Essential grammar

重要基礎文法 01

Contents:

8 parts of speech Relative pronouns Tense Active and passive voice

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/730/01/

English – 8 parts of speech八大詞類

1. Noun2. Pronoun3. Adjective / Article4. Adverb5. Verb6. Preposition7. Conjunction8. Interjection

1. Noun 名詞

A noun is a word that denotes a person, place, or thing. In a sentence, nouns answer the questions who and what.

Proper noun

Common noun : Count noun – singular / plural Noncount / mass noun Collective noun

Nouns with Adjectives

可數

普通名詞( 有單數 複數 )a/an, the, no

this / thateach / every

many, severala number ofone of thea couple of

few

集合名詞(family, people, team)

不可數

專有名詞(Wall Street, July)

( 無單數複數差別 )

the, this, that, nomuch

A great deal oflittle

物質名詞(water, air, furniture)

抽象名詞(beauty, health, anger)

Noun and Article

a, an the this

that these those

no article

Count singular

Count

plural

Noncount

Count and Noncount Nouns with AdjectivesMost of the time, this doesn't matter with adjectives. For example,

you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray." However, the difference between a countable and uncountable noun does matter with certain adjectives, such as "some/any," "much/many," and "little/few.“

Some/Any - countable and uncountable nouns.

There is some water on the floor. There are some Mexicans here. Do you have any food? Do you have any apples?

Much/Many: Much - modifies only uncountable nouns. Many - modifies only countable nouns.

We don't have much time to get this done. Many Americans travel to Europe.

Little/Few: Little - modifies only uncountable nouns. (a little/very little) Few - modifies only countable nouns. He had little food in the house. The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room. There are few doctors in town. Few students like exams.

Other basic rules:

A lot of/lots of: A lot of/lots of are informal substitutes for much and many. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many.

They have lots of (much) money in the bank. A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe. We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer. We got lots of (much) rain last summer.

A little bit of: A little bit of is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.

There is a little bit of pepper in the soup. There is a little bit of snow on the ground.

Enough: Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There is enough money to buy a car. I have enough books to read.

Plenty of: Plenty of modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

They have plenty of money in the bank. There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.

No: No modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There is no time to finish now. There are no squirrels in the park.

A number of: several of a particular type of thing .

I decided not to go, for a number of reasons. There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.

Numbers: a number of a particular description.

Small numbers of children are educated at home. Large numbers of invitations were sent. Newspapers are produced in vast numbers.

Number: an amount or total.

The number of people killed in road accidents fell last month. There has been an increasing number of cases of the disease. A small number of children are educated at home.

Every: used when referring to all the members of a group of three or more .

The police want to interview every employee about the theft. The show will be broadcast every weekday morning between 9

and 10. We're open every day except Sunday.

Each : every thing, person, etc. in a group of two or more, considered separately .

When you run, each foot leaves the ground before the other comes down.

Each of the companies supports a local charity. We each (= Every one of us) wanted the bedroom with the

balcony, so we tossed a coin to decide.

Special notes – “each” “every”

“each” “every” + 單數的名詞 + 動詞也是用單數的語態。

each + of 可加複數名詞，但後面的動詞是用單數的語態。 Ex: Each of us has a wonderful time.

every 後接日期有可能接複數名詞。 (X): My mother has to visit the hospital every five week.

(O): My mother has to visit the hospital every five weeks.

可數 不可數She had many experiences. Does she have enough

experience?

The lights were bright. Light hurts my eyes.

There's a hair in my soup! Hair is important on a cold day.

Give me three coffees. I'd love some coffee.

We study sugars in organic chemistry. Put sugar in my coffee.

The papers were stacked on the table. We wrote on paper.

http://www.cybertranslator.idv.tw/grammar/nouns.htm

Collective noun

- a noun which describes a group of things or people as a unit.

整體時被看作單數名詞 ; 指整體的構成分子時被看作複數名詞。

family (1) a group of people who are related to each other, such as a

mother, a father, and their children. I come from a large family. He hasn't any family.

(2) the children of a family Women shouldn't have to choose between career and family (=

having children). Paul and Alison are hoping to start a family (= have children) so

on. My dad died when we were small so my mum raised the family o

n her own.

(3) a pair of adult animals and their babies We've got a family of squirrels living in our garden.

people “ 人” , ” 人們” , ” 家人” in general

當 people 指 “人 persons” 或著泛指 “人們” , 或者指特定場合

的人以及家裡人時 , 它是個無標記的複數名詞 .

