecallwhatwassaidbeforelookingatyournotes.Runoverthemainpointsandwhateversupportinginformationyou canrecall, thenturn to yournotes.

Forcing yourselfto recall the information givenin a lectureclearlyhelpsyou rememberlecturematerialbetter.It canalso reduceoverallstudytime.Studiesshowthatyou will forget75 percentof whatwassaidin a lecturewithin oneweek if you haven’tforcedyourselfto recall it.Within threeweeks,98 percentof what was said in a lecturewill beforgotten.That’swhy it is soimportantto rewriteorstudyyour notesandfill in the missinginformationsoonafter a lecture.

T I P 6 Developa shorthand systemto reducewritingduringlecture.You canwastea lot of timein lecturewriting commonlyusedwordsandphrases.This laborioustask might causeyou to missimportantdetails.Becauseof this,I recommenddevelopinga shorthandsystemof yourown.Thiswill reducewriter’scrampandwill helpyou avoidmissingimportantinformation.Hereis a list of symbolsyou canusein manycourses:

= equals t increasedoesnot equal decrease

w with .. thereforew/o without e.g. forexample> greaterthan i.e. that is

lessthan

Abbreviationsof commonlyusedwordsor phrasescanalsobea partof your shorthandsystem.In abiologycourse,for instance,theword musclecanbeabbreviatedmm,andspeciescanbeabbreviatedsp. In a chemistrycourse,energymightbeindicatedby theletterE. In anAmericangovernmentcourse,PG might standforfederalgovernment,C might beCongress,andSLmight bestatelegislature.

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Goodnotetakersusea largenumberof time-savingabbreviationsandsymbols.Don’t makethe mistakeof trying to learnthosethatwork forothers.Developyour own system.Whateveryou do,beconsistent.Keepa list in thebackof yournotebooktoensurethatyou’re notusingthesamesymbol to meantwo different things.

Somestudentslike to savetimeby omitting thevowels of certainwords.Forexample:Omtvwls rdcswrtng tme. This systemtakessomepractice,but it cansavetime.

T I P 7 is- Don’t write down every word your professorsays.Afraid thatthey’ll missanimportantpoint,somestudentsinsiston writingdownvirtually everythingthe professorsays.Althoughverbatimtranscriptsof lecturesmayseemlike a goodidea,it hasits drawbacks.Forone,if thelecturertalksfasterthanyou write,youwill fall behindandmay missmanyimportantpoints.Second,with this techniqueyoubecomea parrot.Informationgenerallywon’t remainin your memoryunlessyou "own"it-thatis, unlessyou understandit andwriteit downin your ownwords.

Still, I recommenderringon the conservativeside-thatis, taking asmany notesas possible.Concentrateyour energyon writing down themajor pointsandany supportinginformationandexamples.Grasptheessentials,andleaveroom tofill insomeof thedetailswhenyoucopy andreviewyour noteslater.

T I P 8 is- Watch for signalsthat indicate important material.Most professorswantyou tosucceed.Theylovetheirsubjectandwantyouto learnit. Consequently,manyprofessorsgive usuallysubtle,sometimesobvious,signalsduring lecture to showyou what’simportant-what’sworthremembering.

Themostobviouscluesincludephrasessuchas"Thisis anextremelyimportantpoint" or "This would bea goodtestquestion!" Be awareofthesehints. *

Many professorsalso summarizekey pointson theboardor on anoverheadprojector.Whentheystopto write, theyusuallydo soforoneoftwo reasons:1 It’s a difficult word or concept to spell, or 2 it’s anextremelyimportantconceptthat they wantyou to get it in your notes.Somestudentsonlywritewhattheprofessorwrites,butthat’snotenough.

T I P 9 is- Sit toward the front of the class.If atall possible,sit nearthe front of theclass.Thefartherbackyou are,themoredistractionsexist betweenyou and your professor.A snoozingstudent,talkingfriends,shuffling papers,andmany otherdistractionsdrawyour attentionawayfrom thelecture,makingyou missimportantpoints.

In classesin which studentsareseatedalphabeticallyby last name,youmayendup in a placethatdoesn’tsuityou. If you’re stuckin theback,askyour professorif you canmoveforward.If you explainthatyou findit toodistractiveto sitin thebackandreallywantto getthemostoutof thisimportantclass,your professormay find you a spotupfront. Don’t beshy!It’s your educationthat’s at stake.

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T I P 10 is-Ask questions.If you areunclearabouta pointmadein lecture,askimmediately.Chancesarethatotherstudentsare confusedas well. If you don’t get thepointclarified,you will fall behindor becomeconfusedlateronin thelecture.Ifyou’re too shy to ask a questionin class,ask your professorfor anexplanationafterclass.If youdon’t havethe timeto talk toyour professorafterclass,makeanappointmentto talk to him or her or to theteachingassistantassoonafterclassaspossible.

T I P 11 is-If your professortalks too quickly, politely ask him orher to slow down.In my collegedays,I hada few "motormouths"-professorswhotalkedninety milesperhour.Oneparticularly challengingprofessorspokerapidly while writing complexchemical formulason the board.Studentscould eitherwrite down whathe wroteon theboardor takedownhiswords,providingonly halfof whatweneededtoknow. Mostof usfelt lostanda bit angry.

You may encountera few motormouthsyourselfin your collegecareer.if you’re facedwith this dilemma,you haveseveralchoices.Duringclasspolitely askyour professorto slowdown,or sendyour professorapolitenoteexplainingthatyou andotherstudentsarehavinga hardtimekeepingup.if thatdoesn’twork,you maywanttoget togetherwithotherstudentsafter classto comparenotes.You may also want to tapethelecture,if that’sacceptableto yourprofessor.Tapingwill allow youto fillin thegaps.If noneof thesesolutionsworks,droptheclassandtry anotherprofessornextsemester.

T I P 12 is-Remainan activeparticipant during lecture.Educationis atwo-waystreet.As a rule,you won’t getmuchoutof it if youdon’t putmuchinto it. Notetaking is oneof your inputs.As mentionedearlierin thischapter,notetakinghelpsyou keepyourmind focusedon thelecture,preventingyou from drifting off into never-neverland.

Taperecordersandnote-takingservicesaretwo alternativestotakingnotesyourself.As a rule,neitheroneisrecommended.Taperecorders,forexample,give you a falsesenseof security.Whenusingtaperecorders,manystudentsstoptaking notes.Instead,theysit and listen, if you’re notactivelytaking notes,your mind tendsto wander.Before you know it,you’re thinkingabout lastnight’sdateoranupcomingparty.You drift inandoutof the lecture,pickingup bitsandpiecesbut losingthecontinuity.

If you wantto usea taperecorder,useit only to backup your notetaking. In otherwords,useit to fill in the emptyplacesinyour notes.

Note-takingservicesareavailableatsomecollegesanduniversities.Professionalnote takersarehiredto sit througha lectureandtakenotes.They type up the notes,which are distributedto studentswho havesubscribedto the service.

Althoughtheymaysoundappealing,theseservicesarea lot like taperecorders.They give studentsa falsesenseof security. In fact, somestudentsusethem asanexcuseto skiplecture.Otherstudentsstoptakingnotesduring lecture,surethatthenotetakerwill getit all down. if you’re

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notactivelytaking notes,yourmindmaystarttowander.Beforeyouknowit, you’regettinglittle outof thelecture.You’rewastingtimesittingin class.To makemattersworse, notetakersaren’t alwaysaccurate;if you relysolelyon theirnotes,youcould belearningincorrectinformation.

If you think youneeda lectureservice,useit only asa backup.Takegoodnotes.Reviewyour notessoonafter eachlecture.Recopythem,ifnecessary.Rethinkthem.Fill in theblanks from memory.Thenusethelecturenotesfrom theservicetofill inanyremaininggaps.Usethe lecturenotesto serveasa good summary.

T I P 13 is-Useloose-leafnotebooksfor note taking.By far,themajorityof thestudentsI havetaughtoverthepastfifteen yearsusespiralnotebooksfor taking notes.Spiralnotebooksoffer a numberofadvantages.Perhapsthemostimportantis that theyhelpyou keepall ofyour notestogether.However,spiral notebookscanhinderyour learning.How?

if yourprofessoris disorganized,jumpingaroundfrom placetoplace,andyou recordyour notesin a spiral notebook,your noteswill reflecttheprofessor’sscatteredapproach.if, however,you usealoose-leafnotebook,you canmovepagesaround.A topic in lecture7 thatfits betterin lecture5 canbewritten on a separatesheet,removed,andplacedwhereit ismoreappropriate.Moreover,a loose-leafnotebookallows you to integratereadingnotesandhandoutsinto yourlecturenotes.Youcanorganizeyournotesandall of theancillaryinformationin a waythatmakesthemeasierto study.

T I P 14 is-When taking notes,highlight important information.Whenit comesto notetaking,you haveatleastfouroptions.First,youcanwriteeverythingoutinparagraphform. Thismethodisthe leastdesirableof all. Nothingstandsout in your notesexcepta bunchof paragraphs.Ifyou insist ontaking notesthisway, underlinekey conceptsandtermsasyou write. Thatway, at least,importantinformation will behighlighted.

Youcanalsouseanoutlineform, listing main topicsandsubtopicsasshownbelow:

TheCell MembraneI. Structureof themembrane

A. Electronmicroscopicstructure1. Appearsasdoublemembrane2. Twodarkbandsseparatedby clearband

B. Model of membranestructure

Outlineshelpyou recognizetheorganizationof a lectureandpickoutimportantdetailsat a glance.Formanystudents,however,they aren’tworth theeffort. Toomuchtimemustbespentthinkingaboutthemechanics of outlining while importantinformationescapesyou.

A third methodis to organizeyour notesby major topics, listingsupportinginformationbelow them.This is a modified form of outline

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withoutall thenumbersandletters.Thepreviousoutlinemightbewrittenasfollows:

TheCell MembraneStructureof themembrane

*Electronmicroscopicstructure*Appearsasdoublemembrane*Two darkbandsseparatedby clearband

*Model of membranestructure

Use bullets‘ or dashes- if you want to group information. Thismethodis fastandefficient. It helpsyou organizetheinformationyou hear,muchasanoutline doesbutwithoutall thehassle.

The fourth optionis moregraphic.Known as conceptmapping,thistechniqueusesboxes,lines,andcirclestoshowtherelationof key conceptsand factsto oneanother.Conceptmappingis useful for a numberofsubjects.Consideranexamplefrom psychology.Below isanabbreviatedschematicfrom a lectureonmotivation:

Motivation

Definition Biologicalmotivation

1’ ‘1’ 4’Thereasonsomeone Hunger Thirsthasacted

1Hunger-goodexample

1Not completeagreementin psychologicalcommunityon definitionof motivation

Somepsychologistsprefer Othersconcentrateonnarrow definitionlimited to broaderdefinition-tointernaleventse.g.,hunger includeanythingthat

makesanorganismact

Thismethodhelpsyou organizematerialin your mind by showingkeyrelationships.It will help you graspthe big pictureand often makesinformationmorememorable.

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20 is- EssentialStudySkillsfor ScienceStudents

Conceptmappingis also helpful when taking noteson readingmaterial.Somerecentcollegetextbooksand somestudy guidesthataccompanytextbookscontainconceptmaps.Nonetheless,I recommendthatyoudevelopyour own; thatway, you’ll organizethe informationinwaysthat makethemostsenseto you.Whenyou’re done,consulttheconceptmapsinyour studyguidetocompareyourorganizationwith theauthor’sandto seeif you’veomittedanyimportantconcepts,facts,orrelationships.

