Traumatic Stress in Photojournalism

By

Eric M. Reed

A culminating document submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Masters of Science in Photography

Brooks Institute

December 2008

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ABSTRACT

Traumatic Stress is well known in the medical community but little known or understood in the profession of the photojournalist. Questions are explored throughout the paper such as: What is Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome (PTSD)? What are its causes and symptoms? Is the news industry addressing this issue? And what are photojournalists doing to better understand this topic?

The author used articles dealing with the topic to further explore and review the subject including previous research. The author also conducted a survey to gauge the understanding of the topic within the professional photojournalism community. A series of questions is administered to better understand the feelings of the individuals who make up this category of people as well as the answers through the information provided.

Psychological effects from traumatic, job-related stress impact the photojournalist. How do photojournalists who are subject to persistent and various forms of regular ―and specifically domestic traumatic― stress cope with the problem? How can photojournalists better cope with the situation? What are photojournalists coping with? How does on-the-job stress relate to the photojournalist’s health and well-being?

These are little-understood and little-acknowledged questions in today’s workplace. These questions are the focus of this project. The purpose of this thesis is not to prove the existence of the medical aspects of traumatic stress or its effects, although such issues are addressed. Rather, the purpose is to consolidate, summarize, and bring some understanding to previous research through articles collected on the topic. This focus will remain localized to the specific subject of photojournalism in an effort to bring this issue into the consciousness of the photojournalist profession. Students who intend to enter the workforce are included in this group.

Because this topic has not been fully explored and presented to the profession, this thesis must be broadly comprehensive. The entire situation will be addressed; no one topic such as the in-depth characteristics of the illness or any development of a course of action will be overly defined or scrutinized.

Photojournalism presents a unique circumstance due to the fact that this type of journalist must be present to record the events. The work of the photojournalist cannot be substituted by phone or interview or other accounts of such events.

This subject and its related issues in direct correlation to the photojournalist are virtually nonexistent. Related work that lends itself to this field are studies of journalists writing about traumatic events and their immersion in war zones such as Iraq and major natural disasters like Hurricane Katrina. Other research available for consideration is psychological research on PTSD.

Interviews and a survey with working photojournalists provided some anecdotal and statistical evidence along with first-hand information on the direct human cost of stress on the photojournalist.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my deepest gratitude, first and foremost to my family whose time and

patience I have taken to complete this project. My original inspiration ― photojournalist, author, and educator David Labelle.

Without his book, Lessons in Death and Life, a light in the dark to examine this project may never have been lit.

Thanks to The Sun Newspaper and its writers and editors, Melissa Pinion-Whitt, Robert Rodgers, and Wesley G. Hughes for their time and input. A special thanks to visual journalist Al Cuizon for his video expertise and support.

To Brooks Institute School of Visual Journalism faculty and thesis advisors Greg A. Cooper and Paul Myers for their guidance and standards to achieve excellence.

And to friend, colleague, editor, and thesis advisor Rick Sforza for his thoughtful insight and willingness to create an environment where this work could happen.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements ................................................................ 2 Table of Contents ..................................................................... 3 List of Appendices ................................................................... 4 Chapters: I Introduction ................................................................. 5 II Body ........................................................................... 7 A) Building a Case of Understanding ............ 7 1. An Under-Addressed Problem ....... 7 2. The Eye Opener, Responding First.. 8 3. Exposure Over Time & the Job..... 10 4. Negative Perceptions ......................12 B) What Is Traumatic Stress? .........................13 1. Previous Research ......................13 2. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder...... 14 3. Questions to the Photojournalist .... 14 4. Memory .......................................... 16 5. Stigma .............................................17 C) Health & After Effects .............................. 17 1. Some Level of Symptoms .............. 18 2. Impact & Responses .......................19 3. Get Happy, Get Healthy .................21 4. Editors & Decisions ....................... 23 D) Educational Aspects of Traumatic Stress.. 24 1. Professional Education .................. 24 2. Student Stress ................................ 25 3. Flashback ....................................... 26 III Conclusion ................................................................. 28 References ..............................................................................30 Bibliography........................................................................... 33 Appendix A: Online Survey Questions and Summary of Answers.......................................................................35 Appendix B: Written Responses to Survey Questions........... 43 Appendix C: Supplemental Video Interview Participants .... 50 Appendix D: Expanded PTSD Symptom List ...................... 51 Appendix E: The Mind/Body Connection ............................ 53 Appendix F: Supplemental Video DVD (Cover pocket)

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Online Survey Questions and Summary of Answers Appendix B: Written Responses to Survey Questions Appendix C: Supplemental Video Interview Participants Appendix D: Expanded PTSD Symptom List Appendix E: The Mind/Body Connection Appendix F: Supplemental Video DVD

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Almost alone on a fog-enshrouded mountainside, the photographer’s shutter made a few awkward clicks. Only a couple of frames as two firefighters stood still, looking over the wreckage and remains of the single-engine airplane and two souls that had recently and violently plowed into the hillside. Then, silence. Only the sound of wind remained.

Scenes such as this are daily occurrences to professional photojournalists across the United States. This scene stuck in the photographer’s mind enough to prompt a dialogue with a superior about the thoughts, the scene, and what to do about it. The boss brushed it off, saying it did not need to be talked about and it was time to pick up the next assignment to shoot for the newspaper. This prompted the photographer’s life-long quest to understand, reconcile, heal, and continue to work in the face of countless such tragedies over an 18-year career. It also prompted this project.

Author, educator, and photojournalist Dave LaBelle exemplified this situation and his feelings of conflict on the matter in the pages of his book, Lessons in Death and Life:

She couldn’t speak English, but her eyes spoke to me all the same. “How can you do this to me?” she seemed to be saying. “How can you take pictures of me at a time like this?”

I continued to watch her through a viewfinder from 30 or 40 yards away, the rescue divers and the greenish-brown river behind me. Her expression revealed the inevitable as the divers surfaced with her little boy’s lifeless body. Almost instinctively, I pressed the motor-driven shutter and fired, again and again. It was my job.

But as I watched this woman’s pain, I asked myself: What kind of job is this that preys upon the grieving? I knew why the reporter and I were there: to cover the news, which we had every legal right to do. But I wondered whether we really had a moral right to publicize this woman’s personal agony. How did the additional pain cause by our presence balance with the public’s right to see and know the news? 1 The majority of photojournalists in the world cover daily news, not the scenes of

famine and war often found by photographers who seek out conflict around the globe. Daily news stories happen every day as a part of the news cycle, such as policy or human interest. Individuals gather images that will be seen in print, online, and through television media.

The topic of traumatic stress in photojournalism has been around since the profession’s beginning. According to MedicineNet.com, “shell shock,” “battle fatigue,” and other such terms have been used from WWI and WWII, respectively. The term “traumatic stress” was not known until more recent times. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) emerged during the 1970s Vietnam era.

Photographers place themselves into scenes of chaos because of the event’s potential importance for future generations. Historians would lack many aspects of detail

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surrounding the aftermath of the United States’ Civil War if it were not for Mathew Brady and his staff recording images that survive to this day. This is a concept that drives today’s photojournalist to record the images of importance.

Photographers as far back at the 1930s and 40s, such as famous crime photographer Arthur Fellig (known as Weegee) and Life magazine’s first female photographer, Margarete Burke-White, documented their physical and emotional reactions to what they witnessed. It is well understood that those who experience first-hand the act of war are forever changed. For those who participate in combat by recording its events up-close, the mental and emotional effects on the individual are well documented. The journalist who never sees the wrath of war but who spends an entire career seeing the effect of traumatic events unfold before his lens year after year may well experience the same mental and emotional effect over time. The Web pages of News University, which offers online journalism courses at NewsU.org, defines traumatic stress:

Traumatic stress... Is the pressure, force or strain on the human body from a specific event of major dimension that shocks, stuns and horrifies. The witnessing of and learning about traumatic stressors experienced by others can also be traumatizing… The intense emotional response to the stressor may not occur until considerable time has elapsed after the incident has terminated.2

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CHAPTER II

BODY

Building a Case of Understanding An Under-Addressed Problem

Unlike the photojournalists of the past, today’s news gatherers are aware that

what they witness in the course of their jobs affects them. They know these effects have been defined and acknowledge that many of their colleagues may need help. In a survey conducted for this thesis, 808 professional photojournalists responded to questions sent out to further the understanding of those conducting the business of newsgathering and their mindset regarding this topic. In answer to the question, “Do you feel traumatic stress is an under-addressed problem in the news industry?” almost 62% responded in the affirmative. These responses indicate that individual photojournalists understand that stress exists in their industry. However the industry, as a whole, is rudderless as to how to address the problem. In a study published in Visual Communication Quarterly (VisComQ) with past National Press Photographers Association (NPPA) President David Handsch, the paper explored aspects of how this topic was new to the news industry in respect to its seriousness.

While other professions acknowledged that PTSD may be a potential occupational hazard and developed prevention and intervention programs, the journalism profession has just begun to examine systematically the effects of covering trauma. Thus far, only two published studies have examined American journalists’ responses to potentially traumatic events. 3 Previous research makes anecdotal connections between trauma in respect to the

comparison and a war zone to trauma domestically, or major disasters to everyday news events. These connections have been briefly addressed in articles from professional journals like the NPPA’s Newsphotographer Magazine. No real or lasting changes have been implemented industry-wide. The fact is, trauma is complex and should not be examined only in those being shot at in war; it should also be examined in those affected at home. It should be watched, not as an every day peak, but as a slowly rising base line, a fever line that seems trivial at any one time relative to the next, but a rise in temperature that eventually reaches critical levels.

Another survey question asked, “Is there adequate understanding of traumatic stress in your workplace?” Again, 61% said “No.” To add extra weight to the uncertainty of understanding, an additional 25% responded that they “Did not know” how to answer that question. Therefore, a resounding 86% of those representing the photojournalism community at-large in the U.S. point to a need to further discuss this topic. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies online edition, Poynter Online at Poynter.org, is a standout resource for articles dealing with stress and the journalist. Poynter Online’s Bob Steel wrote:

“Journalists” face the same dangers first responders face, which is the exposure to trauma," says Dr. Martin Cohen a clinical psychologist in Tampa,

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Florida. [Who] works with emergency services... “Journalists are potential secondary victims because of the nature of their work,” Dr. Cohen says, and journalists can suffer from some form of post-traumatic stress syndrome after they cover a tragedy or crisis. “Recognize that to be exposed to tragedy is traumatic. Your heart is exposed even if you are looking through a lens,” Cohen says. 4

The Eye-Opener, Responding First

Photojournalists are photographers who record the events of a community in both local and global arenas. They use the camera as the tool of communicating important information to people around the world and in their backyards. This information can be enlightening, entertaining, informative, and sometimes moving. This information in the form of images could not be presented to any audience if someone with the right tools had not been present. Being present at such events often poses a hazard to the news gatherer. Often photojournalists encounter events that can put their health at risk. One such risk is traumatic stress.

