ERIC - Education Resources Information CenterFrost, Joe L., Ed. grounds for Young Children: National Survey and P*rspectives. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation

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ABSTRACT

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Wortham, Sue C

Pla

SP 032 700

, Ed.; Frost, Joe L., Ed.grounds for Young Children: National Survey and

P*rspectives.American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, Reston, VA. AmericanAssociation for Leisure and Recreation.

ISBN-0-88314-488-390261p.AAHPERD Publication Sales Office, 1900 Association

Drive, Reston, VA 22091.Collected Works - General (020)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.*Childrens Games; Equipment; National Surveys;*Outdoor Activities; *Perceptual Motor Learning;*Playgrounds; Preschool Education; *Pretend Play;

Safety; Young Children

Data gathered by a national survey of preschoolplayground equipment provided comprehensive information on all

aspects of the play environment for young children. This collection

presents '..ne perspectives of writers on the function of playgrounds

and the nature of children's play. In adition to the introduction by.:-

Sue C. Wortham and Joe L. Frost, the following articles make up the

volume: (1) "National Survey of Preschool Centers PlaygroundEquipment" (Louii Bowers); (2) "Results 3f the Swvey" (Louis '

Bowers); (3) "Young Children and Playground Safety" (Joe L. Frost);

(4) "Play Environments for Young Children: Design Perspectives"

(Steen B. Esbensen); (5) "Infant-Toddler'Playgrounds" (Sue C.

Wortham); (6) "Advances in Playground Equipment for Young Children"(Marshal R. Wortham); (7) "Maintaining Play Envixonments: Training,

Checklists, and Documentation" (Donna Thompson, Lawrence D. Bruya,

Michael E. Crawford); (B) "Promoting Perceptual-Motor Development in

Young Children's Play" (Tom aambor); (9) "The Role of-Adults in

Children's Play" (Thomas D. Yawkey); (10) "Outdoor Play--What Happens

Here?" (Mary S. Rivkin); and (11) "Magical'Playscapes" (James Talbot,

Joe L. Frost). (JD)

******* ***** ***********************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

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National Survey and Perspectivesra4

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Editors

Sue C. WorthamJoe L Frost

A PrOect of the

American Association for Won. end RocroationAn Asit,dation of the

Antorican Animas foie. iltinsitio; PhysicalIdeation,

RokiiiitiOnaini Dance

Purposes of the American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance

The American Alliance is an educational o:ganization, structuredfor the purposes of supporting, encouraging, and providing assist-ance to membe: groups and their personnel throughout the nation asthey seek to initiate, develop, and conduct programs in health,leisure, and movement-related activities for the enrichment of human

life.Alliance objectives include:1. Professional growth and developmentto support, encourage,

and provide guidance in the development and conduct of programsin health, leisure, and movement-related activities which are basedon the needs, interests, and inherent capacities of the indivudual intoday's society.

2. Communicationto facilitate public and professional under-standing and appreciation of the importance and value of health,' .isure, and movement-related activities as they contribute towardr uman well-being.

3. Researchto encourage and facilitate research which will enrichthe depth and scope of health, leisure, and movement-related activ-ities; and to disseminate the findings to the profession and otherinterested and concerned publics.

4. Standards and guidelinesto further the continuous develop-ment and evaluation of standards within the profession for personneland programs in health, leisure, and movement-related activities.

5. Public affairsto coordinate and administer a planned programof professional, public, and governmental relations that will improveeducation in areas of health, leisure, and movement-related activities.

6. To cordurt such other activities as shall be approved by theBoard of Governors and the Alliance Assembly, provided that theAlliance shall not engage in any activity which would be inconsistentwith the status of an educational and charitable organization asdefined in Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 or

any successor provision thereto, and none of the said purposes shallat any time be deemed or construed to be purposes other than thepublic benefit purposes and objectives consistent with such educa-tion41 and charitable status.

Bylaws, Article HI

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National Survey and Pers

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Editors

Sue C. WorthamUniversity of Texas at San Antonio

Joe L. FrostUniversity of Texas at Austin

A Project of theComthittee on Play

American AseociatiOn for Willa and RecreationAn iiiiioditiOnOf the

American Alliance for'.HiailliMiyeical Education,Recreation iirld Dance '

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Table of Contents

About the Authors1. Introduction

Sue C. Wortham, foe L. Frost

2. National Survey of Preschool Centers PlaygroundEquipment

Louis Bowers

3. Results of the SurveyLouis Bowers

4. Young Children and Playground Safetyfoe L. Frost

5. Play Environments for Young Children: DesignPerspectives

Steen B. Esbensen

6. Infant-Toddler PlaygroundsSue C. Wortham

7. Advances in Playground Equipment for Young Children ... 89Marshal R. Wortham

8. Maintaining Play Environments: Training, Checklists, andDocumentation 103

Donna Thompson, Lawrence D. Bruya, Michael E. Crawford

9. Promoting Perceptual-Motor Development in YoungChildren's Play

Tom Jody?.

10. The Role of Adults in Children's PlayThomas D. Yawkey

11. Outdoor PlayWhat Happens Here?Mary S. Rivkin

.12. Magical.Playscapeslames Talbot, Joe L. Frost

Appendices

ill

6

About the Authors

Louis Bowers is professor of physical education at the University ofSouth Florida. He has been the principal person responsible fortabulating and describing the results of the AALR Committee onPlay's surveys for elementary school playgrounds, park play struc-tures, and preschool playgrounds.