There are ten people present. The streets were crowded with people. People will laugh at you. All my people are in India. Who are these people? My wife’s people are staying with us now.

people ” 民族”

people 作”民族” “種族”解時 , 就變成了規

則的可數名詞 (people peoples)

The Chinese are a hard-working people. ( 中華民族是個勤勞的民族 )

Ireland was inhabited by two peoples. A people is all the men, women, and children of a

particular country or race.( 一個民族是指一個國家或種族的所有的男人 , 女人和兒童 .)

the people- the large number of ordinary men and women w

ho do not have positions of power in society

the people 指一個國家的人民或全世界的人民 , 它在

形式上仍是單數 , 但是它的動詞 , 根據概念一致原則 ,要使用複數 .

She claims to be the voice of the people. The President has lost the support of the people. He lived for the people and died for the people. The French nobles oppressed the people.

Question: Sixty people means a huge party.

主詞 sixty people 為複數 , 其動詞為何是用單數 ?

percent 用作名詞時 , 無複數形式 , 不加 “s”.

Examples: 45 per cent of Americans were against it. Prices have risen 6 percent in the past year. You got 20 percent of the answers right.

Percent = per cent

Percent = per cent

當單個詞 percent 或 percent of 名詞充當主詞時 , 動詞採用單數還是採用複數 , 完全取決於有關名詞的單複數形式 .

Ten percent of the pupils are absent today.Thirty percent of the farmland has been plante

d to oil crops.Over ninety percent of the islanders here are i

lliterate

__1. I practice every day.

__2. Cats are interesting pets.

__3. I like to feed the birds.

__4. Can I have some chips?

__5. She has a lot of strength.

__6. I have no courage to do that.

__7. The water is cold.

__8. This milk is going sour.

Practice – “true” or “false”

Practice – “true” or “false”

__9. Music helps me relax.

__10. I'm meeting a group of friends for dinner.

__11.People like to be made to feel important.

__12.The teacher asked us to answer each questions on the book.

__13.My mother has to visit the hospital every two day.

__14. Each of us have a wonderful time.

Practice – “is” or “are”

1. A dozen ___ probably not enough. (talk about eggs)

2. A dozen ___ coming over this afternoon. (talk about people)

3. Her family ___ very poor.

4. My family ___ all here.

5. My family ___ very large.

6. My family ___ all thin.

7. Five percent of the samples ___ substandard.

8. The Chinese ____a great people.

2. Pronoun 代名詞

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.

Examples: She decided to go to a movie. She planned to ask him for an interview.

(In the example above, both she and him are pronouns; she is the subject of the sentence while him is the object. Every subject pronoun has a corresponding object form.)

Relative pronouns General Usage in Defining Clauses

Relative pronouns are that, who, whom, whose, which,where, when, and why. They are used to join clauses to make a complex sentence. Relative pronouns are used at the beginning of the subordinate clause which gives some specific information about the main clause.

This is the house that Jack built. I don't know the day when Jane marries him. The professor, whom I respect, was tenured.

In English, the choice of the relative pronoun depends on the type of clause it is used in.

There are two types of clauses distinguished: defining (restrictive) relative clauses and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses.

Defining relative clauses (also known as restrictive relative clauses) provide some essential information that explains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted.

Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT

separated by a comma from the main clause.

Function in the

sentence

Reference to

People Things / concepts Place Time Reason

Subject

Object

Possessive

Some special uses of relative pronouns in defining clauses that / who

Referring to people, both that and who can be used. That may be used to referring to someone in general:

He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down. I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to

Chicago.

However, when a particular person is being spoken about, who is preferred:

The old lady who lives next door is a teacher. The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at

the party.

that / which

There several cases when that is more appropriate thanwhich:

1. After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing):

The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person.

Marrying a congressman is all (that) she wants.

2. After verbs that answer the question WHAT?

For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think, write, etc. In this case, the whole relative clause functions as the object of the main clause:

Some people say (that) success is one percent of talent and ninety-nine percent of hard work.

The chairman stated at the meeting (that) his company is part of a big-time entertainment industry.

3. After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:

This is the funniest story (that) I have ever read! - that used as the object

4. After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.: The first draft (that) we submitted was really horrible. -

that used as the object

5. If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE: This is a claim that has absolutely no reason in it. - that

used as the subject

3. Adjective 形容詞

An adjective is a word that modifies, or describes,

a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may precede nouns,

or they may appear after be verbs (am, are, is)

Examples: We live in the red brick house. She is tall for her age.

形容詞的作用 :

1. 在名詞前 作修飾 , 限定

Ex. She is a tall girl. I have a small dog.

2. 在動詞後 作主詞補語 Ex. She is tall. I am beautiful.

3. 在受詞後 作受詞補語 Ex. She made me angry . He made me happy.

Article冠詞

Articles include a, an, and the. They precede a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.

Examples: They wanted a house with a big porch. He bought the blue sweater on sale.