Traumatic stress has been approached and addressed in many occupations. These occupations or careers, such as the military, firefighting, and law enforcement, recognize that this stress can have physical, mental, and emotional effects on people. Columns Magazine writer Larry Zalin delved into the subject of stress on the press with these words:

The eye opener was in realizing how vulnerable reporters are... Journalists carry around a lot of emotional baggage, some of it going back decades and decades after being out in the field covering car crashes, fires and suicides... Reporters’ symptoms of traumatic stress are remarkably similar to those of police officers and firefighters who work in the immediate aftermath of tragedy, yet reporters typically receive little support after they file their stories. While public-safety workers are offered debriefings and counseling after a trauma, reporters are simply assigned another story. 5 For many years, professional organizations in the field of photojournalism have

identified concerns about the effects of traumatic stress on those working in the field. NPPA has published many articles in its trade journal, Newsphotographer, about such concerns. Many of these articles address the issues superficially, only affirming the existence of stress and its causes, but nothing more.

Issues of coping with traumatic stress in the newsroom have never been fully realized in any published form and distributed or made available to the general workforce, which needs the information. Although many who work in the field feel they recognize the symptoms and signs of traumatic stress on themselves, the majority see a need for their colleagues to seek help. There are very few professional newsgathering environments in which employers provide help for or recognize this issue. Information about or suggestions on treatments for the health risks of this job-related stress must be addressed industry-wide.

In the past, some news organizations have recognized the effects of stress from horrific situations that employees have witnessed, and reacted to it. Such events are exemplified in the aftermath of the Columbine School shooting in Colorado and the

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Oklahoma City bombing where local papers and T.V. stations saw the need for counselors to be present. Follow up, regular or ongoing treatments such as counseling and/or physical stress relief are not provided beyond such major events. Again, Poynter’s Bob Steel has quoted his source Dr. Cohen extensively on the effects of stress on first responders:

There is no question that such events cause traumatic stress on those often called “first responders.” A photojournalist can be considered first responders because of the immediacy of their arrival on scene of such chaos and tragedy and remaining for a prolonged periods of time to gather content or record the news.

Dr. Cohen says journalists are vulnerable to the same types of traumatic stress given the nature of their work... Suggesting it is best for journalists who have covered a tragedy to share their trauma with others. There is a “window of opportunity between 24 and 72 hours after exposure” to do some kind of de-briefing. It is during that critical time.6 There is a critical time, post-trauma, to seek help or deal with the potential

symptoms within the first three days following such incidents. The person involved and those around them such as newsroom editors or peers have this time to talk over and work through some issues before the person affected can show alternative signs of dealing with the problem through secondary symptoms such as drinking or emotional problems.

War or conflicts around the world are also not questioned as to their impact on those who witness them. They are well known to cause physical damage as well as wreak havoc on the psyche. Today, emergency and military personnel are offered a battery of help at the onset of traumatic-stress–causing events. The Red Cross regularly supplies counselors to the victims and professionals affected by these events. Journalists may also access these services, provided they are given the time respite from a big news story to do so. Writer Ron Steinman elaborates in the online journal, The Digital Journalist:

Management in those days ran from the truth of mental breakdowns. There is growing anecdotal evidence that media bosses now know, or think they do, when to pull someone from a powerful ongoing story. Numbers of news organizations are taking into consideration the potential trauma related to covering a story as extreme and terrible as Hurricane Katrina, stories that in some ways seem to be endless. This should now be standard operating procedure for every news organization. 7

These types of major news events stand out in the public’s mind as examples of horrific times; they also can cause symptoms of acute Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) even to the viewing public. Just the act of remotely witnessing an event through a medium such as television may heighten the anxiety of those watching. Dr. Stuart Fischoff, who specializes in media psychology at Cal State (Los

Angeles) and consults with the television and film industries, believes that “exposure to upsetting TV stimuli has more powerful effects on people predisposed to certain reactions, or to people who already have weakened defense systems.” 8

The members of the media do not necessarily have the options, like the public, to simply turn off the television and take a break. In these stress-full situations is when their

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bosses expect them to perform and would be endangering their employment if they did want out.

Exposure Over Time and the Job

Another less acute way of acquiring such a disorder is exposure over time. Trauma can build with continual exposure so that it is less high profile, but no less of a stressful event in people’s lives (e.g., interviewing a grieving family). The family’s sorrow, while re-telling an event, can stick with the interviewer and be absorbed as his or her own experience. This absorption compounds the so-called additional risk that Dr. Hutchinson previously spoke of.

One major aspect of traumatic stress in photojournalism is the issue of this long-term stress and often lower levels of this stress. On an almost daily basis, photojournalists are exposed to events that can be considered traumatic. These events are horrific to the individuals involved, but in comparison to the events of September 11, 2001, the Columbine massacre, the Oklahoma City bombing, or Hurricane Katrina, they do not have the same impact on people’s minds as these memorable news events. Photojournalists are just doing their jobs; they can leave at any time. In this sense, photojournalists are comparable to any first responder. The initial impact of what they are getting into or the idea they may even look forward to it is irrelevant. Over time, they feel the effects. Veteran photojournalist Shelly Katz of Dallas, Texas (NPPA member since 1965) expressed an added twist to the stress felt.

The more significant part of the press photographer is not just seeing what they see but that they have to return with pictures… The pressure and stress of being forced to perform in these horrific situations to keep their job adds a tremendous stress… Its on deadline, you need to perform and bring back the best pictures or the editors will get someone who will. That is the pressure that I think makes traumatic stress worse. 9 The point Katz makes about job stress pushing the journalist to keep at it and how

it can add to the traumatic stress is a theme often repeated by working photographers. Often, limited time off and low pay at most medium or small daily newspapers

along with a looming pressure of being “always on,” or on-call, produces an omnipresent pressure to perform. Depending on one’s work environment, the performance factor to keep one’s job can place an added undertone of pressure. With limited funds and limited vacation time, one’s ability to decompress and get away is diminished and a sustained stress is applied.

The future of one’s job and the uncertainty of the current newspaper market leads one to question why this is an acceptable form of employment. The business of the newspaper industry is uncertain, with massive layoffs of the workforce in 2008 and the preceding years layering fear about the future of the job market. Why then would so many feel compelled to continue to endure? Perhaps a sense of service to humanity? Duty? Making a difference?

Another example of stress to perform at a major media outlet was given by Los Angeles Times photographer Kirk McCoy in a presentation given about covering the Los

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Angeles Rodney King riots in the summer of 1992. McCoy explained to a NPPA Flying Short Course symposium’s audience in Orange County, California, shortly after the incident, how he felt about covering such an event. He told the editors at the paper what type of pictures he had made so far:

“Can I come in now?” And they said “Great, great we will send someone to come and pick up the film.” “What about me?” I’d seen enough it was time for me to go in and process film, hide, duck and cover. … They picked me up and dropped me off three blocks later and said to go and shoot some more pictures. In response to questions regarding his emotional state afterwards McCoy said: I didn’t have to wait till the end of the week, I was a nervous wreck, ask my wife… I told her after the first day to go to Santa Monica, stay someplace else… I didn’t want her to see me like that, (nervous) and thinking to go back out (and work). …I was a nervous wreck, drained, as were other photographers. Everybody dealt with it the best they could. 10 McCoy elaborated that going back to the scene later to see the burned-out

neighborhood helped him deal with his feelings. Seeing the location again after traumatic events can help heal and reconcile the photojournalist’s feelings by replacing some images of chaos with a scene of the “event” being over and what the area looked like after the event.

Photojournalists, like any professional, have a sense of service to their community embedded into the ideal of the job. What they may have thought they were getting into may turn out to be a different reality. That is not to say that the photographers will regret their involvement over time like a soldier returning from a conflict. They have their reasons. They can feel a sense of accomplishment and duty, which is a necessary part of today’s society to inform the public. For now, many know that once someone heads down that road, it becomes more difficult to change paths over time. Skills are developed, habits formed, and lives entrenched.

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Negative Perceptions One criticism of the media comes from its public perception as vultures, preying

on victims of tragedy for the story. This is an understandable view if “the media” is taken as a whole. One must not forget that individuals make up “the media” and those individuals are responsible for their actions. As Katz expanded his frustration about the team behind newsgathering and the job, he expanded on its award-winning mentality.

Awards can be used to bolster resumes, validating one’s position to his or her superiors and proving one’s mettle in the field. The egoist aspect of awards can feed the public’s negative perceptions of the media stereotype of hunting down the story for profit. Many in the profession have abandoned the idea of seeking merit through recognition in contests because of what it says about journalists and why they pursue these stories. Katz tells a story about how he, as do many others, ceases to take joy in that aspect of journalism.

My friend Eddie Adams and I were eating at an Italian restaurant in The Village (of New York) when a kid came up to us and stated he was a fan of Adams and wanted to hear more about his picture of the guy getting shot (Pulitzer Prize winning image of a North Vietnamese man being executed in the streets of Saigon). Eddie got really upset and told the kid to get lost because he did not want to be reminded of that time while he was eating his dinner. He, Adams, threw down his fork and said, “Lets get the f--- out of here.” In true Eddie Adams fashion, that was Eddie. Later a friend of mine said he wanted me to go to France with him because my images of the volcanic eruption in Armero, Columbia were going to win the World Press competition. My friend was a judge and was convinced I was to win. I immediately told him to withdraw my pictures. I never entered a competition ever again because I didn’t want to remember those situations, I didn’t want what happened to Eddie to happen to me. I don’t want to remember the feelings I had as the Branch Davidian Complex in Waco, Texas (April 1993) burned to the ground and we all were asking each other, “Where were the kids? Do you see the children? Which way are they coming out?” Of course they didn’t. I didn’t burn out, I burned up from what I have observed over half a century. 11 The concept of recognition in any field of work begs the question of right and

wrong. Is it wrong for others to recognize the photographer’s work as good or important? Professional colleagues can recognize talent and people often receive accolades for hard work in any profession. Images of tragedy can be singled out as exemplary simply due to the fact that it is not an easy thing to capture that type of situation well in a story-telling way. Often, a lack of awards can thwart the image maker’s future opportunities to tell those stories to a larger audience when employers are looking for such items in a resume.

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WHAT IS TRAUMATIC STRESS?