A fewwordsof adviceaboutconceptmapping:It is advisedthatyoubeginwith themoregeneralconceptsat the topof themap.List themorespecificconceptsbelow.Conceptsof equalweightshouldbeplacedon thesameline. Encloseall of theconceptsinboxesorcircles,asshowninFigure3-1.Uselinestolink theconceptsinvariousways.Forexample,horizontal linesshowtherelationof conceptson thesamelevel,andvertical linesconnectgeneralconceptsto specificconcepts.Ratherthansimply drawing linesfrom oneboxtoanother,it is oftenusefulto includea few wordstoexplainthe linkage.As you makeconceptmaps,you’ll find thatyou canmakeverysimpleonesthatillustratekey conceptsandthatyou canlaterrefine thesemapsby addingmoredetail.

T I P 15 is-Take your book to classif your professorusesvisualaidsbasedon thebook’s artprogram.In manyclasses,especiallythesciences,professorsrely on a varietyofvisualaids to illustrate conceptsandrelationships.Thetwo mostcommonlyusedaidsareoverheadtransparenciesandslides.Today,however,moreandmoreprofessorsusevideos,films, andvideodisks.Whatcanyou do to makethemostoutof visualaids?

Thisdiscussionfocuseson themoretraditionalvisualaids,slidesandoverheadtransparencies,which oftencontaina wealthof information-toomuchto sketchor capturein your notesin a darkenedclassroom.Fortunately,many professorsprovidehandoutswith thesamematerialsoyou canfollow alongandjot notesin themargins.Ifyour professordoesn’tprovidehandoutsof key visualaids,a politerequestmightbein order.

If your professorrefuses,you may beableto get by if you bringyour textbookto class.Mostpublishersprovideprofessorswith slidesandoverheadtransparenciesbasedon artworkin the text. If this is thecase,it’s wiseto bringa copyof thebook toclasssoyoucanrefertothediagramduring thediscussion.You might asktheprofessorwherethetransparencycomesfrom-that is, the figureandpagenumber-soyoucanreferto it quickly andnotwastetimepagingthroughthebookto locateit. Many publishersincludethis informationon transparencies.With slides,though,you’reoutof luck. Unlessyour professorhasa list on hand,he or shewon’t be able to pull theslide from theprojectorto getthe information.

T I P 16 is-Takenotesduring audiovisual presentations.Videos,films, andvideo diskspresenta distinctly different chal

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lenge-hundredsof imagesandloadsof informationin a short period.Unfortunately,moststudentsview thesepresentationsasa timeto relax.Theytendtositbackandwatch,passivelyabsorbingthematerialtheyseeandhear.Whenthepresentationis over,theyhavenowritten recordof thematerial,onlysomefleetingmemories.Accordingly, mostof theinformation is lost soonafter theclassends.

If videos,films, andsimilarpresentationsaremeantto underscorepreviouslymadepoints,thenthere’sprobablylittle reasonto takenotes.Ifthey’reusedtopresentusefulandtestableinformation,though,it’s a goodideato takesomerudimentarynotesduring thepresentation.

But how canyou takenoteswhenmostprofessorsturn thelightsdown whenthey showa video?Surprisingly,you canactuallyseea lotonceyour eyeshaveadjustedto thedim light of a lecturehail, at leastenoughto scratchoutsomekey points.You mightfind it usefultoteamup

FIGURE 3-1

Source:A. Staiheim-Smithand G.K. Fitch, UnderstandingHumanAnatomyand Physiology,1993, WestEducationalPublishingCompany.Reprintedwith permission.Artrenderedby RandyMiyake.

Sampleconceptmap.

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with severalotherstudents.Together,youcanprobablygetmostof theinformationyou needfrom thepresentation.If you reallywant to takenotes,you might acquirea smallflashlightto illuminateyour notebook.

T I P 17 is-Preparefor labsby reading the lab exerciseandbackground material in your text and notes.A numberof collegeclasses,including foreignlanguages,areaccompaniedby laboratories.Most labs,however,are held in conjunctionwithscienceclasses.Most sciencelabsprovidehands-onexperiencewith laboratoryequipmentandintroduceyou totheprocessof scientificdiscovery.Ultimately,labexercisesaremeanttohoneyourobservationalandanalytical skills.

Sciencelaboratoriesareusuallyquite time-consuming.Theyrequireaninordinateamountof timein thelab itself andlots of timeoutsidethelab analyzingandwriting up results.

To optimizethis learningexperience,beforeeachlab readtheobjectivesandproceduresto befollowed. Don’t doyour first readingof thelabexerciseduring the lab period.If you’reunclearabouttermsandconceptsin the laboratoryworkbook, look them up in your textbookor notes.Backgroundmaterialin your textbookandnotescanhelpmakethe labmoremeaningful.

T I P 18 is-Record your results accurately and neatly.During your laboratoryexercise,youwill recordobservationsanddataina notebookor in your lab workbook. Be thorough.Taketime to makemeasurementsaccuratelyandtorecordyour resultspreciselyandlegibly.Thiswill helpyou laterwhenthetimecomestowrite upyour results.

T I P 19 is-Whenyou write up your lab report, be thorough,thoughtful, and prompt.As you write up your reports,bethorough.Lab instructorsgenerallyliketo seemorethanthebareminimum. Find room to integratematerialyoulearnedfrom thelectureor from your textbook or readings.

Evenif theresultsturnedoutall wrong, try toofferanexplanationforyour "failure" to producethedesiredresults.In science,"failures" cansometimesbemoreinstructivethansuccesses.

Most laboratoryinstructorsrequirestudentsto turn in their labreportseveryweekor severaltimesduring thesemester.In eithercase,ithelpsto write up your resultspromptlyaftercompletingeachlab. Thisminimizesforgottenobservationsandreducesthecrunchof havingtenlabreportsduetomorrow.

Thischapterofferedmanysuggestionson how to makethemostoutoflecturesandlabs.Takea momentto reviewthemain ideasandlist thosethatyou would like toimplement.

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CHAPTER 4Getting theMost Out ofReadingAssignments

Habitswedevelopearlyin life oftencomebackto hauntusaswegrowolder. Forexample,as childrenwe learnto readoneword at a time andusuallyout loud. Thishabit carriesoverinto adulthood.Althoughasadultswegenerallyreadsilently,manyof uscontinueto readonewordata time, saying thewordswe’re readingto ourselves-ahabit knownassubvocalization.Both subvocalizationandtheone-word-at-a-timehabitserveasbrakeson readingspeed.

Thesearenot theonly badreadinghabitswelearn.Anotherespeciallytroublesomehabit isthe linearapproachto reading.That is, earlyin life,mostofuslearntostartatthebeginningofa readingassignmentandporestraightthroughuntil wereachtheend.Althoughthis maysoundlike alogical strategy,it’s notalwaysthemostefficientone.

All threeof thesehabitsnotonly reducereadingefficiency,but alsodecreaseretention,asyou shall soonsee.To beaneffectivereaderand tooptimizeyour limited time,it’s essentialto"unlearn" thehabitsthatholdyouback.Thischapterteachesyou how to dothatandshowsyouwaystoreadfasterandmoreeffectively. It dealsprincipally with textbooksandoutsidereadingsthatyou will encounterinyour classes.

T I P 1 es Beforeyou begin reading your textbook, read thepreface.Many studentsbypasstheprefaceof a book.This is a badpolicy becausethe prefaceoften containsvaluableinformation. The prefaceusuallydescribestheorganizationofthebook andits main themeandsubthemes.In otherwords,it givesyou thebigpicture.Thishelpsyouremainorientedasyouworkyour waythroughthebook.Readingtheprefacewill helpyouunderstandhow theinformationfits together.It may alsoassistyou inuncoveringbiasesthatmay cropup in subjectssuchas environmentalscienceandpolitical sciencemoreon thissubjectin Chapter8.

Theprefacetypically lists themain featuresof thebook,suchasendof-chapterquestions,summaries,andotherlearningtools.Look over thelist of theseitemssoyou know whattoolsyou haveat your disposalwhenyou startto studythe material.

T I P 2 es Preview the chapter or assignedreading.Moststudentsapproacha readingassignmentas theymight approachawalk homefrom school;theytaketheshortestcourse,usuallya straight

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linebetweenpointA andpointB. Thatis tosay,moststudentsstartreadingatthebeginningandreadstraightthroughuntil they reachtheend.

Although this maywork for a novel,it’s a ratherinefficient way ofreadinga textbookor anarticle. In fact, the fastestandmostefficientwayof readingclassmaterialdoesnot follow a straightline.

Beforeyou plungeinto a readingassignment,previewthe material.Readthe title of thechapteror articlefirst. Study the main headings.Nowadays,many textsincludechapteroutlinesat thebeginningof eachchapterthatpermityou to previewthematerialat a glance.

Thepurposeof previewingis to seehow the materialin thereadingassignmentis organized.Thishelpsyou setup logical categoriesinwhichtoplacethenewinformationyou areabouttolearn.Moreover,previewingshowshowimportantconceptsarerelated.

Consideranexample.Chapter2 of ahealthbook calledLTeChoicesbyEleanorNossSizerandFrancisSienkiewiczWhitney Brooks/ColePublishing Companycontainsthefollowing main topics:

SensorsandStressBody Systems:Nervous,Hormonal,ImmuneSystemsTheStressResponseStressManagementStrategies

By lookingovertheheadings,you get a goodideaof how theauthorshaveorganizedthematerial.First, theytalk aboutsensorsandstress.Theythenlook at keybodysystemsthatareaffectedby stress.Next,they lookatthebody’sresponsetostress,andtheyconcludewithstressmanagementstrategies-thatis, waysto reducestress.As you readthechapter,youwilllearnmoreabouteachtopic.

T I P 3 Ask a questionor two about eachheading.After you understandtheorganizaticnof the materialyou areabouttoread,it is timeto probea little deeper.Perhapsthebesttechniqueis to aska questionor two abouteachheading.Thisdeepensyour involvementandprimesthebrain by settingup expectations.Later, whenyou answerthequestions,it’s more likely that you will truly rememberthematerial.ConsidertheexampleusedinTip 2.Belowarethemain headingsanda fewquestionsthat cameto my mind:

SensorsandStressWhataresensors?Are theypartof the nervoussystem?Are specialsensorsinvolved in stress?Whatexactlyis stress?

Body Systems:Nervous,Hormonal,ImmuneSystemsWhatis a bodysystem?Whatis thenervoussystem?Whatis thehormonalsystem?Whatis theimmunesystem?

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How arethesethreebodysystemsrelatedto stress?TheStressResponse

My heartraterespondsto stress;doeseveryone’s?Howelsedo peoplerespondto stress?Will stresshurt me?

StressManagementStrategiesI knowyou canreducestressby relaxing,butwhatother

methodscanyouuse?Canexercisereducestress?Whataboutbiofeedback?

Askingquestionsnotonly forcesyou to think aboutthematerial,italsoforcesyou to recallwhatyou alreadyknow about it. In addition,itcreateshooksquestionson which you canhangthenew information.Learningto askquestionswill takepractice,butaftera shortwhileyouwillgetthehangof it. As you readthroughyour assignment,manybutnotallof yourquestionswill beanswered.You will learna lot more thanyouexpected,too.

Althoughthisprocessseemslike a lot of work, it ultimatelysavestime.It will makefactsandconceptsstick inyour memoryandwill reduceyourstudytime.