非人稱形容詞 “ 非人稱形容詞”不能用人當主詞 通常以虛主詞 it 當主詞

necessary, important, convenient, possible, impossible, natural, difficult, hard…

Ex. It is important for us to study English.

It is impossible for me to finish homework today.

It is hard to understand this question.

it is convenient for you to live close to the bus station.

有 a 形式的形容詞 只能作“敘述使用”

Ex. The girl is afraid..

She is an afraid girl. X

The fish is still alive.

She is awake

alike ( 相似的 ) , alive ( 活著的 ), afraid ( 害怕的 ), alone ( 單獨的 ), asleep ( 睡著的 ), awake ( 醒的 ), aware ( 知道的 ), ashamed ( 羞愧的 ) …

動詞可變成形容詞 :

1. 以現在分詞的形式 (+ ing)

Ex. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

2. 以過去分詞的形式 (+ ed 或不規則變化 )

Ex. I will accept a written apology.

4. Adverb 副詞Just as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify, or further describe, verbs. Adverbs may also modify adjectives.(Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly.)

Examples: He waved wildly to get her attention. (the adverb wildly modifies the verb waved) The shirt he wore to the party was extremely bright. (the adverb extremely modifies the adjective bright)

副詞的種類

1. 時間副詞2. 地方副詞 3. 頻率副詞4. 狀態副詞 5. 程度副詞

Ex. before, early, now

here, at the station

always, never, often

well, loudly, fast

very, much, too

動詞 狀態 地方 頻率 時間 目的

Ben swims

enthusias-tically

in the poolevery morning

before dawn

to keep in shape.

Dad walks

habitually to townevery afternoon

before supper

to get a newspaper

.

Jason sings

loudly in his roomevery morning

before lunch.

to prepare for acontest.

5. Verb 動詞

1. 依句型分類

2. 依功能分類

3. 依詞型變化分類Regular 規則動詞

Irregular 不規則動詞

Transitive 及物動詞

Intransitive 不及物動詞

Main verb 實義動詞

Auxiliary Verb 助動詞

A verb is a word that denotes action, or a state of

being, in a sentence.Examples: Tom rides the bus every day. Paul was a good leader.

There may be multiple verbs one a sentence, or there may be a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a helping verb. She turned the key and opened the door. Jackson was studying when I saw him last.

動詞的時式– “三時四式”

以時間分 : 以動作形式分 :

1. present 現在 2. past 過去 3. future 未來

1. simple 簡單

2. progressive 進行

3. perfect 完成

4. perfect progressive

完成進行

中文與英文時式比較

中文 - 沒有動詞的變化 英文 - 動詞變化表示時間及口氣

我正在看電視

我每天看電視

我昨天看電視

我明天要看電視

I am watching TV.

I watch TV every day.

I watched TV yesterday.

I will watch TV tomorrow.

About perfect tense完成式的觀念

動作“何時”發生 ?

過去完成式

(had+ P.P.)

現在完成式

(have/has+ P.P.)

未來完成式

(will have+ P.P.)

Ex. We had finished the experiment before you got here.

Ex. We have just finished my experiment.

Ex. We will have finished the experiment by Jan 5th.

General Guidelines for Use of Perfect TensesIn general the use of perfect tenses is determined

by their relationship to the tense of the primary

narration. If the primary narration is in simple past, then

action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in past perfect.

If the primary narration is in simple present, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in present perfect.

Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others—when used to relate two or more actions in time—can be good indicators of the need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence. By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the

audience had lost (past perfect) interest. After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main

course, we offer (present: habitual action) our guests dessert.

After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we will offer (future: specific one-time action) our guests dessert.

Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived (past perfect) at the feeder.

Practice: By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his

speech, the audience _______ (present perfect) interest.

By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his speech, the audience ___________ (future perfect) interest.

After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we ______ (past) our guests dessert.

Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds __________ (present perfect) at the feeder.

Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds ____________ (future perfect) at the feeder.

Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main

discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.

Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a historical figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over time).

Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work.

. Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the

use of will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.

Active Versus Passive Voice主動與被動

Active voice is used for most non-scientific writing. Using active voice for the majority of your sentences makes your meaning clear for readers, and keeps the sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy.

Even in scientific writing, too much use of passive voice can cloud the meaning of your sentences.

在科學文章中，盡量簡潔，而被動式字數較多，建議多採用主動式，不過 不會直接用 I 或 We ，例如：

 It was found that.... 改為 The authors found ..

6. Preposition 介係詞

Prepositions work in combination with a noun or pronoun to create phrases that modify verbs, nouns/pronouns, or adjectives. Prepositional phrases convey a spatial, temporal, or directional meaning.