Previous Research

Countless studies have focused on defining Traumatic Stress and identifying its

triggers along with the symptoms and effects on the human body. A web search engine yielded 22 million results based on the terms “stress” and “study.” Many of these studies involve subjects in civilian life such as victims of abuse, crime, violence, and tragedy. Medical community research has been published for many years on these subjects through medical journals, chiefly The American Journal of Psychiatry in coordination with the American Psychiatric Association. Many other institutions such as universities and hospitals have lent their expertise to the medical health database. One other institution that has extensively studied its members is the United States military, one of the first organizations to see the effects of trauma on its personnel and the diminished performance of its soldiers in uniform due to trauma and stress. All branches of the armed forces have studied stress on its members but the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’ National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder has also encompassed journalism in its studies. One such study points out these same ideas as major civilian outlets by dealing with topics such as “The Effects of Media Coverage of Terrorists Attacks on Viewers” and the following quote from “PTSD in Journalists.”

…the data revealed that the greater the number of assignments to photograph traumatic events, the greater the level of distress reported by the journalist. Yet the literature also indicates that few employers of photojournalists recognize the stress and negative impact on mental health that is associated with some assignments. Even fewer employers offer counseling services and education about PTSD symptoms. 12 Many of these studies where the journalists are exposed to human suffering

indicate increased levels of emotional trauma and its effects. They also show a lack of employer involvement in the well-being of their employee after such events occur.

The major civilian outlet for study and education on the topic of traumatic stress and journalism is the DART Center for Journalism and Trauma at the University of Washington at Seattle. One of three other organizations that keeps these and other studies in the professional eye are Newsphotographer, Visual Communication Quarterly, and the NPPA’s book and audio/visual libraries. The NPPA also provides online discussion forums, along with a Critical Incident Response Team (CIRT) program.

Other organizations that have focused on this issue include The Poynter Institute for Media Studies in St. Petersburg, Florida (on the web at www.Poynter.Org), which regularly publishes online articles dealing with the topic in relevant ways with subjects tied to current news events and the journalists who cover them. The News University also offers an online course in “Journalism and Trauma” along with many other relevant courses on the web at www.NewsU.org.

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, traumatic stress, and Acute Stress Disorder are the end result of symptoms caused by exposure to both specific, “intense” events affecting the lives of those who witness it, and the symptoms displaying themselves over time from continuous exposure to countless smaller events in the same manner, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a primary reference for mental health professionals. The former is tied to a single event where the psychological trauma and its symptoms are related to such events. The latter is more difficult to pinpoint because no one event is singled out as a cause. It becomes associated with types of events; the possibility of exposing oneself to any such class of event may inflict further harm. Avoiding assignments that may even remind the journalist about such events can become commonplace.

Questions to the Photojournalists

In the survey conducted for this paper over 800 professional photojournalists

responded to an e-mailed survey of questions regarding traumatic stress and their feelings toward their job. For full survey, see Appendix A. When asked if they “ …mentally dread or avoid assignments that may contain any traumatic stress,” over 35% of respondents indicated they did. That is a significant number given the survey covered an array of people who had different years of experience. However, over 70% of those surveyed said they had at least 10 years of on-the-job experience. In the Visual Communication Quarterly article the survey revealed the following:

Eighty six percent of the journalists and photojournalists responding…cover traumatic events, especially automobile accidents, fires and murder. In addition, 79 percent reported experiencing common life stressors within the last few months, including, family illness, financial problems, deaths and relationship change. …Nearly all respondents reported being at the scene of at least one event in which people were hurt or killed…. Automobile accidents were…the most stressful assignments…13 The survey conducted for this thesis was used to bolster the information

approached throughout this topic by addressing questions and answers that were otherwise not directly obtainable by any previously published material. Many aspects of the climate of traumatic stress in the professional life of a photojournalist were reflected in the respondents’ answers.

Although the survey was only one part of the overall project, it seems to have taken on a life of its own. The questions struck a nerve in the photojournalism community and the information provided reflected a need for photojournalists to discuss this subject, along with a frustration of their situation regarding their health. Here are a few statements among the 387 written and anonymous responses to the question: “How has your attitude toward traumatic events in the news business changed? What effect has it had on your outlook of the profession?” For more responses, see Appendix B.

I feel we have been somewhat desensitized due to the constant flow of graphic images of pain and suffering, both locally with shootings, fires, crashes

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and with the minute to minute coverage of world conflicts. I am far more compassionate towards the victims and am far more careful to make sure my photos count rather than blasting away. I don’t fear showing their pain or invading their private moment, but I make an effort to do no harm, if possible. I am also much more direct and honest with my subjects as they pass through those horrible life experiences.14

The adrenaline rush I once received from covering major events such as

hurricanes now turns towards dread and mental exhaustion. I have also become more sensitive to the people affected in the areas of tragedy I have had to cover. Where as a younger photojournalist I was more edgy and aggressive in capturing raw emotions, now I feel the emotions. 15

My attitude has become more mature. I understand that our profession is

unique in the fact that we come into emotional situations without an emotional responsibility per se. I have learned on my own how to accept my role, and to how to be more understanding of my subjects. I remind myself that the events I cover are HUMAN events not simply NEWS events. As I have loved and lost in my own life, I have experienced many of the emotions my subjects may be feeling on a shoot. Keeping this in mind helps me to remain engaged and thus compassionate in my photography, rather than being detached and merely a voyeur. I feel the profession, at least my paper, cares more about making deadline than about caring for a photographer or reporter who may have been affected by traumatic stress on the job. I feel it might even care less about these matters in regards to the subjects. Ultimately, I feel the news gatherers care, as we are the ones in the trenches. The management team often plays the role of the General in the back of the line, keeping the war moving. 16 It was very encouraging to see that almost half of the respondents were veteran

photojournalists with more than 16 years on the job. This fact lent more weight and validity to their opinions.

Over three quarters of respondents said they had never photographed any major conflicts abroad. This statistic underscores the point that photojournalists are affected by long-term traumatic stress, as are people exposed to war.

An expected response to traumatic stress as an “under addressed” problem in the news industry was affirmed but only in mild numbers (60%). The vast majority recognized they have been affected by traumatic stress, but currently do not feel the immediate need for treatment. Like the author’s survey, questions in the Visual Communication Quarterly survey were focused on the photojournalist:

…Their work is quite different from that of reporters who write or narrate their accounts of events. We wanted to understand the experiences that are unique to the work of photographers. In particular, they may need to be closer to danger, death and destruction to take their pictures and may be more likely to be assaulted while on duty. Often they may arrive before rescue personnel, placing them in ethical quandaries about whether to intervene or to document the situation. The craft of capturing the scene… may command all the photographer’s concentrated

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attention. …They may not fully comprehend what is taking place. 17

The role of photojournalists is unique in the news business because they—on any given traumatic assignment—can be exposed to the events as long as other first responders. Emergency personnel usually arrive first and the photographer is not far behind. It is also quite possible that the photographer is subjected to repeat visits to victims and/or their families who were involved in the incident. Also, they may revisit the story in other ways. Photojournalists do not just take one image and leave. The photographer most likely will create dozens, if not hundreds, of images of some scenes to present the right story-telling image, and up to several thousand images on larger stories. The photographer then likely will edit through, work on, caption, and print many of the images, further rehashing the subject and enhancing the details in his/her mind. Photographers, by nature, are highly visual people implying that the images created in the camera as well as watching will stick in their minds more than most other people.

Memory

Journalists, like police officers or EMTs, tend to develop a mental history of the place they work, remembering what happened in specific locations. If they work in the area they live in, the effect is enhanced by frequent exposure to the memories of the area. Here one is reminded of traumatic events just by driving across town. There may be no particular event that triggers the memories except viewing the location by passing it in a car. The public does not have a concept of this because they do not see the volume of tragedy in a concentrated area. When the average motorist passes a cross on the side of the road, they give it little thought. Journalists, however, recall the sights, sounds, and smells of that intersection in passing years later. They remember the day they visited that intersection with a camera. As one anonymous respondent recounted, a “traumatic map” of their coverage area is created.

I am less enthusiastic about my job. I find myself feeling sad when I see the location of where someone I photographed died and I always remember what happened every time I pass that location, i.e. I hate driving up a certain canyon because I count the dead people I have photographed along the way. There are a total of six. When I stop being a photojournalist I think I would like to move to a place where I don’t know the history of the town. 18

The waves of emotion created on the job can make it difficult to interpret where the feelings are coming from. There are the initial reactions to adrenaline and the situation at hand, then the deadline pressures and office atmosphere of a job well done. Stories are told. Eventually the letting go of the first phase can turn into a letdown as Labelle elaborates in his account of a spot news assignment:

You don’t realize what you are in for until it’s all over, because you are doing a professional job. You are taking pictures, you are working angles, you are trying to get close, and you are trying to get people. And until it (the McDonald’s

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shooting) was over, it didn’t affect me at all. …For a year, I couldn’t go into a McDonald’s. 19

Stigma

The stigma of mental health problems in the workplace was prevalent in the past with the “tough it out” or “suck it up and move on” atmosphere. However, it was disheartening to learn that a large number of colleagues in the photojournalism community feel that the stigma still exists and is a factor in their decisions for treatment. In response to the survey one person lamented in their own words:

Since 9/11, many people are willing to talk about it. But for years, those who suffered from PTSD were either isolated for admitting their problems or labeled “nuts” or “unreliable.” It’s about time people started realizing when you see bodies, in Iraq or at a car crash for spot news or even sick people in refugee camps, that you will feel emotions you need to deal with one way or another. ...people bottle it, try to drink it away or just deny it. I’ve seen way too many photographers who need help but no one knows how to deal with it because it could be professional suicide to admit it. We need to wise up or we’ll have a lot more burn-outs before long. 20 When asked in the author’s survey if the respondents felt there may be any stigma

attached to mental health in their workplace it was an even split between yes and no. An additional 22% replied “I don’t know.” And when pressed further on the subject, asking if that stigma was a factor in their seeking treatment, nearly 19% said that it was.

Take that culture of bravado, for instance. It is a sign of strength, not weakness, to say you cannot take on every assignment, that you must conserve some energy and maintain some balance, says stress specialist David Welsh. “It means you’re self-aware, realistic, and responsible with your own resources,” he says. And burnout, once recognized, can be a healthy thing, adds Marti Chaney, a career consultant in Portland, Oregon, who has counseled dozens of journalists. “People are so afraid of it. But it means you’ve grown, you’ve changed, and it’s time to reevaluate.” 21

More than 800 photojournalists took the time to complete the survey for this project. Many of them thought enough of this subject to provide nearly 700 additional responses in writing, which provided a valuable resource for this research. See Appendix B.