T I P 4 es Readthe first sentenceof eachparagraph.After you havereadandstudiedtheoutline,which shouldtakeonly oneminute,andhaveaskedquestions,whichmay taketwo or threeminutes,you cangeton with your reading.Right?Wrong.

Now it’s timefor anotherpreviewingfeat. It’s timeto readthefirstsentenceof eachparagraph.In mostnonfictionreadingsyou will encounter, thefirst sentenceof eachparagraphis usuallya topic sentencethatdescribesthesubjectof eachparagraphandisthereforetheauthor’ssignalto you. It is the authorwaving a flag and saying,"This is what theparagraphyou areaboutto readis all about."

By readingall of the topicsentencesin anarticleor chapter,you getabetterfeel for thematerialcovered.Be suretotakeyour timeasyou readthetopicsentences.If the first sentenceisn’t clear,readthenextone,butnomore.If it still doesn’tmakesense,moveon.Don’t getboggeddownat thisstage.

T I P 5 es Previewtables and figures.After previewingthe main topicsof the chapter,askingquestions,andreadingthe topic sentences,you may wantto lookoverall of the illustrationsandtables.In well-writtentextbooks,theillustrationsusuallytell avivid story. If the authorand publisherhavebeenconscientious,thefigures and tablesshouldprovidea graphicaccountof the chapter’scontents.A well-drawnfigure will condensehundreds,perhapsthousands,of words.Drawingsandpicturesalsohelpmakeinformationmorememorable.

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T I P 6 is- After previewing, read the chapter or article, taking notesand highlighting key terms or concepts.At this point, you havespentten minuteslooking over the chapter,familiarizingyourselfwith its organizationandcontent,andfixing someof this informationin your memory.Now it’s timeto read.

As you read,movequickly, highlighting key facts andconcepts.Underlining andhighlighting in theconventionalmannerare extremelytime-consuming.Instead,try putting checkmarksin front of importantsentences,or run a straightline downthe left-handmarginof a paragraphthat’sextremelyimportant.

Also, makenotesin themarginof thebookoron a separatepage,butbesureto useyour ownwords.If you merelyrepeattheauthor’swords,you probablywon’t remembertheinformationaswell asif you paraphraseit.

If you mustunderlineor highlight, do it sparingly.Underlineorhighlightmaterialafteryou havefinisheda paragraph,andonly highlightthemostimportantinformation.If anentireparagraphseemsimportant,a line down theleft-handsideof theparagraphwill suffice.

In fiction courses,a word tothewise: Don’t losetheforestfor thetrees.That is, don’tpay somuchattentionto detail thatyou fail to seethebigpicture.Fiction classesdon’t requireyou to memorizea story, butyoushouldbe able to discusstheplot, the author’stheme,the historical orpsychologicalrelevanceof thepiece,thestyle,andsoon. Makenotesonthesefeaturesin themarginsor on a separatesheetof paper.Putthem inyour own words.Theyareanexpressionof your understandingandwillstick inyour memorybetterthanwordsyou attemptto memorize.Somedetailsmaybenecessaryto supportyour contentions.Jot them downormark themin thebook itself.

Whenreading,don’t takenotes until you havefinishedreadingablock of material;otherwise,you maygo overboard,jotting downlots ofdetails thataren’tnecessary.Waitinguntil you havefinisheda paragraphor evena sectionwill helpyou learnto bemorediscriminating-thatis, itwill helpyou learntopick outthemostimportantinformation.

Althoughtextbooksarebecomingquitecostly,manystudentsfind itadvantageoustobuynewbooks.Thatway,theycanavoidsomeoneelse’sscribblingandunderlining.If you can’tafforda newbook,try tofind a usedonethathasn’tbeenmarkedup or hasbeenhighlightedsparingly.Don’ttrusttheexistingmarkings.Thebook’spreviousownermighthavegottenanFbecauseheorsheunderlinedthewrong information.

T I P 7 es Take frequent breaks.Many peoplereadhourafter hour.As they do, theygetmoreandmorefatiguedmentallyandphysicallyandbecomelessandlessefficient.Thedeclinein learningefficiencymeansthattheywill havetoputmorehoursinto their study,creatinga self-defeatingcycle.

Thebestadviceis to paceyour study.Readorstudyfor fifty minutesor soata time, thentakea break.Gooutfor a ten-minutewalk.Do some

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jumpingjacksor run in place,thencomebackfor anotherfifty-minuteperiod.For somepeople,fifty minutesis too long. They growtired afterthirty minutes.Work with the periodthatsuitsyou best.

Thebottomline is this: Whenyou find yourselfgettingtired, getupandmovearound.If youarereallytired andcan’tseemtoconcentrate,takea napor go out for a vigorouswalk or run. You’re wasting your timestudyingif you’re halfasleep,sobeon thealertfor telltalesignsof fatigue.

T I P 8 es Rereadthe assignedmaterial and notesa few days later.After you havereadthematerial,wait a fewdays,thenrereadit. If youwaitlongerthana fewdays.you will forgettoomuch.Rereadinghelpsyoufixinformationinyour memory.It couldcut studytimefor anexamconsiderably.

T I P 9 is- Besure you understandall terms as you reread.It’s temptingwhenrereadingtoskip termsandconceptsthatareconfusingor difficult to grasp.Unfortunately,in many casesthat informationbecomesessentialto understandingnew factsandconcepts.If you don’tmakeaneffort to understandconfusingor difficult material,you’ll fallbehind.Skippingtermsyou don’t understandislike leavingbricksoutofa building youare constructing.Sooneror later, if you leaveenoughout,thebuilding will topple.

Thus,whenyou encountera term or conceptthat isn’t explainedclearlyor isdifficult to understand,readthematerialonemoretime.Thinkaboutit for aminuteortwo. If it still doesn’tmakesense,try anothersource.Lookup thetermin theglossaryin thebackofthetextbook.If thatdoesn’twork, try a dictionary.Specialdictionariesareavailablefor thesciencesbiology, environmentalscience,chemistry,andsoon andare a worthwhile investment.In somecases,a definition from anothersourcemaymakemoresensethanthe oneyourbook offers.You mayalsowantto tryusinganencyclopedia,althoughthecoveragetheremaybefar greaterthanyou need.

T I P 10 es-Usestudyaids.Nowadays,mosttextbookscomewitha wide rangeof studyaidsto helpyou retainthe informationin your memory.Key terms,forexample,areoftenboldfaced.Payattentiontothem.Makesureyoucandefineeachtermclearlyandaccuratelyafteryou haverereadthechapter.

Many textsalsooffer end-of-chapterglossaries-listsof termsanddefinitionslocatedattheendof thechapter.Usethemtostudy.Othertextsputdefinitionsin themarginsof thebook.

Mostintroductory-leveltextbooksalsoofferchaptersummaries.Summariesusuallycoverjust thekey concepts,althoughsomeauthorswritefairly comprehensivesummariesthat includemanyfactsanddefinitions.If youdon’t havetimetorereada chapter,besurethatyouat leastreadthesummarya day or two after you completea chapterto refreshyourmemory.

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Anotherusefulstudytool is theend-of-chapterquestionsectionfoundin all textbooks.Mosttextbooksoffer a varietyof questions,includingfill-in-the-blank,multiple-choice,andessayquestions.End-of-chapterquestionshelpyou reviewthematerial.They alsopermityou to detectweakspotsinyour growingknowledgebaseaswell asareasof strength.Answerthesequestionsafteryou haverereadandstudiedthechapter.

Onesuggestionaboutessayquestionsbearsmention.Many studentswho arepressedfor timelookoveressayquestionsandsay,"Yeah,I knowthat," thenmoveon. Formostcollegeclasses,you mustillustrate somedepthof knowledge,andyou can’tassessyour depthof knowledgeuntilyou try. Whenyou do,you may find thatyou haveomitteda few keypoints-pointsthatwill resultin a lower testscorethanyou might haveanticipated.

So, don’t skipoveressayquestions.Takethe timeto write ananswertoeachquestionasif you wereturningit in for agrade.Checkyouranswersagainstthebookandyour notesto be sureyou haveincludedall of thepertinentinformation andhaveexpressedit correctly.Saveyour answersfor laterstudy.

T I P 11 es-Usea studyguide to help streamline your studying.Most introductory-leveltextbooksarepublishedwith anaccompanyingstudyguide.Studyguidesfrequentlycontaindetailedoutlinesandsummariesof text material.They also offer conceptmaps and additionalquestionstoreview andjudgeyour knowledgeof thematerialpresentedin thebook.

Studyguidesoffer threeadvantages.First,althoughthesummariesinstudyguidesaremoredetailedthantheend-of-chaptersummariesinyourtextbook,they aregenerallynotas lengthyas theactualchapters.Therefore,you canreadthestudyguide summaryfairly quickly, which savesyou a secondor third readingof thechapter.

The secondadvantageis thatstudyguidesarefrequentlywrittenbysomeoneotherthanthetextbook author.Consequently,you geta chancetoreadthesamematerialfrom anotherperspective.In someinstances,thestudyguideauthormayactuallywritemoreclearlyandmayexplainsomeconceptsbetterthan the textbookauthor.Additionally, just hearingaconcept,fact, or processexplainedin a differentfashionfrequentlymakestheinformationstick inyour memorybetter.

Thethird advantageof studyguidesis that theyoffer many moresamplequestionsandoftena greatervarietyof questionsthantextbooks.Use thequestionsas a review tool andas a diagnostictool to spotyourstrengthsandweaknesses.If you missa question,rereadthematerialin thestudyguideoryour textbook.

T I P 12 es-Work through all theproblems in the chapter.Many math andsciencecoursesgenetics,chemistry,andphysics,forexamplerequireyoutoknowimportantterms,concepts,andfacts.Manycoursesalso requirestudentsto be ableto work throughproblemsbymanipulatingformulasandnumbers.

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Along this line,manytextbooksoffersampleproblemswithin thetext.In suchinstances,the authortypically "walks" you throughtheproblem,showingits resolution.For instance,theauthorprovidestheequationandthenshowshow it is applied,usingthe informationgivenin theproblem.Many studentsreadover sampleproblemsandsay,"Yeah,I see,"thenmoveon.Whentesttimearrives,thequestionsareoftenchangedalittle bit.Studentsare confusedandunableto solve theproblemsbecausetheyneverreally understoodwhat theyweredoing.

To makesampleproblemsreallyeffective,work throughthem withtheauthor.Thencloseyourbook anddothem frommemory.Thisensuresthatyou understandwhatyou’re doing. Why usea particularequation?Why wouldn’t anotherwork?On a test, what equationsmight seemworkablebutwould leadyou downthe wrongpath?Whatconstantsareused?Whatunitsof measurementareyou dealingwith?

After you haveworkedthroughall of thesampleproblems,try theproblemsat theend of thechapter.Work througheachone,thencheckyour answer.If you’rehaving trouble,askfor help.

T I P 13 es-Readother textbooks.Ihadaphysicstextbookduringmyjunioryearin collegethatnearlydroveme insane.At night,I would readandrereadthebook, desperatelytryingtounderstandthematerial.Manytimes,I would heavethebook acrosstheroom in frustration,thinking I wasjust toodensewhenit cametophysics.Unfortunately,it neveroccurredto methatit wasthebookthatwasdense,not I. In fact, someyearslater, while teaching,I had to look up somematerialinmy collegephysicsbook.Much olderandmoreabletojudgethequalityof writing, I quickly realizedthattheauthorwasincomprehensible.I borroweda physicsbook from a friend, andsureenough,everythingmadesense.