1. Prepositions of Place and location 2. Prepositions of Time 3. Prepositions of Direction / Movement 4. Prepositions of Manner 5. Prepositions of Purpose 6. Prepositions of Materials 7. Prepositions of Similarity 8. Prepositions of Agent / Source 9. Prepositions of Comparison 10. Prepositions of Measurement

Prepositions of Place and location地方或位置的介詞 In On Over Under underneath Above Below By Beside Next to

In front of Around Between Among At Near Behind before

at

small location a specific place.

Number (for a building,house or apartment.)

He is waiting at the bus stop.He lives at a small village.He lives at No. 200, First

Avenue.She works at that restaurant.

onroad / street / highway

direction island / mountain

He lives on First Avenue.He lives on the north of

Taiwan.

in

city / state / country / region / state / continent

book / newspaper / magazine

He lives in Taipei.

The information is in the lower / upper corner of the page.

She’s in the middle of something.

at / on / in

Prepositions of Time

Specific time – between, by, from – to, till, within, at, on, in, before, after

General time – at, by, in, on

Length of time – at, during, since, through, for

at / on / in

at TimeAt 5 pm / At 11:40At midnight

At lunchtimeAt sunset

onSpecific day DaysHoliday

On FridayOn my birthday

On October 6th

On Christmas Day

inMonthYearCentury

In OctoberIn 2009In the 18th century

In the pastIn the 1980sIn the Middle Ages

Prepositions of Direction / Movement To From Up Down Along Into Out of through

Across Away from Towards Off Onto around

onto / on to / on

examples:Ann climbed onto the roof. He jumped onto the horse.The burglar climbed on to the roof.

on 既可表示位置 , 也可以表示方向Let’s sit on the grass.She fell on the floor.He jumped on the horse.

ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface

into / in to / in

With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable except when the preposition is the last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.

The patient went into the doctor's office. The patient went in. Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. Our new neighbors moved in yesterday. Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into? Now what sort of trouble is she in?

IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a volume

Prepositions of Manner With – please carry this box with care. In – the man shouted at the driver in anger. By – you have to learn your multiplication tables by heart.

Prepositions of Purpose for – The box is used for a project. So that – They work hard so that the project would be

ready in time. In order to – In order to become a champion, you have to

word hard. On – They went to New York on business.

Prepositions of Materials Of – The desk is make of wood. From – wine is made from grapes. In – can you answer it in English?

Prepositions of Similarity As – We use the water jug as a vase to put the flower in. Like – Your hands are cold like ice.

Prepositions of Agent / Source By –The concert was organized by Tom. From – They got the answer from the encyclopedia.

Prepositions of Comparison To – We won the game by 5 to 3.

I prefer oranges to apples With – He compared his camera with mine. By – He is taller than I by 2 inches.

Prepositions of Measurement Of – Can I have a glass of milk, please?

7. Conjunction 連接詞A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences,

together. Ex 1: Ellen wanted to take drive into the city, but the cost

of gasoline was too high.

Ex 2: Richard planned to study abroad in Japan, so he decided to learn the language.

Coordinating conjunctions 對等連接詞 (and, but, or, for, so)

Ex. 1(X): Enrichment may be particularly important when the number of organisms is small, for detection of asymptomatic carriers, or when specimens are delayed in transit.(O): Enrichment may be particularly important when the number of organisms is small, for detection of asymptomatic carriers, or for specimens delayed in transit.

Ex. 2 (X): These mice became dehydrated, lost weight, and four mice died.(O): These mice became dehydrated and lost weight, and four mice died.

Ex. 3 (X): The mixture was heated, shaken, centrifuged, and the supernatant fluid frozen.(O): The mixture was heated, shaken, and centrifuged, and the supernatant fluid was frozen.

Correlative conjunctions 相關連接詞 (both-and, either-or, neither-nor, not only-but, not only-also, whether-or, as-as)

Ex.1 (X): Increased turnover has been shown both in monkeys and humans.(O): Increased turnover has been shown in both monkeys and humans.       Increased turnover has been shown both in monkeys and in humans.

Ex. 2(X): The 110S structures were relatively labile either after centrifugation or various detergent treatments.(O): The 110S structures were relatively labile after either centrifugation or various detergent treatments.       The 110S structures were relatively labile either after centrifugation or after various detergent treatments.

Comparison (as, like, than, similar to, different from, compared with) Ex. 1(X): Suspensions prepared directly from growth on an agar surface give viable counts comparable to other methods used more routinely for anaerobe preparation.(O): Suspensions prepared directly from growth on an agar surface give viable counts comparable to those obtained by other methods used more routinely for anaerobe preparation.

Ex. 2(X): This mutant strain produces a protein similar to the wild-type E. coli.(O): This mutant strain produces a protein similar to one produced by the wild-type E. coli.

To be continued ~