Health and After Effects Psychological effects impact the photojournalist from traumatic, job-related

stress. There are many questions addressing what must be looked at for the health and welfare of the journalist. For example, how do photojournalists who are exposed to persistent and various forms of regular, and specifically domestic traumatic stress cope with the problem? How can photojournalists better cope with the situation? What is it that photojournalists are coping with? How does on-the-job stress relate to the health and well being of the photojournalist? These are little-understood and little-acknowledged questions in today’s workplace. The VisComQ article points back to the stoicism and its adverse effects.

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Increasingly, journalists and photojournalists are revealing the adverse effects of their work places in their physical, emotional and family life, especially when covering violent events.

Testimonials about these effects are particularly noteworthy, given that the newsroom culture of stoicism, objectivity and the “need to get the job done” may prevent news personnel from acknowledging distress related to job-related exposure to traumatic events. Despite these barriers to disclosure, some news workers are describing long-standing symptoms of fear, numbing, guilt, nightmares, substance abuse, sleep difficulties, intrusive recollections, irritability, mistrust of others, isolation, avoidance of trauma-related reminders, hyper-vigilance and exaggerated startle responses to gruesome or harrowing assignments. 22

Photojournalism presents a unique circumstance because this type of journalist must be present to record the events and cannot be substituted by phone or interview or other such accounts of events. Stress and its related issues in direct correlation to the photojournalist are virtually nonexistent. Related work that lends itself to this field are studies of journalists writing about traumatic events and their immersion in war zones such as Iraq and major natural disasters like Hurricane Katrina.

Some Level of Symptoms

A set of PTSD symptoms involves persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with

the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness. These symptoms involve avoiding reminders of the trauma. These reminders can be internal cues, such as thoughts or feelings about the trauma, and/or external stimuli in the environment that spark unpleasant memories and feelings.

To this limited extent, PTSD is not unlike a phobia, where the individual goes to considerable length to avoid stimuli that provoke emotional distress.23

Many participants in the career of photojournalism can relate to those words from News U and understand some level of these symptoms. As indicated throughout the author’s survey, these journalists are exhibiting signs that PTSD is already a part of their lives. Although many participants also indicated they are not seeking professional treatment, the lack of a psychologist’s diagnosis is only a formality. When asked if they would “take advantage of formal counseling services if available,” nearly 50% said they would and another 35% indicated they “did not know.” Write-in comments expressed such views as:

When war vets tell you that you are displaying symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, it tends to concern you. But I figure going to fatal accidents or even bloody accidents or fires with injuries is part of the job. This has always been a given, so no change there. Just would be nice to have a little training in how to handle stress besides breathing deeply. 24 This further demonstrates that these professionals do not necessarily understand

the depth or impact the job may have on their health as this photographer said.

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I sometimes feel like a vulture on the scene of an accident, standoff or

fire. I have learned to deal with the stress after the scene is over as it is usually dangerous to deal with on the scene. I know other photographers who cope with the situation via depressants such as alcohol. This is the first reference I have come across regarding Traumatic stress on the job.25

Impact and Responses The recognition of exposure to these events by colleagues and supervisors

through an annual sensitivity training would be a dramatic first step in recognizing the problem. The work of Dr. Lee Burk, Associate Professor and Associate Director of Research Laboratories in the School of Allied Health Professionals at Loma Linda University, claims the connections between stress and physiology are real. The presence of stress or stressors in one’s life or work has direct physical or physiological responses inside the body. Conversely the presence of anti-stressors such as joy or happiness has a direct opposite effect on the body. Photographers, like other people, must take breaks. Some rely on prayer or the spirit to help get them through those feelings.

The human body is equipped with a physiological response to stress often referred to as a “fight-or-flight” mechanism. This mechanism is triggered by specific events where stress is induced such as the spot news assignment. According to Dr. Burk, this fight or flight response on the body triggers a very complex series of events to help the body cope with the situation. In the past, this would help the person survive a potentially dangerous situation. In today’s stress-filled environments these responses are triggered on an almost constant basis. The body is not equipped to deal with this constant flow of chemistry designed normally for very short periods of time. The results are long-term health effects on the mind and body. Dr. Steven Palmer of the Centre for Stress Management in London, England provides a more detailed, technical explanation of the long-term response to stress:

When people perceive that they are in threatening situations that they are unable to cope with, then messages are carried along neurons from the cerebral cortex (where the thought processes occur) and the limbic system to the Hypothalamus. The prolonged effect of the stress response is that the body’s immune system is lowered and blood pressure is raised which may lead to essential hypertension and headaches. The adrenal gland may malfunction which can result in tiredness with the muscles feeling weak; digestive difficulties with a craving for sweet, starchy food; dizziness; and disturbances of sleep.27

The responses to stress are numerous; every person does not experience these

responses at all times. This information can be used as a sounding board for symptoms one is currently feeling or concepts to look for in the future. Just knowing and understanding the possibilities of the effects on the body is a major factor in the health of the individual. The American Psychological Association published a section on stress and health called “The Mind/Body Connection.”

Suffering traumatic stress can affect your emotions as well as your body and the two are so connected that it can be hard to tell the difference. For instance,

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traumatic stress can cause you to lose concentration, forget things, or have trouble sleeping.Traumatic stress also can lead you to eat in unhealthy ways or to eat foods that are not healthy, and those eating patterns can affect how you sleep or how your stomach feels. Stress can cause headaches, but the pain from the headaches can also make your stress worsen. 29 For more of this article including topics called “Coping with Traumatic Stress and

When Should I Seek Professional Help?” see Appendix E. Also see Appendix D the Expanded PTSD Symptom List called “Responses to Stress.” Photographers must keep a perspective on their lives; their friends or loved ones must help them keep that perspective.

Photojournalist Leif Skoogfors talked of his experiences in The Digital Journalist: Fortunately, I had attended a workshop on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

run by The Dart Center at NPPA’s 2001 convention. I recognized the symptoms. I called Frank Ochberg a psychiatrist who organized the workshop and his

contacts helped in finding the best therapy. Without that help I don’t believe I would have worked again. Photographers are used to working alone. We seldom have the support the public expects for first responders or our military. It is time we recognize our vulnerability both to help our fellow journalists and ourselves.30.

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Get Happy, Get Healthy

It has been documented by Dr. Berk and articles in Time Magazine that there is

hope on the other end of the stress rope. Many short-term and long-term lifestyle changes can severely impact the negative effects of stress on the body. Like the detrimental symptoms of stress that take their toll on the physical systems of the human body, the opposite is true for the positive and reversing effects of healthy choices on the body. One can see improvements in health by applying simple things such as diet, exercise, attitude adjustments, and creating a more positive environment with laughter.

Dr. Berk points out that how one controls their environment can also lead to positive effects on one’s health. By using joy as a tool to complement a healthy lifestyle the effects of stress can be reduced.

When choosing between a jog in the park and that funny movie you’ve been wanting to see, don’t feel guilty about choosing the comedy. The relative health benefits of the movie and the workout are more similar than you’d think.

Laughter is good for you. That’s the message from Lee S. Berk, and associate professor at the Loma Linda University schools of Public Health and Medicine.

Laughter affects the mind and the body. It makes you feel good – and makes you healthier – at the same time, Berk says.

‘We discovered there is a direct connection from the brain (nervous system) to the immune system,’ he said. ‘It was mind-boggling.’

…Berk did a study looking at the stress hormones epinephrine, or adrenaline, and cortisol. He found that laughter decreased the amount of each in test subject’s bodies. And ‘feel good’ chemicals like serotonin stayed in the brain longer when a subject laughed.

The more he studied laughter, the more health benefits emerged – in the brain and the body.

In the mid 1990’s, Berk found laughter increased the number of natural killer cells in cancer patients; natural killer cells are the body’s way of fighting tumors. ‘We need to realize the benefits of lifestyle change.’

To combat stress, Berk advises taking ‘mini vacations… It helps (them) cope with the psychophysiology of stress… It breaks the cycle of what stress does to us… It’s the biology of hope.” 31 To further enhance the data behind thinking positively and taking Dr. Burk’s

advice to create mini-vacations, these excursions do not need to be trips to the Bahamas. Rather, they can be weekend events or outings to look forward to, even setting goals to accomplish has the effect of getting one’s mind out of the rat race long enough to help break the cycle of negative physiology.

Another professor conducted research on the body’s response to positive stimuli. University of Wisconsin professor Richard Davidson further points out in a Time Magazine special edition on health that there is a biological component to joy.

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That... positive emotions and happiness make your immune system function better... happiness isn’t just a vague, ineffable feeling; it’s a physical state of the brain—one that you can induce deliberately.

As researchers have gained an understanding of the physical characteristics of a happy brain, they have come to see that those traits have a powerful influence on the rest of the body. 32

These studies further exemplify facts in the advances of medical science related to the mind/body connection. The reaches of positive thinking, wellness and happiness have been shown to connect directly to the quality of live and longevity.

Dealing with a cost and accessibility issue of counseling (i.e., marital issues or substance abuse that can be symptoms of PTSD) can be a problem for those who feel they cannot afford such treatment. Some services may not have the resources to deal directly with the causes or specialize in PTSD and traumatic stress. Often professional services such as an Employee Assistance Program will have counseling available for free on a per-issue basis, but most likely not have people who specialize in this problem and may cost more over a longer time period. Although this may be the case, counseling is still a valuable tool and is not to be dismissed lightly. Another one of the photojournalists recounts their thoughts for the survey.

Personally, I’ve come to dread those same tones on the scanner that used to be part of the excitement of this profession for my colleagues and myself. Professionally, it seems that little has changed over the years in the attitudes of upper management toward affected journalists. Many workplaces now offer EAPs -- employee assistance programs -- that provide counseling, From what I’ve heard, though, most of the counselors in these programs are trained more in the fields of interpersonal relations and depression counseling, rather than in trauma counseling. From my experiences, it seems that most papers/TV stations still expect photojournalists and reporters to deal with the aftermath of traumatic stories on their own, as long as it doesn’t affect their output. One of my greatest concerns is the influx of women into the photojournalism profession -- from previous studies, it appears that women are more susceptible to work-related PTSD. On the other hand, women seem to be more amenable to seeking mental health treatment from my experience. One thing you might want to look into is the effectiveness EMDR in treating PTSD. Several photojournalists I know have utilized this treatment method, with considerable success.33

EMDR, or “Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing” is a technique which utilizes a characteristic motion of the eyes in conjunction with therapeutic guidance to bring about emotional healing at an accelerated rate. 34

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Editors and Decisions

Management does not typically consider the need to assess the situation in regards to the news value and the necessity of gathering images while weighing these decisions against the harm to both subjects and staff. Decisions regarding exposure to harm often are difficult at the onset of a breaking news story. The critical step is the pursuit of the story in the coming days and weeks where the toll may become more prevalent on those involved. The process in decision-making involving news coverage such as how to approach the story and how hard to push the staff may be discussed ahead of time. Editors may reach an agreement on a series of limits in a situation, where a line may be established. The story’s news value can also be weighed against the human risks of covering a story. The further harm to citizens directly involved and the readership’s tolerance or patience may need to be considered as well. According to the photographers quoted below, a deeper look at content and judgment is sorely needed.