AlthoughcollegetextbookshaveimprovedconsiderablysincethelatesixtiesandearlyseventieswhenI wasa student,therearesomelosersoutthere.If you are havingtroubleunderstandingyour book, don’t assumethattheproblemisyours.It maybethe author’s.

If you’re wonderingwho’s thicker-youor thebook-try anothertext. Your bookstoreor library may havesomeon the shelves.Yourprofessorsandteachingassistantsmayalsohavebookstheycanlendyou.Professorsoftenhaveshelvesfull of textbooksthat they’vereceivedfrombook publishers.Tell themyou’re havingproblemsandyou wantto tryanotherbook.They’ll appreciateyourdiligenceandmaybewilling tohelp.If not, you cantry a bookstoreat a neighboringcollege.Ask yourprofessororotherprofessorsin thedepartmentfor recommendations.A few phonecalls to bookstoresmay turn up a text that’s moreenjoyableandmoreunderstandablethanyour assignedbook.

T I P 14 es-Avoidsubvocalization.As mentionedat thebeginningof this chapter,mostof ussubvocalizewhenweread-thatis, aswereadsilently,wesaythewordsto ourselves.Subvocalizationis like driving a car with your foot on thebrake.Fortu

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natelyfor many,subvocalizationis a relativelyeasyhabit to kick.As you read,beawareof subvocalization.To testyourself, rereada

few paragraphsin this book. Are you subvocalizing?If so, readthematerialagainwithout talking to yourself. By learningto readwithoutsubvocalizing,you cancut yourreadingtime.Thiswill makeyour studying moreefficient andwill saveyou many hours.

How doyouteachyourselftoavoidsubvocalization?It’s simple.Keepremindingyourselfnot todo it asyou read.After awhile,youwill beableto readmaterialwithouta little voiceinyour headreadingit to you.

T I P 15 es-Readword groups.Another bad habit we developearlyon-andone that’s also easytobreak-isreadingoneword at a time. It’s a little like steppingon theacceleratorand then immediatelysteppingon thebrakeover andoveragainas you drive down thestreet.Obviously, this won’t getyou anywherefast.

To testyourself,reada fewlines. Areyou readingoneword at a time,or doesyour eyefocuson groupsof two or threewordsat a time?

If you arereadingoneword ata time, you’rereadingtooslowly,andyou’re wastingvaluabletime. To breakthehabit,try this: Placeyour indexfingerunderthefirst line of the previousparagraph.Readacrossthepage,stoppingseveraltimeson eachline asyour eyefocuseson two to threewords.In thefirst glance,you will read,"To testyourself." In thenextjump,you will see,"reada few lines." In the third jump, youwill see,"Areyoureading,"andsoon.

Eachstopiscalleda fixation. During themomentaryfixation, your eyefixeson a numberof words,which your brainattemptsto interpret.Thegroupof wordsis a thoughtunit. As youtrain youreye,you maybeabletograsplargerandlargersegments,linking thekey thoughtunitstogetherin a coherentpicture.

Now,reada secondline usingthis technique.Try anotherline, thenanentireparagraph.At first, youmay wanttohopalongtwo wordsat a time.If that’scomfortable,fine,buttry eventuallytoreadthreeor four wordsata time.

This techniquewill trainyour eyestoseemore,and it will allow youto increaseyour readingspeed.It may evenhelp you increaseyourcomprehension.Readingtooslowly allows themind towander.Themoreyou pushyour eyesandyour mind, themoreattentionyou arepayingandthe lessyour mind will wander.

Practicethistechniqueeverydayfor thenextcoupleof weeks,duringthe summer,or over spring or holidaybreak.Somecourseson speedreadingrecommendusinga light novel forpractice,but I think textbooksmakeexcellentpracticematerial.Don’t worry aboutcomprehensionatfirst.Your job is totrainyour eyesto sweepacrosstheline of text.Useyourfingeruntilyou havetrainedyoureyestojumpacrossthepage.Rememberthatyouhavealotof badtrainingtocounteract,sodon’t bedismayedif youdon’t seemto be catchingon at first. Comprehensionwill comewithpractice.

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T I P 16 es-Readfor key words.You cantrain yourselfto readevenfasterand,ironically,moreefficientlyby learningto readkey words.Considerthesentenceyou just read.Lookbackatit, andunderlinethekey words.It shouldlooksomethinglike this:Youcantrain yourselftoreadevenfasterand,ironically,moreefficientlyby learning to readkey words.This techniqueallows you to graspthemeaningof a sentenceandignore theunessential.

Let’s try a paragraphfrom a textbook I wrote on environmentalscience.Readthroughtheparagraphandunderlinethekey words.Here’sit is:

Conservationmustbeat theheartof all energystrategies.Nationsthatrely on energycannotafford to wasteit. Conservingenergyoffersnumerousadvantages.First, it cansignificantly reducethecost ofproducinggoods,giving industriesan economicadvantagein themarketplace,reducinginflation, andsavingconsumersmillions ofdollars.Second,it alsohelpsus stretchfossil fuel suppliesand thusgivesusmoretime tofind substitutes.Third,energyconservationcanreduceenvironmentalpollution andwastedisposal.

Seehoweasythekeywordsareto spot?Eventhoughthis materialmaybenewtoyou, your eyequickly picks up the main nounsandverbs.

Trainingyourselftoreadkey wordswill takea little practice,butit’swell worth the investmentof time. If you don’t havetheinitiative to learnon yourown,signupfor a speed-readingcourseat yourcollege.You couldeasily doubleor triple your readingspeedwithout a lossof comprehension.

Surprisingly,readingkey wordsoftenmakesit easierforyou toreadtechnicalmaterial,which is sometimespoorly written and confusing.Readingthekeywordsallows you tocutthroughtheauthor’spoorwritingandpull outthe importantterms.

T I P 17 es-Avoidregression.Readingoneword at a time andsubvocalizingreducethe speedwithwhichyou read.But theseareonly two of thebadhabitsthat mostof ushavedeveloped.Many peoplealso regressas they read-thatis, theyconstantlylookbackoverthematerialtheyhavejustreadtobesurethey’renotmissingimportantpoints.

Regressionsslowyou downandwastea lot of time. In mostcases,yougot thepoint, butyou’re a bit uncertainaboutit. Trustyour own mind.Chancesaretheauthorwill repeatthepointorelaborateon it in a way thatwill clarify theconfusionyou may befeeling.

As a rule, avoid regressionandmoveswiftly throughyour reading.Ifyou find yourselfregressing,chancesare you’re tired, distracted,orhungry-ora combinationof all three.It might bebettertoget a little rest,a bite to eat,or a little exercise.

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In closing,goodreadingskills areanimportantassetthatwill pay hugedividendsthroughoutyour life. Takesometimenow tobreakold habitsanddevelopusefulnew ones.Readover thesuggestionsgiven in thischapter,andimplementthosethatappealto you the most.

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CHAPTER 5Improving Your Test-takingAbilities

Testsarea prominentfeaturein mostcollegecourses.Formoststudents,they’re one of the leastenjoyableaspectsof college life. You may besurprisedto learnthatmanyteachersaren’tvery fond of testseither.

Nomatterhow unpopulartheyareamongall participants,testsareanecessarypartof oureducationalsystem.Theygive studentsanopportunity to crystallize theinformation they’re studyingand fix it in theirmemory.Theyenableteacherstoassesshow muchstudentsarelearningand,ultimately,how well they’redoingaseducators.Testsalsoprovideanopportunityto createa quantitativemeasurea gradethat’s mightyhelpful in sorting outcandidatesfor graduateschool, medical school,dentalschool, andso on.Gradeshelp employersin their selectionofemployeesaswell.

Most of ushavea longandsometimespainful historyof testtakingbeforeweevenentercollege.Fouryearsof collegepromisemany moretestsand in somecasessleeplessnights-notan excitingprospectformanystudents.

My yearsof teachingsuggestthatmoststudentshavea badattitudetowardtests.This, in turn,oftenmakesstudyingfor testsandtaking themall themore difficult. Thus,a negativeattitudetowardtestscanbecomeastumblingblockthatdecreasesyourperformancelevel.Lookingattestsinanotherlight, however,may eliminatesomeof thebadfeelingsthathavebuilt up over theyears.How do you go abouterasingyour unfavorableview of tests?

Think aboutthestudyingthat youmustdotoperformwell on testsasa chancetosolidify yourknowledge-thatis, tomakesenseof theinformation you’vebeenstudying.Much of this informationcouldbeuseful inyour life. It may come in handyduring chatsovercoffee, in politicaldebates,or on the job.

Testsgive you anopportunityto becomemoreknowledgeableandpotentiallymoresuccessfulin life. This isespeciallytrueif you work hardto find ways to makethesubjectrelevantto your life as discussedinChapter2.Themoreconnectionsyou find, themoreusefulyour educationwill become.

Doing well ontestsrequiresmorethananattitudechange.It requiresnumerouschangesin how you studyandhow you takenotes.In fact,virtually everystepyou havelearnedsofar-from tricks to improveyourmemory to tips on becominga moreeffective reader-will help makestudyingfor testsandtesttaking moreefficient,moreenjoyable,andmore

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profitable.Thischapteroffersadditional ideasthatwill helpyou prepareforexamsmoreefficiently andbecomea moresuccessfultesttaker.

PREPARING FOR TESTS

T I P 1 Reviewyour lecture notes beforeand after eachclass.Perhapsoneof themostimportantpiecesof adviceanyonecouldgiveyouasa collegestudentis to keepup with your classwork. Don’t fall behind,waiting until a few daysor eventhenightbeforeyour examto decipheryour notesandreadyour text.

Stayingabreastof all of yourclassesis actuallyquite simple,requiringonly a few hoursa week.Onetechniqueis totakea few minutesaftereachlecturetoreviewyour notes,asdiscussedin Chapter3. Go overthe mainpoints.Get a generalideaof whatwassaid. If timepermits,write outthemaintopicson a separatesheetof paper.Thiswill helpyou retaintheminyour memory.

Anothergoodideaistospendsometimeaftereachlecturefilling in thedetails that you mayhave learnedbutfailed to write down.This willrequirealittle moreof your time, butit’s timewell spent.SeeChapter3 formoreon thissubject.

Reviewingbeforeeachlecturealsohelpsyou keepabreastof yourclasswork. It helpspreventconfusionwhenyour professormentionsmaterialfrom a previouslectureor coverstopicsthat requirean understandingof previousmaterial.Remember,educationis a buildingprocess.Newtopicsaregenerallybuilt on anunderstandingof otherconceptsandfacts.If youdon’t build a solid foundation,newfactsmayseemmeaninglessanddisjointed.

T I P 2 Keep up with the assignedreading.Many studentswait until the lastminuteto readassignedmaterialandthencomplainthat therewastoomuchinformationto comprehend.Toavoid this counterproductivestrategyand to get the mostoutof yourreadingassignments,readyourtextbookandreadingmaterialsbeforeeachlecture.If you don’t havetime, skimthe chapter.Readthemajorheadingstodeterminehow thechapteris organized.Thenread the topicsentenceofeachparagraph,studythe figures, and read the summary.This willfamiliarizeyou with thebasicsandacquaintyou withnewtermsthatyou’llneedto know.Formoretips on reading,seeChapter4.

T I P 3 Determinehow much of the testwill comefrom notesand how much from thetextbook.Most professorsaremorethanwilling totell theirstudentsthepercentageof materialon thetest thatwill comefrom thelecturenotesand fromreadings.Many professorscoverthistopic early-duringthefirst dayofclass.That’sonereasonwhy it’s soimportanttoattendthe first class!Manyprofessorsalsogive a breakdownin theclasssyllabus,whichis generally

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distributedon the first day. Be sureyou read the syllabuscarefully.Underlineor note importantclassrequirementsso you know what’sexpectedof you.

T I P 4 Prepareoutlines of lecture notesand reading material.Anotherrecommendationthatmay helpyou excel in your testpreparationsisto takesometimeat theendof eachweekto prepareanoutlineofyour lecturenotes.Concentrateon themainpointsor ideas.First,fleshoutyour outlinewith your notebookclosed.Whenyou are done,compareyourwrittenoutlinemadefrom memorywith your lecturenotes.Fill inthepointsyou skippedover,perhapsin a differentcolor penor pencil.Thiswill helpyou pinpoint theinformationyou’rehavingdifficulty remembering.

If your instructorassignsreadingsandexpectsyou to know thatmaterialfor the test,it’s alsoa goodideatooutlinethereadingmaterial.AsnotedinChapter4, many textbooksincludebriefchaptersummariesthatpresentthekeypoints.However,mostsummariesdo notprovideenoughinformationfor a thoroughunderstandingof thematerial.

Therefore,write your own outlineafterreadingandstudyingeachassignment.List the mainconceptsand factsand then any importantsupportinginformation.Determineweakareasby comparingyouroutlineto thereadingassignment.Fill in thepointsyou missed.

Althoughoutliningmayseemlike a lot of work, it couldsaveyou timein thelongrun.Outlinesof readingmaterialandlecturenotesareexcellenttools forpreparingfor exams.

If yourinstructortestsheavilyon readingmaterialandexpectsyou tointegrateyour lecturenoteswith it, you will needto drawthetwo outlinestogether.In otherwords,you will needto transferinformationfrom yourreadingoutlinetoyour lectureoutline.If thisis thecase,leavesomeroomin yourlectureoutlinetoaddreadingmaterial.You maywanttohighlightreadingmaterialby usinga differentcolorpen or pencil.

Asyou studyyour combinedoutline,you may feela senseof prideandaccomplishmentknowingthatyou aredrawingtogetherinformationfromdifferentsourcesandintegratingit into a cohesivewhole. In theworld ofbusiness,engineering,politics,andscience,that’sgenerallyhowlearningtakesplace.Themoreadeptyou areatthis process,the fartheryou will goin life.

T I P 5 Usesoftware tutorials to improve your understanding ofthematerial.In additiontostudyguides,which weredescribedin thelastchapter,manypublishersoffer computerprogramsthatstudentscanuseto studyclassmaterial.if you owna computeror haveaccessto one,you might wanttotry oneof thesefairly inexpensiveinteractivetutorials.

Tutorialscanbeusedin a variety of ways. For example,they canprovidea supplementaryexplanationof materialcoveredin the textbookor lecture.If you’re having trouble understandingyour text or your

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professor,youcanturn toatutorial for alternativeexplanationsin thesameway thatyou would refertoother textbooksor studyguides.

Tutorialscanalsobeusedinplaceof studyguidesto reviewmaterialbeforeor after lecture.If you review thematerialbeforeclass,thetutorialwill helpmakethelecturemoremeaningful.If you use it afterclass,it willhelpyou solidify conceptspresentedin lecture.Usingit bothbeforeandafterlectureconfersbothbenefits.

Computertutorialsalsoserveasameansofmonitoringyourprogress-your areasof strengthandweakness.After you takethe quizzes,theprogramwill oftenexplainwhy someof your answerswereincorrect.

Finally, tutorialscanbeusedto reviewmaterial.Someprogramshavequick-accessfunctionsthat allow you to obtain summariesof topicscoveredin thetutorial. if youwanttoreviewspecific informationthatyouhavepinpointedasa weakness,you canaccessit throughthis function.

T I P 6 Avoid cramming.Crammingfor anexamis somethingof anAmericanpastime.Theunfortunatethingisthatcrammingoftenworks-thatis, it earnsstudentsdecentgrades.Most of uscansitdownthenightbeforeanexamandcramin a lotof information.Thenextdaywedutifully spititoutontheexam.Soonafter,though,mostpeoplefind that little, if any,of the information hasbeencapturedin long-termmemory.

In otherwords,crammingmayhelpyou getgoodgrades,butit’s notlearning,andlearningis whatcollegeis about.Moststudentsmay focusongrades,buttheyshouldbea secondaryconsideration.A 4.0gradepointaverageismeaninglessif it wasachievedby cramminglots ofinformationinto short-termmemory.

Besidesbeing counterproductiveto learning,crammingdoesn’talwayswork, especiallyfor topicsthatrequirea deeperunderstanding.Youmaybeableto spitbackfactsandfigures,importantdatesandevents,butyoumayhavenoideahow theyall fit together.If yourteacheris testingforcomprehension,you will be in trouble-deeptrouble.Ultimately, then,crammingis like skatingon thinice.If you’renotcareful,youcaneasilyfallthrough.It’s easyto becomeconfusedwhenyour knowledgeis thin.

T I P 7 Spaceyour study sessions.Thewayto learna subjectandtotakea testwithconfidenceis tospaceyourstudying.If you reviewyourlecturenotesbeforeandaftereachclass,stayabreastof your readingassignments,recopyyour lecturenotes,andpreparea weekly outlineof readingand lecturematerial,you’re doinggreat! To get truly excellentgradesand learnthe subjectcold, though,you’ll needto go throughall of thematerialtwo or threetimesduringtheweekbeforetheexam,usingthe memorydevicesdescribedinChapter2to helpmaketheinformationstick.During thisspacedstudyperiod,you’llneedtospendsometimecorrelatingthematerial-discoveringtheconnectionsandlooking at the bigpicture.

Here’showa spacedstudysessionshouldgo:About oneweekbeforeyour exam,carefully readandstudyall of yourlecturenotes.You should

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haveat leastrewrittenthemand filled in themissingmaterial.Studyfortwo nightsor whatevertimeisbestforyou, thentakea dayoff. Duringyour studysessions,try to makeit throughall of your notesatleastonce.Makesureyouunderstandeverything.

After your dayoff, studysomemorefor a coupleof days.Onceagain,go throughall of thematerial.This time, though,concentrateon memorizing details.It won’t bethathardif you havebeenreviewingyour lecturenotes,usingtheglossaryanddictionary,andfinding waysto maketermsandconceptsmorememorable.

Then, takeanotherdayoff. After this shortrespite,makeone finalpushbeforetheexam,beingsuretostudynotonly thefactsandconcepts,butalsohow they arerelated.Spendsometimethinking aboutthewaythesefactscorrelatewith whatyou know andwhatyou’re learning.Whyisthis materialimportant,andhow do thevariouspartsfit together?

In this final review,solidify all of the factsby repeatingthemout loud,writing them out, lecturinga friend..,whatever.Closeyour eyesandrepeatwhatyou’relearning,or imaginethatyou areteachingsomeonethesubject.After studyinga section,write outthekey pointsandsupportinginformationandfacts.Becertainyou candefineall termsandgive relevantexamples.Draw key structuresoverandoveruntil theyremainin yourmemory.

Unlike cramming,which putsa lot of informationintoyour brainfora one-timeevent,spacedstudying putsa lot of information in yourmemoryforquite sometime. Spacingyour studysessionsnotonly helpsyou avoid inefficientcramming,it canalsoreducetestanxiety.The betteryouknow your facts,themoreconfidentyouwill be. Themoreconfidentyou are,the lessanxietyyou will suffer.

A word of warning,however.Learningtospaceyour studiesmay takea while, sobepatient.Don’t try it onceandgive up on it if youdon’t getanA. Practice.

As suggestedearlier,spacedstudyingworksevenbetterif youreviewlecturenotesandkeepup with your readingasthesemesterproceeds.Itproducesevenbetterresultsif you conscientiouslyoutlineyour readingnotesandlecturenoteseachweek.Themorereviewingyou do asyou goalong, the less work you will have to do in the final days before anexam.

T I P 8 is- Useflash cardsto reviewterms and concepts.In thesecondandthird phaseof yourspacedstudyprogram,you’ll commita lot ofconcepts,facts,andsoon tomemory.Flashcardsarea helpful toolinmemorizing.Jotdownkeyterms,facts,dates,andconceptson notecardsasyou learnthemfor example,whenyou’re reviewinglecturenotesandreadingmaterial,ratherthanwait until your preteststudyperiod.

Puta termon onesideof thecardandthe definitionon theother. Dothesamewith conceptsanddates.Besurethatyou writeall definitionsandexplanationsinyour ownwords.Don’t copy downwhatthebook saysorwhatyour professorsaid.By usingyour ownwords,you forceyourselftothink aboutthesubjectandcomeup with meaningfulexplanations.

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Be creativewith your cards.Jotdownmemoryjoggers-mnemonics,riddles,acronyms,or root words-anythingthathelpsyou rememberaterm!

Useyourflashcardstostudywhile ridingtoschoolonthebusorwhilewaiting for a friendtoshowupfordinner.You may wantto usethecardsat theendof eachpreteststudyperiod.This will providea quick review.

T I P 9 is Write your own tests.Duringthesecondandthirdphaseofyour spacedstudyprogram,youmayfind it beneficialto write and taketestsof your own making. Thistechniqueisusefulfor a numberof reasons.First, it forcesyou to reviewthematerial.Second,it helpsyoueliminatesurprisescometesttime.

With a little practice,you canlearnto writeanexamthat’s remarkablysimilar to theoneyour professorwill write. Following aresomesuggestionsthatwill makethis processeasierfor you.

First,determinethe kindsof questionsyour professorwill ask.Mostprofessorsarewilling to tell their studentsthetypesof questionsthey’llincludeon an upcomingtest. Many will actually give you a precisebreakdown-forexample,twenty pointsin essayquestions,fifty pointsinmultiple-choice,andthirty pointsin fill-in-the-blank.

Next,takea few minutesto look overyour lecturenotes,imaginingthatyou are a teachingassistantwho mustwrite thetestfor theclass.Asyou examineyour notes,look for information that lends itself to theassortmentof questionsyour professorhasindicatedwill beon thetest.Beon thelookoutforpotentialessay,fill-in-the-blank, multiple-choice,true-or-false,andmatchingquestions.

Essayquestionsprovidea way of testingyour understandingof asubject-thatis, how well you comprehendimportantprocessesandconceptsandhowwell youhavecorrelatedorassimilatedthefacts.If yourprofessoris fond of this type of question,takesometimeto look throughyour notesforbigblocks of informationthat lend themselvesto essays.

Long, detailedexplanationsof processesmakefor excellentessayquestions.If you are studyinga biological process,suchasevolution,forexample,you mightbe askedto writeanoverviewof theprocess.A essayquestionsuchas thiswill requireanywherefrom halfa dozento a dozenmainpoints.

Multiple-choicequestionsusuallyfocuson materialthathasthreetofourmainpoints.Look throughyournotes.Canyoufind subjectsthathavethreeor four supportingfacts? If so, turn them into multiple-choicequestions.Fill-in-the-blank,matching,and true-or-falsequestionsareusuallyusedfor testingknowledgeof termsandconcepts.

With a little practice,you canbecomeanexpertat second-guessingyour professor.But yourjob isn’t doneyet. A dayor two beforetheexam,take your own test. To savetime, don’t write out answersto essayquestions;simply list thekey pointsin a logical order.