Prior to working as a photojournalist, I never really felt the “emotions” of so many people seen on T.V. I often meet them on their worst day.... that can be really depressing. On a positive note, I now truly appreciate good days and having a somewhat “routine” life. Discussing our industry in general, I have grown tired of tragic news on such a regular basis. We often select stories based upon their tragic content instead of their newsworthy information. I choose to remain positive in my outlook for this profession. That said, it would be difficult to remain positive if news outlets continue to focus on crime, death, and destruction. There are so many positive and important stories to tell. Let’s start telling more. 35

It seems like one of those things we all do. Go to a fire, or a car accident,

or shooting, etc., make our pictures and move on to the next assignment. We have to. It’s the curse of the immediacy of our profession. All I know is I hate it. I do it because of the few times I’ve been able to experience personally how the pictures have made a difference.36

In a journalism class study, it was demonstrated that if one counted the number of

positive (or at least neutral) versus negative published stories, the former far outnumber the latter overall.37 According to an article in The Canadian Medical Association Journal, it is human nature that people remember the bad news—the tragic story—because it will stand out in one’s mind. That is why it is considered news. 38

One also may feel less obligated or even eager to pursue stories that may have a high emotional impact on both the photographer and the viewer when he or she feels that the business or management side of the outlet is not invested in that employee.

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Educational Aspects of Traumatic Stress

Professional Education

“…Most importantly, we must focus on education… We should teach the systematic practice of empathy, and the desire to serve others. We need a proper curriculum from the beginning of school life to the end, including detailed study of role models. We should re-dedicate our society to the pursuit of happiness rather than the goal of dynamic efficiency. We need to take happiness seriously.” Richard Layard, “Happyness,” Time Magazine39

When asked in the author’s survey about the work environment in regard to stress management over 60% of photojournalists who responded said they did not know if there was a support system to deal with these issues. A similar number indicated that if they knew there was something in place they did not know how to access it. One photographer elaborated:

I have become less reactive to what I see but I am still very empathetic toward victims. I refuse to become too distant from humanity in boy joy and sorrow. I do think that newsrooms vastly under address this issue. Just providing a phone number to call (i.e. EAP) is not the same as having proactive people approach staffers who have seen traumatic events. Trauma often shuts us down. We need someone to gently say “tell me about it.” But the hardest part of sharing is when someone begins to share and the description is too much for the listener. Whoever performs this service must do so knowing that they cannot back away. 40

In addressing the foundation of traumatic stress and the vehicles in which to approach it, the photojournalists in today’s workplace show a lack of knowledge and support in finding those tools. If one is compelled to find the answers, the answers are there. Those tools can be found, but the results are varied and elusive. More than 66%, for example, have never heard of the NPPA’s Critical Incident Response Team (CIRT). This is a team of colleagues who have found it necessary to get training in the field of traumatic stress so they could be of service to their fellow journalists as a peer-support network. They profess themselves not to be professional counselors but a crisis intervention team who have undertaken stress related training.

Anyone needing to talk about disturbing, traumatic experiences encountered while on the job can contact any of the individuals on our volunteers list, either by phone or by email. 41

More information regarding CIRT can be found on the National Press Photographers website at NPPA.ORG.

In demonstrating further depth to stress in the workplace and people’s understanding of the subject, questions like “Are your peers formally trained in the topic of stress?” were answered in the affirmative less than 3%. Both short- and long-term cost-effective counseling dealing with both specific events and overall well being also could be addressed as a part of normal and regular employee benefit.

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Student Stress

Stress is part of the job. As photojournalists, we often see traumatic situations such as horrific car wrecks, crime scenes, drowning, animal cruelty, etc. It’s part of the job. My employer makes counseling available if we needed it and it’s always private and confidential. But if you cannot handle daily stress and sometimes traumatic situations, this is not the job for you.42

This is an interesting and valid point reiterated here as an example of some of the anonymous written-in opinions. If one cannot handle the job, maybe this is not the line of work one should pursue. The concept is that letting the students of photojournalism fully understand what to expect will give them options and the tools to better cope with their future. Another respondent took the tack on the idea of understanding what one is getting into when joining this profession.

I take on each and every assignment and have used neutral feelings and my own ethical code to help cope with situations. When I was in high school I researched the effects of Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome on War Photographers and that opened my eyes to the line of work that I would be doing hence I knew what I was getting in to. I think that students now need to learn what they will be dealing with and how to handle the pressure. Ethics and morals come into play a lot on the job and one can never be too ready for it.43

The other important direction of this information is the duty to educate our students. Future photojournalists are owed a “heads-up” warning as to the possible pitfalls of their chosen vocation. An overwhelming 90% of respondents indicated that traumatic stress was not broached in class; about 25% of those who said it was discussed were not satisfied with the warning of traumatic stress in their educational experience as the following photographer discusses in the survey.

I believe that, in our changing and difficult culture, traumatic stress is far more likely to affect young journalists. More violent crime, more domestic

terrorism, more hostility toward media and government all adds up to more stress for the daily photojournalist. It’s imperative that we start teaching stress

management skills as complete units in ALL journalism classes.44

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Flashback

Is there a difference between PTSD and long-term exposure to stress? In a word,

“No.” According to Dr. Melissa Stoppler, MD, the symptoms are the same with two different circumstances to create the results of the body’s reaction to stress with no way to differentiate between types. Often a single event in one’s life can cause PTSD but the continuous presence of “stressors” can produce similar responses. There is little known about the differences that distinguish the symptoms of chronic PTSD to that of non-chronic PTSD. News University’s online courses on stress point out that, “Up to 90 percent of the general population in the United States is exposed to a traumatic stressor at some time.” 45

The major difference is that over time it may be more difficult to identify individual triggers causing those symptoms. Many events may have many layers of symptoms. News University continues to explain the importance of understanding the symptoms of PTSD in order to combat its effects and maintain awareness or even vigilance of future incidence:

A set of PTSD symptoms involves persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness. These symptoms involve avoiding reminders of the trauma. These reminders can be internal cues, such as thoughts or feelings about the trauma, and /or external stimuli in the environment that spark unpleasant memories and feelings... Symptoms can be apparent in difficulty falling or staying asleep, irritability or outbursts of anger, difficulty concentrating, a hyper-vigilant watchfulness, and an exaggerated startle response.46 The understanding of the concept and symptoms along with coping mechanisms

of stress can empower a person to deal with these issues more effectively. News U’s course on Journalism and Trauma also points out that “Those who regularly deal with people who have been exposed to traumatic stress events... Become psychologically and emotionally overwhelmed by the many traumas they must bear witness to.”47

One’s response can be as if living in a nightmare from a scary movie. Flashbacks can wedge themselves into a person’s mind and not let go. Images repeat and terrify. Like in a horror film, the thoughts and images bore into the psyche like the recurring and intrusive images from a real-life traumatic event. Unlike a real experience, the film may have an air of “other,” an unreal aspect to it, and a make believe feeling that may act as a mental safety buffer. The thoughts of a real event, however, have no outlet and must be dealt with.

The movie was made to scare one with frightening details, sounds, and music; the trauma of a real memory has the depth a director could only hope to achieve. His camera could not recreate the three-dimensional sights, smells, and other scenes that make up the human experience. For the photojournalist, the camera can act as an emotional barrier as if one were “watching” the experience. “Watching” to separate oneself from the reality of a scene will not work. One cannot “un-know” an event especially when all five senses reinforcing the experience are involved.

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Those scary movies of years ago still carry the effect of “other.” The stories covered could never match the sensations of the gore and ultra-violent films of today on the big screen as opposed to the newspaper or television. Film, however, still can not match the experience of being an eyewitness to life. The nightmares can take a long time to fade but the imagery can be a permanent part of one’s psyche, especially to the visually oriented people within the profession of photography. Al Tompkins of the Poynter Institute elaborated more on the visual aspect of stress:

It is normal for you to be sad as anyone else would be. Producers and directors spend endless hours staring at a wall full of monitors filled with tragic pictures and wonder why they feel depressed. Photo editors scan thousands of horror-filled images. Videotape editors search through miles of tape of gruesome scenes every day. I recommend that you NOT go home after a long shift and watch more coverage. Find some balance and spirituality. Watch children play in a park. 48

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CHAPTER III CONCLUSION

Sometimes the photojournalist does not look forward to the possible scenario of

what tomorrow’s assignment might bring. Unlike a job where one is punching a clock, the photojournalist is often compelled to create from an artistic source and possibly a sense of duty to serve the community. In the pursuit of excellence, they can become involved in the stories or assignments. Occasionally it is possible to make images and keep a distance from the details, but more often, those details are an integral part of recording with the best possible accuracy. The knowledge of those details can drive home the tragedy of a story and further intensify trauma. Just knowing those details can cause further trauma.

After many years of honing skills and being entrenched in the business, one finds that “escape” is no longer an option both mentally and physically. Not when a career, life, family, and home has extended deep roots. Here, one is compelled to make it work for the long run and find new perspective and a healthy mindset to the situation. One must find a new plane of hope and renewal of spirit or possibly face the despair and risk sinking to the bottom, as this photographer makes the connection:

In 30 years of news work as a photographer and editor I’m now feeling the cumulative effects of all the accidents, fires, murders, funerals, shootings, floods, etc. that I’ve covered. Covering spot news was once fun, now I feel a heavy weight on my shoulders.49 The attention to thought can be directed to one’s “intention.” Here is the

opportunity to understand the realization that thoughts only have the power given to them. Thoughts or memories are not to be dismissed, ignored, pushed aside, or shut out. They are to be acknowledged, accepted, and processed. Only then may a healing process occur. The future health, resulting of unpleasant events, may be faced with more confidence. Realizing the significance of events in the subject’s life works both ways. Events change lives, whether the event is a crash, a wedding day, or a mother holding her newborn infant. The jaded or cynical might view these events as another assignment rather than a significant moment in someone’s life. Journalists often take on the role of their profession with the knowledge that intense and dramatic scenes will unfold before them. Photojournalist, author, and educator, David Labelle, described often how journalists do not understand how this will affect them until it needs to be addressed:

Maybe it is time for journalism to recognize the potential for scarring that seeing so much death and destruction can have on an individual. News organizations need to put in place some mental first –aid stations to help their employees cope with the awful events they are expected to report. Such preventative vision would seem to be as cost-effective as drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs, or time off for divorces. We need to help journalists keep tragedy in perspective—to help them realize they didn’t cause it, that they couldn’t have prevented it. 50

Journalists must keep fresh and re-freshed on the stress of others as well as

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themselves. Over time, it may become easy to fall into the rut of the process. It may be difficult to pay close attention over time to one’s own issues, but to keep colleagues in mind as well can be just as important, yet easy to let slip. To be there for each other takes vigilance and education. It becomes second nature to pay attention to oneself and co-workers’ health.