Taking your own testgivesyou a chanceto seehow well you havelearnedthematerialcoveredinyourclasswork. Althoughit maytakeafewhours,it couldhelpenormouslyin the long run.if you studywith friends,

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you maywantto divide thetaskup a bit, askingeachclassmateto write aportionof the test.

T I P 10 is-Study testsfrom previous years if possible.Someprofessorsgive thesame,ornearlyidentical,examsyearafteryear.As a rule, professorswhogivethesameexamfromoneyeartothenext trytokeepexamsfrom circulatingamongstudents-forexample,by collecting them afterstudentshavelooked them over and seentheir grades.Occasionally,however,examsare piratedby less-than-uprightstudentsandkeptonfile for futurereference.Usingcopiesfrom testfiles is frowneduponby professorsfor obviousreasons.

If you haveaccessto bootleggedexams,you will haveto decideforyourselfwhetherto usethem.Somestudentsfeel that, becauseotherstudentsareusingtheseexamsandgettinggoodgrades,theyshouldtoo.Otherstudentswould rathersucceedon their own. They believe thatcheatingisanintolerableshortcutandthateducationis meaninglessif it isbasedon cheating.

Someprofessorswho write new examsevery year put copiesofpreviousexamsonfile in the library for studentstostudy. if thisis thecase,by all meansspend some time looking at them. Study the types ofquestions,andcheckyour level of knowledge-butonly afteryou havestudiedyournotes.Don’t usethesesampleexamsasyour primarymeansof learning.It won’t work.

T I P 11 is- Usetestsin textbooks,study guides,and tutorials toassessyour progress.If youdon’t feel like writing your own testsanddon’t haveaccessto testsfrompreviousyears,takealook at thoseprovidedinyour textbook,studyguide,or computertutorial. They will provideanopportunityto determinewhetheryou havegapsin your knowledge.Theymay show thatyou’vemisinterpretedwhatyour professorsaidorwhatyou readinyourbook.

Whereshouldyou incorporatetestinginyour studyschedule?Thereareseveralpossibilities.You mightwantto testyourselfaftercompletingeachchapterof your text-thatis, after readingandrereadinga chapter.Or, you might testyourselfat the tail endof phasetwo and threeof yourspacedstudyprogram.After you havestudiedthematerial,memorizedterms,andseenhow the informationfits together,takeoneof thevarioustestsat your disposal-eitherthe oneyou wrote or a testfrom yourtextbook,studyguide,orcomputertutorial.Pinpointspecificgapsinyourknowledge,andreview thematerialin thoseareas.

T I P 12 is-Consider forming a study group.Themoreyou talk aboutwhatyou’re learning,thebetterit will sink in.Studygroupscanbea usefulwayof learning.A groupthat meetsweekly,forexample,cancomparenotesandtalk overdifficult concepts.You canspendsometimetestingoneanotheraswell.

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Severalwordsof caution,however.First,don’t go to a studygroupunprepared,expectingto learnfrom thehardwork of otherstudents.Educationisn’t a passiveprocess.You can’tbea spongeand learnmuch.Before eachsession,studyyour notesandjot downquestionsthatcomeup.Be preparedto be anexperton oneor two subjectssoyou canhelpothers.

Second,chooseyour group carefully. If thereare toomany passiveparticipantsinyourgroup-thatis,peoplewhowanttobenefitfrom yourhard work-drop out and form a new group. Selectpeoplewho aremotivatedto learnandarewilling toplayanactiverole. It’s alsohelpful tofind peoplewho are intellectually on the samelevel. Broadgaps inintellectualabilitiescanslowdownyour progress.

Finally, to makethe mostoutof group study,set goalsor generalguidelinesforeachstudysessionearlyon.

T I P 13 is-Attend reviewsessions.Mostprofessorsor their teachingassistantsoffer reviewsessionsbeforeexams.Attend thesesessionsif possible.Whatyou get out of a session,however,dependson how you approachit. If you haven’tdoneanystudyingandgo just to soakup information,youprobablywon’t benefitfrom attending.If you study hardbeforea sessionandgo with writtenquestions,you will get a lot moreout of it. Payattentionto theanswerstoall questions,notjustyour own.You may find areasof weaknessthatwillrequiremorestudy.

Listen forhelpful hintsaboutthe test.Many professorswill inadvertently tip theirhand-thatis, they’ll giveyou a hint or two aboutwhatwillbeon theexam.Many professorslook fondly on studentswho attendreview sessionsandareoften disposedto besomewhatmoregenerouswith them.You canoftentell by anembarrassedsmilethatyou haveaskeda questionthatwill beon theupcomingexam.Professorsoftenpresentmaterialthat they feelthey shouldreview.You canbesurethattheydon’tdo thisfor their ownhealthbut aresaying,"Hey, thisisimportantstuff. Itwill probablybeon theexam."

T I P 14 esSeekanswersto your questionsas theyarise.Overtheyears,I’ve encounteredmanystudentswhohavefallenbehindinclasswork. They’vefailed tokeepupwith lecturematerialandreading.Insomecases,they don’t understandmaterialandwait until they’re farbehindto try to askquestions.Waiting until you’re lostis toolateto call forhelp. At thatpoint, nothingcansaveyou.Toomuchinformationhasbeenmissedforyou to catchup.

That’swhy it isimportantto getquestionsansweredas soonas theyarise.If anequationis confusingor a fact or theoryis notclear,askyourprofessoror teachingassistant.If theanswerdoesn’tmakesense,lookit upin thebook.If yourtext doesn’texplainit adequately,go toa dictionary,anencyclopedia,or anothertextbook.Thisextrawork will payhugedividends.

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T I P 15 is-Usea tutor when necessary.Takeadvantageof freeor low-costtutoringofferedby your school,or hirea privatetutorto helpyou throughdifficult material.Tutorscanclarifyconfusingissuesforyou.Butrememberthatlearningisa two-waystreet.A tutorcan’thelpunlessyouputin the timeonyourown.Studybeforeandaftereachtutoring session.Don’t be afraid to sayyou don’tunderstandsomethingevenafter it hasbeenexplainedtoyou.You mayhavetoaskforother readingsourcesto clearup your confusion.Not all tutorsaregoodteachers,andyoursmaynotbeabletoexplainconceptsin a waythatmakessenseto you. If thisis thecase,try someoneelse.

If you arestuckon a concept,youmayhavemissedsomeimportantmaterial.Look backoveryour notes,orgo toyour tutorfor help. Ask thatheorshelook for the backgroundinformationthatmaybekeepingyoufrom missinga keypoint. It mayonlybea smalldetail,butif your tutorcanhelpyou discoverit, you will makemuchfasterprogress.

TAKING TESTS

You’reall readyfor the test.You’ve reviewedyour lecturenotesbeforeandaftereachlecture,you’vekeptup with your reading,you’verewrittenorpreparedoutlinesof lectureandreadingnotes,andyou’vegottenhelpasyouneededit. You havememorizedandcorrelatedall of thematerialandspacedyour studysessions.

Unfortunately,all of this preparationmaybefor naughtif you feeltiredormentallyexhaustedon thedayof theexam.It’s a sadfactof life, butexamstestnotonlyyour levelof knowledgebutalsoyour performanceatoneparticularmomentin time. If you’re tired,mentallyexhausted,emotionally drained,orsomecombinationof the three,your testperformancemaysuffer.You mayknow your notesinsideout, backwardandforward,but if you feel awful, you’ll probablyperformbadly.Thissectionofferssomeguidelinestoensureoptimumperformanceon thedayof thetest.

T I P 16 isEat well and getplenty of exerciseand sleepbeforethe test.Most peopleare awareof the impactof eating andsleepinghabitsonoptimumperformance.I wanttounderscoreherethe importanceof a gooddiet andsufficientsleep.if you arehavingtrouble learning-ifconceptsand facts just don’t seemto stick-chancesareyou aren’teatingwell orgettingenoughsleep.Relaxationandexercisearealsoessentialto propermentalfunction. You ignore themat your own peril.

T I P 17 is’ Remain calm during the test.Your stateof mind during a testaffectshow you perform.If you havestudiedconscientiously,practicingthe tipsgivenearlierin thechapter,youmay find thatyou aremoreconfident.Competencebuildsconfidence.Ifyou find yourselfjittery, chancesareyou aren’twell prepared.

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Thatsaid,it’s importantto pointoutthat,no matterhow well somestudentshaveprepared,they arealwaysexcessivelynervousbeforeorduringexams.This phenomenon,calledtestanxiety,makesit difficult toconcentrateandthink. Becausemanystudentssuffer from testanxiety,numerouscollegesand universitiesoffer treatmentprograms.A fewsessionswith a counselorcanhelpyou getoveryour testanxietyandlearnto performoptimally.

Anxietycanbebroughtonby stimulants,suchascoffeeandchocolate,consumedbeforeexams.Thecaffeinein theseandotherfoodsmakessomestudentsjittery andreducestheir ability to concentrate.if you’re sensitiveto caffeine,avoid it on examday.

Deepbreathingbeforeorduringexamscanhelp reducethejitters. Ifyou find yourselfgettingshaky,stop,closeyoureyes,andtakesomedeepbreaths.Slowly breathein throughyour nose,holdyour breathforeightseconds,thenexhaleslowly.

T I P 18 isArrive at the examearly or on time.Onecommoncauseof testanxietyis poortimemanagement.if you leaveyour dormroom momentsbeforethe testis to start,you’re morelikely toarrivewith frazzlednerves.To avoidhaving torusharound,leavefifteenminutesorevena halfhourbeforethe testis scheduledtobegin.Whenyouarrive,you will feel calmandcollected,with all of your mentalfacultiesintact.

T I P 19 isLook over the testbefore you begin.After you receivea copyof the test,what doyou do with it? After writingyour nameandstudentnumberon it, if required,takea few momentstolook overthe exambeforebeginningworkon it.

Exams areusuallydivided into sectionsaccordingto the type ofquestionsbeing asked:multiple-choicequestions,fill-in-the-blank questions,andsoon.Takea momentto seehow theexamis organized.Onceyou haveanideaof what’sbeingaskedof you,quickly budgetyour time.If there’sanessayworth twentypoints,you will wantto setasideat leastfifteen to twentyminutesto answerit. If thereare thirty multiple-choicequestions,youwill probablyneedaboutthirty secondsto oneminuteforeach.True-or-falsequestionsrequireonlyaboutten tothirty secondseach.After youhavemadea quickschedule,getto work,payingattentionto theclockor your watch.

I recommendstartingwith theeasiestquestions.True-or-falseormultiple-choicequestions,for example,are a good startingpoint. Whybeginwith theeasiestquestions?Theansweris to build your confidenceandrelaxyour mindandbody.Goodteachersoftenbegintheir testswithreallyeasyquestions,justto help you relax.

T I P 20 is-Skip questionsyou can’t answerright away.As you go througha test,skip questionsthat don’t makesenseor thatseemtoohard.You cancomebackto themat theendof thesessionif you havetime. Don’t getboggeddown.Keep moving along,answeringthe ques

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lions thatareeasiesttoyou. Be suretomarkthequestionsyouskipsoyoudon’t forgetto comebackto them.You may havea thoughtlaterin theexamthat triggerstheanswerto a questionyou’veskipped.Whenyourmind is freedfrom pressure,you’ll besurprisedhow easilyfactswill justpopout.

T I P 21 es-If you don’t understanda question,askyour professor.Don’t be shy. If you don’t understanda question,chancesareit isn’twordedclearly.Ask for help from your professoror teachingassistant.They owe you clear explanations.In somecases,your professormaydecidetoscrapa questionbecauseenoughstudentsaskedaboutit.

T I P 22 is- Understand the questionbefore you answer it.Somestudentsjump thegun,answeringquestionsbeforetheyhavereadthem over carefully. In rushing through,theyoverlookimportantkeywords,suchas theword not. It’s imperative,then,to readeachquestioncarefullyandto be surethatyou understandits full meaningbeforeyouanswerit. Underlinekey words,thenrespond.

Whenyou havefinished,rereadthe questionto be sureyou haveansweredcorrectly.Thisis particularlyessentialforessayquestions.Manystudentslosepointsonessayquestionsbecausetheydon’t provideenoughinformation.Theyoverlooka partof thequestionorsimply fail toprovideadequatedetail. If your professorasksa questionworthten points,youshouldprovideat leasttenpointsworthof material;this usuallytranslatesinto tenterms,facts,or concepts.Whenyou finish writing, imaginethatyou are gradingthetest,andkeep trackof thepointsyou make.If youhaven’tproducedtenpointsworth of material,addsome.It’s a goodruleof thumb anywayto "overanswer"-thatis, to provide two or threeadditionalfactsor figures.Thatway, if you miss anessentialpoint, youmight getextracreditfor your additionalmaterial.

T I P 23 is-For essaysand definitions, organizeyour ideasbeforeyou startwriting.Whenfacedwith anessayquestionor definition,many studentsbeginwriting beforetheyhaveorganizedtheir thoughts.Theresultis ajumbled,disorganizedanswerthat’s not only difficult to understand,but alsoboundtobegradeddown.By simplytakinga few secondstoorganizeyourthoughtson thebackof the test, you canwrite acceptableessaysanddefinitionsandimproveyour scoresconsiderably.

Many professorsprovide cluesfor answeringessayquestions.Forexample,a professormight ask, "Describetheproductionof energybycells, includingglycolysis,the citric acid cycle,andthe electrontransportsystem."Thewordingof the questionindicatesthatthesearekey topics,and it suggestshow the answershouldbeorganized.

In askingyou to describea processor event,your professormightincludekey termsin thequestion.Forexample,heor shemight ask,"Describethe role of buffers in regulatingpH in the body. Be suretoincludethe following terms:acid,base,andpH." This is a clearsignalto

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you to definethesetermsin your answer.But don’t stop there.Addadditionalmaterial.

Answeressayquestionsinshort,clearsentences.Imaginethatyou areexplainingtheconceptto someonewho understoodlittle, if any,of thesubjectmatter.You’rebeingtestedonyourunderstandingof conceptsandfacts. if you don’t explainthem clearly,accurately,andfully, your professorwill assumethatyou don’t know them,andyou’ll begradedaccordingly.

Thischaptercoversa greatdealof practicalinformationthatwill assistyouin preparingfor andtaking tests.Takea few minutesnow to reviewthemainconcepts,andmakea list of the suggestionsyou will adopt.

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CHAPTER 6Becominga CriticalThinker

Many peopleI knowstudieddiligentlyduringcollege,dutifully spewingoutfactsandfiguresfor tests.For themostpart, theyreceivedgoodgradesfor their hardwork. Despitetheir success,though,many of them nowcomplainthattheyactuallygotlittle outof theircollegeyears.Thatis, theydidn’t learnverymuchfor all thetimetheyspentin class.

Thecomedianbehind FatherGuido Sarducciof "SaturdayNightLive" fameinventedtheFive-MinuteUniversityas a symbolicjab atoureducationalsystem.For$25,his facultyteachesstudentseverythingtheywill remembertwo yearsaftergraduation.Theentirecurriculumtakesfive minutes.

Unfortunately,thecomedianisn’t far from thetruth.Many studentsand theirparentsspendtensof thousandsof dollarson a collegeeducation, butforwhat?A few vaguememories?

While we’re quick to blameteachers,a lot of thefault may lie inourselvesfor not really learninginformation in thefirst place. In fact,many peoplewho feel shortchangedby their collegeexperiencecouldhaveavoidedthis disappointmentby practicingthePMC methodthisstrategyfor increasingmemoryis presentedinChapter2. Spacedstudying andmanyothertechniquesdiscussedinpreviouschapterswouldalsohavehelpedthemretainmore.

Collegesand universitiesare also frequentlycriticized for theirfailureto promotethinking.I’ve heardmanystudentscomplainthattheyarejustbeingaskedtospitbackfacts.Theblamefor this canbepinnedonprofessorswhodon’t encourageassimilationandthoughtfulanalysis,butit falls on students’shouldersaswell.After all, studentsshouldbeactiveparticipantsin the learningprocessandmustacceptsomeresponsibilityfor learningto thinking.

Learningtothinkis a threefoldchallenge.First,it requiresfacts. Youcan’tthink very well if you don’t know anything.Second,it requirescorrelation,which is discussedin earlierchapters.By correlatingfactswithpreviousinformationandseeinghowfactsfit togethertoform thebigpicture,you becomea deeper,betterthinker.But correlatingfactsisnotenough.To becomea realthinker,you mustalsolearnto think critically.to provetheir case.This leadsto thenext recommendationfor criticalthinking.

Critical thinking meansmanythingstomanypeople.I defineit asthecapacityto distinguishbetweenfactsandbeliefsor opinions.In otherwords,critical thinking allows you to distinguishbetweenwell-estab

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lishedfactsandpeople’sjudgments,whichareoftentaintedby valuesorpreconceivednotions.

Critical-thinkingskills helpyou analyzeproblems,issues,andinformation.Theyhelpyoudeterminetheaccuracyofinformationpresentedtoyouandavoid illogical thinking andothermistakesin reasoning.Critical-thinking skills will allow you to drawsoundconclusionsfrom factualinformation,and theymakeyou less likely to beswayedby emotionalarguments.You will no longerfall prey to themerelyeloquent-thoseskillful verbalmanipulatorswho could sell realestateonthemoon.

Critical thinking is as essentialto your intellectualdevelopmentasgoodfood isto propernutrition.If you’re headingfor a careerin anyoneof dozensof fields,suchasbusiness,law,medicine,science,engineering,oreducation,critical-thinkingskills will beessential.Without them,you’llalwaysbeat a disadvantage.

T I P 1 ?s Becomean active participant.Oneof thefirst requirementsof critical thinking is thatyou takeanactivepartin acquiringinformation.Don’t sitbackandaccepteverythingyoureadandhear.Questionwhatyou learn,andseekothersources.

T I P 2 es Understand all terms.As you study,you will encountermanynewterms.Theyarethebricksinthefoundationof yourunderstandingof varioussubjects.Withouta cleardefinitionof newterms,you will beunabletomastera subject,andyouwillbeincapableof thinking clearlyandcritically.

Understandingtermsandmakingsurethatothersdefinetermswhentheytalk withyou will help bring clarity to conversations.In fact,manyargumentsturnon a failureof oneorbothparticipantsto understandthespecificmeaningof wordsthat arebeing used.TheGreekphilosopherSocratesdestroyedmany argumentsin his timeby insistingon cleardefinitionsof terms.You canbecomea critical thinker by alwaysbeingcertainthatyou understandthespecificlanguageof your subject.

T I P 3 es Question the methodsby which facts were derived.In attemptingto sort facts from judgments,it is importantto determinehow thefactsbeing presentedto you werederived.Did they comefromscientificexperiments,or werethey derivedfrom random,unscientificobservations?

A properexperimentin thebiological sciencesandmedicinetypicallyinvolvestwo groups:anexperimentalgroupand a control group.Theexperimentalgroupis theonethat is manipulated;thecontrol groupistreatedthesameway ineveryrespectexceptthatit isnotmanipulated.Forexample,totesttheeffectof excessvitaminingestion,a researchermightstartwith two groupsof people.In a goodexperiment,bothgroupswouldbeas similaras possiblein age,sex,weight,race,andsoon.Both groupswould betreatedthe samethroughouttheexperiment.They would,forexample,receivethesamediet andwould behousedin thesamefacility.

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Ideally, theywouldbeexposedtothesamelevelsofstressandwouldworkandrestequally.In a well-runexperiment,theonly differencein thetwogroupswould be the vitamin supplementsgiven to the experimentalgroup.Any observeddifferencesbetweenthegroups,therefore,canbeattributedto the treatment.

Goodexperimentsrequireanadequatenumberof experimentalandcontrolsubjectsto besurethatanyobserveddifferencesarereal.In manylaboratoryexperiments,at leasttentestanimalsarerequired.More thanten is evenbetter.For humanhealthstudies,much larger groupsaregenerallyused.

Thus,whenassessingthevalidity of informationbeingpresentedtoyou, find out if thestudywasadequatelyperformed.Did theexperimenthavea controlgroup?Werethecontrolandexperimentalgroupstreatedidenticallyexceptfor theexperimentalvariable?Did theresearchersuseanadequatenumberof subjects?

In science,oneexperimentis rarelyadequateto drawfirm conclusions.Thus,cautionis advisedwhentheresultsof newexperimentsareannounced.Themediaare especiallyfond of publishingtheresultsandconclusionsof new studies,but suchreportsshouldbe viewed withconsiderablecaution.Follow-up studiesoftenpresentcontradictoryresults.

To ensureconfidencein the conclusionsof a newstudy, theexperimentshouldberepeatedby otherresearchers.If similar resultsare obtained,youcanbemoreconfidentin theconclusions.

T I P 4 es Question theconclusionsderived from facts.Whenanalyzingany issue,argument,or scientific finding, it isimportanttodetermineif the factssupporttheconclusionsbeingmade.Ask yourselfif whatyou’re hearingis really true.Are therealternativeexplanations?

Consideranexample.Oneof the first scientificstudieson thecausesof lungcancerrevealedthatpeoplewho atelargeamountsof whitesugarsucrosehada higherincidenceof lungcancerthanthosewhoconsumedsmallerquantitiesof sugar.Theresearchersconcludedthatsugarcausedlungcancer.

A carefulreexaminationof thepatients,however,showedthat therelationshipbetweencauseandeffectin this experimentwasnot whatresearchershadoriginally thought.Uponreexamination,theresearchersfound that smokerstendedto consumemoresugarthannonsmokers.Thus,a moreprobablecauseof lung cancerwassmoking,not sugarconsumption.

Thisexampleillustratesa key principleof medicalresearch:Correlation doesn’tnecessarilymeancausation.In otherwords,two factorsthatappearto beconnectedmay notbecausallyrelated.

Anotherexampleillustratestheimportanceof thisrule. In 1989, U.S.physiciansreportedthatsomeof their patientsweresuddenlybecomingill. Whenhealthofficials at theCentersforDiseaseControllookedintotheproblem,they foundthattheaffectedindividualshadbeeningestinglargedosesof L-tryptophan,anaminoacidavailableinpill form in mosthealth-

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food stores.L-tryptophanpresumablyhelpssomepeopleget tosleepandis believedto easethesymptomsof premenstrualsyndromein somewomen.

Within a short period, physiciansdocumentedmore than twelvehundredcasesof L-tryptophan"poisoning."Somevictims died; manyothersbecameparalyzedor were severelyimpaired. Becauseof theseverityof the problems,L-tryptophanwasquickly takenoff themarket.Further researchhasshown,however,that the culprit in this tragicincidentwasnotL-tryptophan,buta chemicalcontaminantfoundin thepills. As in thelung cancerexample,thecausewasincorrectlyassigned.