Mentally, if one assigns judgment, either good or bad, to a situation, it can cause further harm to the observer of the situation. That is to say that photojournalists should accept, but not necessarily condone, events for what they are and move on. Often journalists do not know the full story before working on it. However, by judging the situation early, one can change how the story is covered. One can still have compassion for the people in a situation but still be aware not to let the situation negatively affect oneself. If one had never experienced different kinds of suffering through journalism, his or her ability to have compassion may never have developed. In other words, the experiences of the job can help one learn to approach future subjects with better sensitivity.

The ultimate goal of this work is to further the discussion and expand the level of

consciousness on traumatic stress. In this way, those who experience PTSD may be better

able to help one another.

The issue of how to deal with the effects of these events on the photojournalist must be addressed by the industry as a whole. The focus of this work is to bring the subject of the photojournalist and their wellbeing further into the light of discussion in the hope of opening more dialogue into the future health of all the men and women engaged in this profession.

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REFERENCES

1. Dave LaBelle, Lessons in Death and Life (Georgia: n.p., 1993), 9. 2. News University, Journalism Training. Online Courses Anytime, Anywhere,

Journalism and Trauma, 13 July 2007, <http://www.newsu.org/Default.aspx?> (accessed 23 May 2008).

3. Elana Newman, Roger Simpson, and David Handschuh, “Trauma Exposure and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among Photojournalists,” Visual Communication Quarterly 10, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 6.

4. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Terrorism: Journalists Suffering Trauma: Advice from a Professional,” Bob Steele, 11 September, 2001, <http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5882> (accessed 23 May 2008).

5. Washington University, Columns Magazine, “Stress on the Press: Not Much Help, Reporters Alone in Dealing with Trauma,” Larry Zalin, March 2001, <http://www.washington.edu/alumni/columns/march01/press1.html> (accessed 23 May 2008).

6. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Ethics: Journalists and Trauma: Secondary Victims,” Bob Steele, 15 May, 1996, <http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5579> (accessed 30 May 2008).

7. The Digital Journalist, “Trauma: Journalism’s Hidden Malady,” Ron Steinman, Oct. 2005, <http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0510/steinman.html> (accessed 30 May 2008).

8. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Terrorism: The Psychological Impact of Terrorism Coverage: Creating a Prozac Nation?” Marianna Spicer-Brooks, 14 December 2000, <http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=4700> (accessed 30 May 2008).

9. Shelly Katz, telephone interview by author, August 25, 2007. 10. McCoy, Kirk. “Los Angeles Riots: Coverage and Concerns.” The Flying Short

Course, National Press Photographers Association. Hyatt Regency Hotel, Irvine, California. 22 October 1993. (NPPA AV Library #1535)

11. Shelly Katz, telephone interview by author, August 25, 2007. 12. United States Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for Post-Traumatic

Stress Disorder, “PTSD in Journalists: A National Center for PTSD Fact Sheet,” Elisa E. Bolton, Ph.D., 4 July 2005, <http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/fact_shts/fs_journalists.html?printable-template=factsheet> (accessed 30 May 2008).

13. Elana Newman, Roger Simpson, and David Handschuh, “Trauma Exposure and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Photojournalists,” Visual Communication Quarterly 10, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 6−7.

14. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August, 2007.

15. Ibid. 16. Ibid.

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17. Elana Newman, Roger Simpson, and David Handschuh, “Trauma Exposure and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Photojournalists,” Visual Communication Quarterly 10, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 7.

18. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August, 2007.

19. Dave LaBelle, Lessons in Death and Life (Georgia: n.p., 1993), 87. 20. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research

Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August 2007. 21. Columbia Journalism Review, “Burnout!” Joanmarie Kalter, July/August. 1999,

< http://backissues.cjrarchives.org/year/99/4/burn.asp> (accessed 1 June 2008). 22. Elana Newman, Roger Simpson, and David Handschuh, “Trauma Exposure and

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Photojournalists,” Visual Communication Quarterly 10, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 4−5.

23. News University, Journalism Training. Online Courses Anytime, Anywhere, Journalism and Trauma, 13 July 2007, <http://www.newsu.org/Default.aspx?> (accessed 23 May 2008).

24. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress And Photojournalism Research Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August 2007.

25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Centre for Stress Management and City University, London, “Physiology of the

Stress Response,” Stephen Palmer PhD, n.d. 2000. <http://www.managingstress.com/articles/physiology.htm> (accessed 1 June 2008).

28. Stephen Palmer and W. Dryden. “Counseling for Stress Problems.” London: Sage. n.d. 1995 <http://www.studiesandresearch.com/articles/physiology.htm> (accessed 1 June 2008).

29. American Psychological Association, “Mind/Body Health: The Effects of Traumatic Stress,” American Psychological Association, <http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=122> (accessed 2 February 2008).

30. The Digital Journalist “Bringing the War Back Home: PTSD,” Leif Skoogfors, July 2007, <http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0707/bringing-the-war-back-home-ptsd.html> (accessed 30 January 2008).

31. Nikki Cobb, “Laughter’s Pretty Good Medicine: LLU Professor uses research to show benefits,” The San Bernardino Sun, January 7, 2007, Local Section.

32. Michael D. Lemonick and Dan Cray, “The Biology of Joy,” Time Magazine, January 17, 2005, A12.

33. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August 2007.

34. HealthyPlace.Com Depression Community “EMDR Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing, Questions and Answers,” Julie Pegg ND, RPC. n.d. <http://www.healthyplace.com/communities/depression/treatment/emdr/q_and_a.asp> (accessed 1 June 2008).

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35. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August 2007.

36. Ibid. 37. Eric Reed, “Remembering Bad News,” Photojournalism PH110 class project:

November, 2004. Victor Valley Community College. 38. Dan Gardner, “Numbers are Nice, But Stories Matter,” Canadian Medical

Association Journal, <http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2464496> (accessed 11 August 2008).

39. Richard Layard, “Happiness,” Time Magazine, January 17, 2005, A66−67. 40. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research

Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August 2007. 41. National Press Photographers Association Online “Critical Incident Response

Team,” <http://www.nppa.org/member_services/critical_incident_response_team/>(accessed 1 June 2008).

42. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August 2007.

43. Ibid. 44. Ibid. 45. News University, Journalism Training. Online Courses Anytime, Anywhere,

Journalism and Trauma, 13 July 2007, <http://www.newsu.org/Default.aspx?> (accessed 23 May 2008).

46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 48. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Terrorism: Covering the

Attack: Day Four, Help for Journalists Under Stress,” Al Tompkins, 14 September 2001, < http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5837> (accessed 1 June 2008).

49. Anonymous survey respondent. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research Survey,” Eric Reed. Brooks Institute of Photography. August, 2007.

50. Dave LaBelle, Lessons in Death and Life (Georgia: n.p., 1993), 82.

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BIBLOGRAPHY

American Psychological Association, “Mind/Body Health: The Effects of Traumatic Stress,” American Psychological Association, <http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=122> (accessed 2 February 2008).

Bolton, Elisa E., PhD. United States Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, “PTSD in Journalists: A National Center for PTSD Fact Sheet,” 4 July 2005 <http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/fact_shts/fs_journalists.html? printable-template=factsheet> (accessed 30 May 2008).

Cobb, Nikki. “Laughter’s Pretty Good Medicine: LLU Professor uses research to show benefits,” The San Bernardino Sun, January 7, 2007, Local Section.

Gardner, Dan. “Numbers are Nice, But Stories Matter,” Canadian Medical Association Journal <http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?ar tid=2464496> (accessed 11 August 2008).

Kalter, Joanmarie. “Burnout!” Columbia Journalism Review, July/August 1999

<http://backissues.cjrarchives.org/year/99/4/burn.asp> (accessed 1 June 2008). LaBelle, Dave. Lessons in Death and Life. Georgia: n.p., 1993. Layard, Richard. “Happiness,” Time Magazine, January 17, 2005, A66−67. Lemonick, Michael D. and Cray, Dan. “The Biology of Joy,” Time Magazine, January

17, 2005, A12. McCoy, Kirk. “Los Angeles Riots: Coverage and Concerns,” The Flying Short Course,

National Press Photographers Association. Marriott Hotel, Irvine, California. October 1993 (NPPA AV Library #1535).

National Press Photographers Association Online “Critical Incident Response Team,” <http://www.nppa.org/member_services/critical_incident_response _team/> (accessed1 June 2008).

Newman, Elana, Simpson, Roger, & Handschuh, David. (2003). Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder among photojournalists. Visual Communication Quarterly, 10, no. 1 (Winter 2003).

News University, Journalism Training. Online Courses Anytime, Anywhere. Journalism and Trauma, Instructor: Dart Center. 13 July 2007, <http://www.newsu.org/Default.aspx?> (accessed 23 May 2008).

Palmer, Stephen, PhD. “Physiology of the Stress Response,” Centre for Stress Management and City University, London, n.d. 2000. <http://www.managingstress.com/articles/physiology.htm> (accessed 1 June 2008).

Palmer, Stephen, and Dryden, W. “Counseling for Stress Problems,” London: Sage. n.d. 1995, <http://www.studiesandresearch.com/articles/physiology.htm> (accessed 1 June 2008)

Pegg, Julie, ND, RPC. “EMDR Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing, Questions and Answers,” HealthyPlace.com Depression Community

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<http://www.healthyplace.com/communities/depression/treatment/emdr/q_and_a.asp > (accessed 1 June 2008).

Reed, Eric M. “Traumatic Stress and Photojournalism Research Survey,” Brooks Institute

of Photography. August, 2007. Skoogfors, Leif. “Bringing the War Back Home: PTSD,” The Digital Journalist, July

2007 <http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0707/bringing-the-war-back-home-ptsd.html> (accessed 30 January 2008).

Spicer-Brooks, Marianna. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Terrorism: The Psychological Impact of Terrorism Coverage: Creating a Prozac Nation?” 14 December 2000 <http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=4700> (accessed 30 May 2008).

Steele, Bob. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Ethics: Journalists and Trauma: Secondary Victims,” 15 May 1996 <http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5579> (accessed 30 May 2008).

Steele, Bob. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Terrorism: Journalists Suffering Trauma: Advice from a Professional,” 11 September 2001<http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5882> (accessed 23 May 2008).