Conclusionsmayalsobebasedon inaccuratedata.In someinstances,apersonmaybaseanargumenton datathatheorshebelievesaretruebutin factarenot.In others,a personmaybaseanargumenton anoutrightlie.Watchfor suchinstances.They’resurprisinglycommon.

Anotherpitfall to watchfor is theselectiveinclusionor exclusionofdata.Many peoplebecome"one-study"experts.Theylearnonefactor afew factsandthenbaseentireargumentson this limited baseof knowledge.In sodoing,theymayomit a wealthof informationthatcontradictstheir case.In addition,a lot of peopleseekoutfactsthatsupporttheirpointsofview; theymakeuptheir mindsandthenseekto provetheircase.This leadsto thenext recommendationfor criticalthinking.

T I P 5 es Look for hidden assumptionsand bias.Anothersurprisinglycommonproblemwith theconclusionssomepeopledrawisthat theyareofteninfluencedby incorrectassumptionsandbias.Critical thinking requiresthatyou uncoverassumptionsandbiasesthatunderlietheconclusionsof others.

Considerthefollowing exampleof anunderlyingassumption.Manypeoplebelievethatall radiationexposureisdeleteriousto humanhealth.Is this conclusionbasedon anyunderlyingassumptions?Is it valid?Theconclusionis basedon a belief that thereis no safe thresholdlevel forradiation-thatis, a level below which no harmoccurs-andthat, as aresult, all exposureis dangerous.Scientists,however,still debatethisassumption.Someclaim that thereis a safe thresholdlevel. Thus,theconclusionthat all radiationis harmfulis notuniversallyaccepted.

T I P 6 es Questionthe sourceof facts.Beingon thelookoutfor biasanddeceitforcesyou to questionthesourceof information.Bewareespeciallyof "experts."Salespeoplearenotoriousfor passingthemselvesoff as expertson a wide rangeof subjects,fromhomeheatingtonutrition.Often,however,thesepeoplearepresentingalimited subsetof factsthat supporttheir point of view and sell theirproduct.

Thisruleappliesto more thanjust salespeople.It appliesaswell tovenerableprofessionals-evenphysicians.Forexample,considerwithskepticismthenutritionaladviceyou receivefroma physician.Shouldyoucountonit? Most physiciansin practicetodayhavereceivedlittle, if any,formal training in nutrition. In the seventies,a studyof hospitalpatients

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showedthatmany whowereundera doctor’scareforprolongedperiodssufferedseveremalnutrition.Althoughthisstudyresultedin a dramaticreanalysisof nutritional instructionin medicalschools,a studyof U.S.medicalschoolsin themid-eightiesshowedthatnutrition trainingwasstillwoefully inadequatein many schools.Eventoday, apparently,manymedicalstudentsgraduatewithouta soundunderstandingof therole ofnutritionin preventingdiseaseandpromotinggoodhealth.

T I P 7 es Don’t expectall theanswers.Ironically, critical thinking requiresa tolerancefor a certainamountofambiguity.Ambiguityexistsin all fieldsof study.Thatisto say,hard-and-fast answersare not always available.As a result,you mustbecomecomfortablewith uncertainty.

Forexample,manycredibleatmosphericscientistsbelievethat thesurfacetemperatureof theEarthis increasingasa resultof thebuildupofcarbondioxideandothergasesfrom a wideassortmentof humanactivitiesoverthepasttwo hundredyears.In fact, manyof thesescientistsarewillingto staketheir reputationson this conclusion,and they canquote animpressivebody of informationin supportof their view.

Not all scientistsagree,however.A smallnumberbelievethatprojectionsof global warming are wrong.Theyarguethat otherfactorsmayreducewarmingor mayeliminateit altogether.Globalwarmingis therefore an issueaboutwhich critical thinkers might reserveopinion. Butbeforeyou closethebook on thesubject,readon.

T I P 8 es Examine the big picture.If it materializes,global warmingcould resultin a dramaticshift in worldclimatethatcouldturnproductivefarmlandtodesertandcouldeventuallyflood 20 percentof theworld’s landmassasglaciersandtheAntarctic icecapmelt. It couldhavedevastatingeffectson plantandanimallife. Becauseof this, critical thinkersmight chooseto takeaction despitethescientificuncertainty.That is,destroyingtheclimateofa planetposessucha seriousthreatthat stepsto eliminatetheproblem maybe the most intelligentchoice,evenif wearenot 100 percentcertainthat thereisa problem.

Thethreatof global warmingcanbe reducedby markedimprovementsin energyefficiencyin automobiles,factories,andevenour ownhomes.Somethink of this asa kindof insurancepolicy thathastheaddedbenefitof reducingurbanair pollution,stretchinglimited suppliesof oilandotherfuels,andsavingsubstantialamountsof money.

Consideranotherexampleof thebenefitsofexaminingthebigpicture.In 1988, researchersat Monsantoannouncedthat theyhaddiscoveredawayto alterthegeneticmaterialof wheatto makeit resistantto a fungusthatcausesenormouscropdamage.Farmerscurrentlycontrol thefungusby rotatingcrops-thatis,plantingwheatoneyearandanothercropthatdoesnotsupportthepestthenextyear.Thenewgeneticallyalteredstrain,however,would eliminate theneedto rotatecrops,allowing farmerstoplanttheir fields in wheatyearafteryear.It would evenallow farmerstoplant largercrops.

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Althoughthismaysoundlike agreatidea,critical thinking showsthatit couldbeaninvitation to disaster.Why?

First, croprotation helpsbuild soil fertility. Rotatingbeans,clover,alfalfa, andother legumeswith wheat,for example,addsnitrogento thesoil andhelpsmaintainsoil fertility. Not rotatingcropsoftendrainsa soilof itsnutrients,reducingits long-termproductivity.

Second,crop rotationhelpsreduceinsectpests.By plantinga newcrop in a field everyyear,farmersreducefood sourcesfor insectsthatpreferonecropoveranother.Becausethefood supplyisnotconstantfromone year to the next,pest populationsremainlow and manageable.Eliminating croprotation may result in repeatedoutbreaksof harmfulwheat-eatinginsects.

In solvingthe fungusproblem,then,sciencemaycontributetoseveralotherproblems.The lessonin this caseisthat a carefulexaminationof theecologicalrelationshipsthebig pictureoftenthrowsinto questiontheapparentwisdomof newactions.

T I P 9 e Examine multiple causeand effect.This rule isanextensionof the previousrule,examinethebig picture.Asintelligentashumanscanbe,wearealsooftenrathernarrow-minded.Wefall backonsimplisticthinkingwith surprisingfrequency.In theseventies,for instance,PaulEhrlich, a notedecologist,arguedvigorouslythat theworld’s environmentalproblemsstemmedfrom overpopulation-toomanypeoplefor theavailableresources.Anotherequallyreputableanddistinguishedscientist,BarryCommoner,arguedthattheproblemsweredueto technologyandits by-product-pollution.

A morecarefulanalysissuggeststhat theenvironmentalproblemsthattheUnitedStatesfacesarecausedby numerousunderlyingfactors.Inotherwords,overpopulationandtechnologyare just two of manyrootcauses.Inadequatelaws andpooreducationmustbefactoredinto theequation,asmustvariouspsychologicalfactors-forinstance,ourviewoftheworld assomethingtoconquer.Many morecouldbeaddedto thelist.

Critical thinking clearlydemandsa broaderview of causeandeffect.It demandsthatyou considerall of thecontributingfactorsand theirrelativecontributionsto the problem.It forcesyou to avoid simplisticthinking, whichoftenleadsto simplesolutionsthatfail miserably.

Oneform of simplisticthinking is calleddualisticthinking.Dualisticthinking is thatwhich acceptsonly two viewpoints.It’s black-or-white,right-or-wrongreasoning.Presentinga personwith only two choiceswhentherearemanyis calleda falsedichotomy.It shouldbea signaltoacriticalthinkerto lookdeeper.Whenpresentedwith onlytwo alternatives,look for a third or a fourth.They’reoftenthere,andthey’re oftenvalid.

T I P 10 esWatchfor thought stoppers.Thoughtstoppersare wordsor phrasesthat switch off your criticalthinking faculties.They elicit anemotional,gut-levelacceptanceof anargument,rarelyanintellectualone.Thoughtstoppersworkbecausethey

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arouseemotions;theysoundsogoodthatyou losetrackof your thinking.Many repeatold myths.

Whentalking aboutindividual actionsto helpprotecttheenvironment,manypeoplesayto me,"Sowhat?Whateffectdo my actionshave?"This is a thoughtstopperparexcellence.It plays on our feelings ofhelplessnessandinsignificance.It’s a hardonetoanswer-until,of course,you startthinking. It’s truethatindividual actionsdon’tamounttomuch,butwhenaddedtogether,theycanbecomemeaningful.After all, manyofour problemsarethe resultof thecumulativeeffectof individualactions-carelessnessandwaste.If they createour problems,theycanalsobepartof thesolution.

T I P 11 esBewareof labels.Labelsareconvenienttagsthathelpusorganizetheworld aroundus,buttheycanbemisleading.Foronething, theyareofteninaccurateor,atbest,maybe a partialtruth. Labelsare commonin thepolitical arena,whereindividualsareoftenlabeledas"liberals" or"conservatives."In reality, apersonmight beliberal on someissuesandmoreconservativeon others.Labelingthatpersonasa liberal thusmissesthetruebreadthof hisorherviews.In theenvironmentalarena,a liberal is onewho seeksto preserveopenspacesandprotecttheenvironment.Isn’t that really a conservativeoutlook?

The point hereis to becarefulof the labelsyou apply to peopleandideas.Also becarefulof the labelsthatothersapply to them.Thetruthisoftenmorecomplicatedthana label implies.

T I P 12 esUnderstandyour own biasesand valuejudgments.Critical thinking requiresa careful analysisof information that otherpeoplepresent,ferretingout their biases,misinterpretations,anddeceit.Justasimportant,though,critical thinking demandsanawarenessof yourownbiases.In otherwords,you mustturnyour critical-thinkingskills onyourself.

Eachof ushasa setof valuestaughttousby parents,teachers,clergy,friends,experience,and so on.Thesevalues influenceour reasoning.Althoughyou cannotchangethe teachingsyou’vebeenexposedto andtheexperiencesyou’vehad,youcanlearnto recognizeyour ownbiasesandtoseehow valuesaffect your judgment.Be awareof them,andattempttodiscoverhowthey influenceyour thinking.

T I P 13 esDon’tmistake ignorance for perspective.A manandwomanlive in a twenty-foot-deepholein theground.Oneday,someonepeersovertheedgeandasksthemwhat theworld islike. Theirresponseis quitepredictable."Theworld’s a ratherdarkplace.Not muchhappening."

Thisextremeexampleisintroducedtomakea point: Weoftenmistakeignorancefor perspective.Our lack of knowledgeaboutthe world oreventssometimesgivesusa falsesenseof understanding.Wemayknow

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afewfacts-likethecouplein thehole-butbasicallyweunderstandverylittle. Thattiny bitofknowledgecanbeillusory. Wemay thinkthatwehaveanaccuratepicturewhenin factweseeonly a sliceof reality.

Watchoutfor this trap. I warnedyou earlierto bewaryof theonestudyexperts.Thesearepeoplewhohavedugtheirholes,sotospeak,andarecertaintheyunderstandthe truth,whenin factwhattheyunderstandisonly a tiny pieceof it. Don’t becomeoneof themyourself.

Thischapterhaspresenteda numberof importantrulesfor critical thinking.Takea fewminutesto reviewthemandlist thoseyouwould like toputinto action.

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