Steinman, Ron. “Trauma: Journalism’s Hidden Malady,” The Digital Journalist, October 2005 <http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0510/steinman.html> (accessed 30 May 2008).

Tompkins, Al. The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, PoynterOnline, “Terrorism: Covering the Attack: Day Four, Help for Journalists Under Stress,” 14 September 2001 <http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5837> (accessed 1 June 2008).

Zalin, Larry. “Stress on the Press: Not Much Help, Reporters Alone in Dealing With Trauma,” Washington University, Columns Magazine, March 2001,

<http://www.washington.edu/alumni/columns/march01/press1.html> (accessed 23 May 2008).

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APPENDIX A

Online Survey Questions and Summary of Answers (Inserted into e-mail and sent to e-mail lists) Subject: Traumatic Stress in Photojournalism Dear Fellow Photojournalist,

I am conducting research on photojournalism for a Masters Degree Thesis Project at Brooks Institute of Photography in Santa Barbara, California. My research is on the effects of traumatic stress on photojournalists. I intend to use the information from this survey to evaluate the level of traumatic stress in the workplace at all levels of experience.

Please take a few minutes to answer the 27 simple questions in the survey. The information you provide is important for the future health of the members of our photojournalism community. Please answer the questions that apply to you, leave the others blank. This research is completely confidential.

Please feel free to forward this survey to other members of the photojournalism community who may not be members of the NPPA mailing list. Thank you for participating. Traumatic stress for the purpose of this research is:

You have personally witnessed emotionally disturbing situations on the job not limited to a conflict or war zone. You have witnessed intense emotional experiences during the course of your career. Incidents include but are not limited to any type of physical accident causing death or injury, covering victims of violence in any aspect, following a tragic story about a subject you may identify with.

The following link will take you to the survey. It takes less than 10 minutes to respond to all the questions. If you have any questions, e-mail me at eric.reed@my.brooks.edu. Thank you. http://www.survsoft.com/surv.php?s=35098&k=8921-0-37051 (Expired)

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APPENDIX B

Written-In Responses to Survey Questions

Selected statements among the 387 written-in and anonymous responses to some of the

survey questions.

Question # 27. How has your attitude toward traumatic events in the news business changed? What effect has it had on your outlook of the profession? “I feel we have been somewhat desensitized due to the constant flow of graphic images of pain and suffering, both locally with shootings, fires, crashes and with the minute to minute coverage of world conflicts. I am far more compassionate towards the victims and am far more careful to make sure my photos count rather than blasting away. I don’t fear showing their pain or invading their private moment, but I make an effort to do no harm, if possible. I am also much more direct and honest with my subjects as they pass through those horrible life experiences.” “When I was young and eager I wanted to be in the midst of all the turmoil to get the best photos. These days, I’d rather do a project that will help people in some kind of way. I don’t need to win awards, I get satisfaction out of helping those that I cover.” “I know that when I’ll be entering a highly emotional and stressful environment anytime there is a death and try to mentally prepare for it. As for my outlook on the profession, it has made me more aware, yet fearful of certain situations and the memory of families who’ve lost a loved one more prominent in mind.” “The adrenaline rush I once received from covering major events such as hurricanes now turn towards dread and mental exhaustion. I have also become more sensitive to the people affected in the areas of tragedy I have had to cover. Where as a younger photojournalist I was more edgy and aggressive in capturing raw emotions, now I feel the emotions.” “My attitude hasn’t changed. It’s a part of the career. The effects of seeing what I have seen and covering the traumatic events that I have covered don’t often hit me until years later. They “hit” me in the form of suddenly getting emotional at certain things I see that seem to link back to the traumatic event I covered. There is one event in particular that reoccurs often involving the death by fire of three young children in their home and their parents returning home while I was there covering the blaze, able to do nothing to save their children. I suppose it’s a memory I’ll live with.”

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“When I started as a photojournalist, there was no recognition of this issue. It is now something the photojournalism community is aware of, but I believe it’s still not recognized by management.” “As a young student journalist I would stick a camera anywhere in the name of journalism. Now, I feel more for the victim’s rights and not big business which is hiding behind the first amendment to make money first, not real journalism.” “My attitude has become more mature. I understand that our profession is unique in the fact that we come into emotional situations without an emotional responsibility per se. I have learned on my own how to accept my role, and to how to be more understanding of my subjects. I remind myself that the events I cover are HUMAN events not simply NEWS events. As I have loved and lost in my own life, I have experienced many of the emotions my subjects may be feeling on a shoot. Keeping this in mind helps me to remain engaged and thus compassionate in my photography, rather than being detached and merely a voyeur. I feel the profession, at least my paper, cares more about making deadline than about caring for a photographer or reporter who may have been affected by traumatic stress on the job. I feel it might even care less about these matters in regards to the subjects. Ultimately, I feel the news gatherers care as we are the ones in the trenches. The management team often plays the role of the General in the back of the line, keeping the war moving.” “I dread going to assignments where I don’t see that there‘s a public right-to-know. For example, my newspaper occasionally covers funerals where there isn’t necessarily a need for the community to view the family grieving. Covering assignments like that make me feel like a paparazzo at times.” “It has always been tucked away out of sight. I have to act like nothing brothers me, or else they will send someone else to cover the wars and other traumatic events.” “More calculating than I used to be. Too low of pay for such a high stress and thankless job.” “I have also learned to be sensitive and learned to follow my instincts. It has made it easier to do my job. However sometimes that effort at sensitivity is ruined by a sensational headline or a headline that mocks the victim and that makes me want to stop working with certain publications.” “I work for a small town newspaper and we don’t frequently see “traumatic” events. But when a big, horrible story hits, and news agencies swarm in from all over the globe, I feel ashamed to be a member of “the media.’” “I think more about the effects of news coverage on my subjects when I used to never think about it at all. As for PJs, I did not cover Hurricane Katrina as it approached New Orleans, but photographers at a paper where I worked as a stringer did. I was angry that

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the newspaper put them in harm’s way when everyone knew the storm would be severe. I understand that the story needed to be told, but the reports from inside the Hyatt Regency hotel as the storm bore down on the city upset me greatly. Windows were blown out and everyone was in danger. This seems like an unnecessary risk. Another editor “respected but did not agree with” one shooter’s decision to evacuate with his family rather than stay and cover the storm. We need to do our jobs, but family is sacrificed way too often in this line of work. The staff that stayed behind narrowly made it out of the city after the levees broke. They had to pile into a delivery truck with their families and hope for the best, avoiding rising water, looters and gun violence. In matters of life and death, journalists who choose family over work need a lot more support from their employers. I don’t think the shooters who covered the carnage and neglect in the aftermath of the storm will ever be the same. I no longer work at the paper, but I think about these men and women often and wonder if they will be OK, if they can ever clear their minds of the horror and third-world conditions. How do you strike a balance between keeping your staff safe and covering a dangerous story that must be told?” EDUCATION “I believe that, in our changing and difficult culture, traumatic stress is far more likely to affect young journalists. More violent crime, more domestic terrorism, more hostility toward media and government all adds up to more stress for the daily photojournalist. It’s imperative that we start teaching stress management skills as complete units in ALL journalism classes.” “Stress is part of the job. As photojournalists, we often see traumatic situations such as horrific car wrecks, crime scenes, drowning, animal cruelty, etc.; It’s part of the job. My employer makes counseling available if we needed it and it always private and confidential. But if you cannot handle daily stress and sometimes traumatic situations, this is not the job for you.” Since 9/11, many people are willing to talk about it. But for years, those who suffered from PTSD were either isolated for admitting their problems or labeled “nuts” or “unreliable.” It’s about time people started realizing when you see bodies, in Iraq or at a car crash for spot news or even sick people in refugee camps, that you will feel emotions you need to deal with one way or another. I’m lucky because my mom’s a shrink so I can call her to help me when I feel PTSD. Other people bottle it, try to drink it away or just deny it. I’ve seen way too many photographers who need help but no one knows how to deal with it because it could be professional suicide to admit it. We need to wise up or we’ll have a lot more burn outs before long.” “I take on each and every assignment and have used neutral feelings and my own ethical code to help cope with situations. When I was in high school I researched the effects of Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome on War Photographers and that opened my eyes to the line of work that I would be doing hence I knew what I was getting in to. I think that

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students now need to learn what they will be dealing with and how to handle the pressure. Ethics and morals come into play a lot on the job and one can never be too ready for it.” “Covering stressful events is not for everyone. Just with any job, the person and or personality must be a good fit with the job. Our profession is very diverse. We choose what we like to cover. You can see that in everyone’s work. War photographers normally don’t make good sports shooters and so forth. If the subject interests the photographer, they will find their own way to deal with what ever happens. It’s more about people management (finding the right photographer, staffer, freelancer to fit the job) than it is trying to come up with programs to suit everyone.” “I have become less reactive to what I see but I am still very empathetic toward victims. I refuse to become too distant from humanity in boy joy and sorrow. I do think that newsrooms vastly under address this issue. Just providing a phone number to call (i.e. EAP) is not the same as having proactive people approach staffers who have seen traumatic events. Trauma often shuts us down. We need someone to gently say “tell me about it.” But the hardest part of sharing is when someone begins to share and the description is too much for the listener. Whoever performs this service must do so knowing that they cannot back away.” HEALTH “I’m a trained peer supporter and the project coordinator for the NPPA’s CIRT team. Personally, I’ve come to dread those same tones on the scanner that used to be part of the excitement of this profession for my colleagues and myself. Professionally, it seems that little has changed over the years in the attitudes of upper management toward affected journalists. Many workplaces now offer EAPs—employee assistance programs—that provide counseling. From what I’ve heard, though, most of the counselors in these programs are trained more in the fields of interpersonal relations and depression counseling, rather than in trauma counseling. From my experiences, it seems that most papers/TV stations still expect photojournalists and reporters to deal with the aftermath of traumatic stories on their own, as long as it doesn’t affect their output. One of my greatest concerns is the influx of women into the photojournalism profession—from previous studies, it appears that women are more susceptible to work-related PTSD. On the other hand, women seem to be more amenable to seeking mental health treatment from my experience. One thing you might want to look into is the effectiveness of EMDR in treating PTSD. Several photojournalists I know have utilized this treatment method, with considerable success” “Personally, I’ve come to dread those same tones on the scanner that used to be part of the excitement of this profession for my colleagues and myself. Professionally, it seems that little has changed over the years in the attitudes of upper management toward affected journalists. Many workplaces now offer E.A.P.s (employee assistance programs) that provide counseling, From what I’ve heard, though, most of the counselors in these programs are trained more in the fields of interpersonal relations and depression

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counseling, rather than in trauma counseling. From my experiences, it seems that most papers/TV stations still expect photojournalists and reporters to deal with the aftermath of traumatic stories on their own, as long as it doesn’t affect their output. One of my greatest concerns is the influx of women into the photojournalism profession -- from previous studies, it appears that women are more susceptible to work-related PTSD. On the other hand, women seem to be more amenable to seeking mental health treatment from my experience. One thing you might want to look into is the effectiveness of (EMDR, or "Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing" is a technique which utilizes a characteristic motion of the eyes in conjunction with therapeutic guidance to bring about emotional healing at an accelerated rate.) in treating PTSD. Several photojournalists I know have utilized this treatment method, with considerable success.” “When war vets tell you that you are displaying symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, it tends to concern you. But I figure going to fatal accidents or even bloody accidents or fires with injuries is part of the job. This has always been a given, so no change there. Just would be nice to have a little training in how to handle stress besides breathing deeply.” “Being a news photographer I have learned to deal with traumatic stress. My personal experiences have been limited to car wrecks, fatal fires and domestic violence (shooting and stabbings). I guess working in this business gives you a thick skin. It’s like being a police officer or a paramedic, you learn to deal with the stress. If I get photos from a very stressful situation I usually try to go for a long hike on my next day off. That really helps me. If you let it build up, that’s when you will have problems. Personally talking it over with other people has never really helped me much.” “I sometimes feel like a vulture on the scene of an accident, standoff or fire. I have learned to deal with the stress after the scene is over as it is usually dangerous to deal with on the scene. I know other photographers who cope with the situation via depressants such as alcohol. This is the first reference I have come across regarding Traumatic stress on the job.” “I do feel like calling in just for a "break" some days so I don’t have to deal with something, or the aftermath of something. I do have spiritual beliefs so praying does help.” “After over 30 years in the TV News business I have come to realize that photogs need de-compression time after covering emotionally stressful stories. There is very little concern for the mental stability of news photogs in my market and my workplace. I find it interesting that Police and Firemen have programs in place for them to deal with workplace stress and nothing for the News people who cover the same events.” “Prior to working as a photojournalist, I never really felt the "emotions" of so many people seen on TV. I often meet them on their worst day. ...and that can be really depressing. On a positive note, I now truly appreciate good days and having a somewhat

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"routine" life. Discussing our industry in general, I have grown tired of tragic news on such a regular basis. We often select stories based upon their tragic content instead of their newsworthy information. I choose to remain positive in my outlook for this profession. That said, it will be difficult to remain positive if news outlets continue to focus on crime, death, and destruction. There are so many positive and important stories to tell. Let’s start telling more” “It seems like one of those things we all do. go to a fire, or a car accident, or shooting, etc., make our pictures and move on to the next assignment. we have to. it’s the curse of the immediacy of our profession. all I know is I hate it. I do it because of the few times I’ve been able to experience personally how the pictures have made a difference.” “Often a negative work environment especially in these extremely challenging times for the news industry can add stressors that may amplify the effects of PTSD.” “The sensationalized news continues to deaden our senses. If it bleeds, it leads...especially in the TV news world. I think the newspaper world is still sensitive to the impact of local readership if they run a disturbing photo. Large publications, on the other hand can offer the more disturbing images with little or no impact on their revenue.” “When you have four assignments in one day and a massive fatal car accident happens in between, there’s not much time to cope before you have to shoot your next assignment. Also, I don’t think editors (in general) have much sympathy when it comes to stress, which, in turn, causes more stress.” “It gets harder for me to cover traumatic events the longer I am in the business. You’d think it would get easier but it hasn’t. I never enjoyed them but it’s getting harder. I still do it but it bothers me more.” “I was a victim of a bank robbery while on an assignment. I was held at gunpoint. having to go through the experience and recovery helped me understand PTSD and the stigma at work. No one would talk about it. I feel if I was shot there would have been notes posted in the newsroom on my recovery. But with a mental illness, people become confused and fearful.” “In 30 years of news work as a photographer and editor I’m now feeling the cumulative effects of all the accidents, fires, murders, funerals, shootings, floods, etc. that I’ve covered. Covering spot news was once fun, now I feel a heavy weight on my shoulders.” “I no longer want to be involved in covering traumatic events. While I understand the ideology of providing photographs of this nature to the public, I don’t want to do that kind of work any more. I used to think that it was important and necessary. I don’t feel that way anymore.”

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“I am less enthusiastic about my job. I find myself feeling sad when I see the location of where someone I photographed die and I always remember what happened every time I pass that location. i.e. I hate driving up a certain canyon because I count the dead people I have photographed along the way. There are a total of six. When I stop being a photojournalist I think I would like to move to a place where I don’t know the history of the town.”

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APPENDIX C

Supplemental Video Interview Participants

David LaBelle: University of Kentucky Professor of Journalism. Teacher of Photojournalism in the School of Journalism and Telecommunications, Dave LaBelle was The Kentucky Kernel’s photo adviser for three years. Author of The Great Picture Hunt and Lessons in Death and Life. Photojournalist of 20 years. Stan Lim: Photojournalist. Press-Enterprise, Riverside, California.

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APPENDIX D

Expanded PTSD Symptom List

“RESPONSES TO STRESS”

Stephen Palmer and W Dryden. “Counseling for Stress Problems.” London: Sage. n.d. 1995, <http://www.studiesandresearch.com/articles/physiology.htm> (accessed 1 June 2008).

“BEHAVIOR: Alcohol/drug abuse - Avoidance/phobias - Sleep disturbances/insomnia - Increased nicotine/caffeine intake - Restlessness - Loss of appetite/overeating - Anorexia, bulimia - Aggression/irritability - Poor driving - Accident proneness - Impaired speech/voice tremor - Poor time management - Compulsive behavior - Checking rituals - Tics, spasms - Nervous cough - Low productivity - Withdrawing form relationships - competitive; hostile; Increased absenteeism - Decreased/increased sexual activity - Eat/walk/talk faster - Sulking behavior - Frequent crying - Unkempt appearance - Poor eye contact AFFECT: (Emotions) - Anxiety - Depression - Anger - Guilt - Hurt - Morbid jealousy - Shame/embarrassment - Suicidal feelings SENSATIONS: Tension - Headaches - Palpitations - Rapid heart beat - Nausea - Tremors/inner tremors - Aches/pains - Dizziness/feeling faint - Indigestion - Premature ejaculation/erectile dysfunction - Vaginismus/psychogenic dyspareunia - Limited sensual and sexual awareness - Butterflies in stomach - Spasms in stomach - Numbness - Dry mouth - Cold sweat - Clammy hands - Abdominal cramps - Sensory flashbacks - Pain IMAGERY: Images of: Helplessness - Isolation/being alone - Losing control - Accidents/injury - Failure - Humiliation/shame/embarrassment - Self and/or others dying/suicide - Physical/sexual abuse - Nightmares/distressing recurring dreams - Visual flashbacks - Poor self-image COGNITIONS: I must perform well - Life should not be unfair - Self/other-damning statements - Low frustration statements (e.g., I can’t stand it. - I must be in control - It’s awful, terrible, horrible, unbearable etc.) - I must have what I want - I must obey ‘my’ moral code and rules - Others must approve of me - Cognitive distortions e.g. all or nothing thinking. INTERPERSONAL:

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Passive/aggressive in relationships - Timid/unassertive - Loner - No friends - Competitive - Put other’ needs before own - Sycophantic behavior - Withdrawn - Makes friends easily/with difficulty - Suspicious/secretive - Manipulative tendencies – Gossiping. DRUGS/BIOLOGY: Use of: drugs, stimulants, alcohol, tranquillizer, - Hallucinogens – Diarrhea /constipation/flatulence - Frequent urination - Allergies/skin rash - High blood pressure/coronary heart disease (angina/heart attack) - Epilepsy - Dry skin - Chronic fatigue/exhaustion/burn-out – Cancer – Diabetes - Rheumatoid arthritis- Asthma- Flu/common cold - Lowered immune system - Poor nutrition, exercise and recreation - Organic problems - Biologically based mental disorders.”

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APPENDIX E

The Mind/Body Connection

American Psychological Association, “Mind/Body Health: The Effects of Traumatic Stress,” American Psychological Association, <http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=122> (accessed 2 February 2008).

“The Mind/Body Connection Suffering traumatic stress can affect your emotions as well as your body and the two are so connected that it can be hard to tell the difference. For instance, traumatic stress can cause you to lose concentration, forget things, or have trouble sleeping. It may be difficult to determine on your own whether these symptoms are because you do not feel well physically or because you are still upset. Traumatic stress also can lead you to eat in unhealthy ways or to eat foods that are not healthy, and those eating patterns can affect how you sleep or how your stomach feels. Stress can cause headaches, but the pain from the headaches can also make your stress worsen.

Because the body and the mind work in concert, traumatic stress can cause a cycle that makes it seem like the body and mind are working against one another, worsening symptoms like pain and fatigue.

Coping with Traumatic Stress

There are things you can do to help yourself if you have suffered traumatic stress as a result of an event such as a school shooting. - Give yourself time to heal. Anticipate that this will be a difficult time in your life. Allow yourself to mourn the losses you have experienced. Try to be patient with changes in your emotional state. - Ask for support from people who care about you and who will listen and empathize with your situation. But keep in mind that your typical support system may be weakened if those who are close to you also have experienced or witnessed the (same) trauma. - Communicate your experience in whatever ways feel comfortable to you - such as by talking with family or close friends, or keeping a diary. - Engage in healthy behaviors to enhance your ability to cope with excessive stress. Eat well-balanced meals and get plenty of rest. If you experience ongoing difficulties with sleep, you may be able to find some relief through relaxation techniques. Avoid alcohol and drugs. - Establish or reestablish routines such as eating meals at regular times and following an exercise program. This can be especially important when the normal routines of daily life are disrupted. Even if you are in a shelter and unable to return home, establish routines that can bring comfort. Take some time off from the demands of daily life by pursuing hobbies or other enjoyable activities.

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--Help those you can. Helping others, even during your own time of distress, can give you a sense of control and can make you feel better about yourself. - Avoid major life decisions such as switching careers or jobs if possible because these activities tend to be highly stressful. When Should I Seek Professional Help?

Many people are able to cope effectively with the emotional and physical demands brought about by a natural disaster by using their own support systems. It is not unusual, however, to find that serious problems persist and continue to interfere with daily living. For example, some may feel overwhelming nervousness or lingering sadness that adversely affects job performance and interpersonal relationships.

Individuals with prolonged reactions that disrupt their daily functioning should consult with a trained and experienced mental health professional.”

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Copyright © 2008

Eric Michael Reed

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