Lawrence D. Bruya is professor and head of the Department ofPhysical Education at Washington State University, Pullman. He hasedited two volumes about elementary school playgrounds, served aschairperson for the AALR Committee on Play, and consults regardingplay structures.

Michael E. Crawford is issociate professor of recreation at theUniversity of Missouri, Cm mbia. He is active in the AmericanAssociation for Leisure and Recreation, National Recreation and ParkAssociation, and International Play Association and has completedmultiple research projects about play structures, children's play, andrisk taking. He is currently a research and development consultant tothe State of Missouri child care licensing program.

Steen B. Esbensen is professor at the Université du Quebec a Hull,Quebec, Canada. He is author of Planning Play Spaces for Preschoolersand The Early Childhood Playground: An Outdoor Classroom published byHigh/Scope Press. In addition to teaching in early childhood teachereducation, he has published on various aspects of play and playenvironments and collaborates with landscape architects and recrea-tion planners to design for play.

Joe L. Frost is Parker Centennial Professor in the Department ofCurriculum and Instruction at the University of Texas at Austin. He is

iv

past-president of the American Association for the Child's Right to Playand past-president of the Association for Childhood Education Interna-tional. His work related to play and play environments includes con-sulting with the U.S. Department of Justice, the U.S. Consumer ProductSafety Commission, the U.S. Air Force, and various schools, cities, andequipment manufacturers. His publications indude Children's Play andPlaygrounds (with B. Klein) and When Children Play (with S. Sunderiin).He is currently serving on the American Society for Testing andMaterials' Public Playground Equipment Task Group.

Tom jambor is associate professor of early childhood education at theUniversity of Alabama at Birmingham. He currently serves as theAmerican representative to the International Association for theChild's Right to Play (IPA) and president of International PlayAssociation/USA. He has designed numerous community-built de-velopmental playground environments.

Mary S. Rivkin is assistant professor of education at the University ofMaryland, Baltimore County. She is a co-editor of The Young Child atPlay: Reviews of Research, Vol. 4 and has helped design playgrounds.

James Talbot is owner and designer/builder, Neveiiand Play Designsin Austin, Texas. He has a degree in architecture and has devoted 20years to creating fantasy environments and places for children, aswell as lecturing, giving workshops, and writing on the subject. He isauthor of "Plants in Children's Environments" in Frost and Sunder-lin's When Children Play.

Donna Thompson is associate professor of physical education at theUniversity of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls. She is chairperson of theAALR Committee on Play, contributed to the volumes that reportedinformation about school playgrounds, co-edited the volume on parkplaygrounds, is secretaly of the American Society for Testing andMaterial's Task Force to develop standards for public use play-grounds, and consults regarding play structures.

Marshal It Wortham is professor of art at Southwest Texas StateUniversity, San Marcos and maintains a private design practice. Hehas designed custom structures and play environments for elemen-tary schools and child care centers. He is a member of the AALRCommittee on Play and the International Play Association.

Sue C. Wortham is_ associate professor, t of early childhoodelementary education at the Univ,ejsity.ofiTezatatis &member* the AALR Committee onthe, American- Ask ciatiOn fOr ,the ClIghttand hisxesearched, and publishra orrv 1

Pl'r_tic1484 0,t; ,served as a play enVironment consUltant forand child** Centers.

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Thonias_D. Yawkey is professor of early childhood uatlPennsylvania State University. :He is co-author Off PIChildhpod ,Pevelapment (with J. Johnson and:C. Clman) and It:Voted Learning- Activities :Pi YounTrostle, Allyn and Bacon), and co-ator of Sirigkditional Families (with C. Corneliusi TechnomicNbliShingj.,as co-director, Title VII Academic cellekcejedPIAGE1specializes in young bilingual and monolingnalcognition, and communications.

vi

9

Introduction

Sue C. Wortham

Joe L. Frost

What is the ideal play environment for young children in the earlychildhood years? What is the current status of playgrounds forpreschool children? This book represents the last of three nationalefforts undertaken by the Committee on Play, a committee of theAmerican Association for Leisure and Recreation, whose parentgroup is the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance. The two previous surveys studied elementaryschool and community park playground equipment.

This volume reports the results of the Preschool PlaygroundEquipment Survey. As a result of 349 surveys conducted by 62 trainedvolunteers in 31 states, we are able to construct information on thekinds of play equipment and materials available on early childhoodplaygrounds, whether the setting is a child care facility or other typeof preschool setting.

The best early childhood play environment is not just a play areaequipped with play structures. An environment for young childrenincludes the natural features of the landscape and opportunities forchildren to engage in social, fantasy, and creative play, as well asphysical play. The editors and authors offer the reader comprehen-sive information on all aspects of the play environment for young

0

2 PLAYGROUNDS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN: SURVEY AND PERSPECTIVES

children, with the hope that those who design new facilities or areconsidering refurbishing existing preschool playgrounds will be chal-lenged to develop play environments that are exciting and rewardingplaces for young children to play.

In Chapter 2, "The National Survey of Preschool Centers Play-ground Equipment," and Chapter 3, "Result's of the Survey," LouBowers discusses the procedures followed to conduct and report theresults of the study. Bowers played a major role in all three studies,both in instrument design and processing the data collected.

The issues involved with playground safety are discussed by JoeFrost in Chaptei 4, "Young Children and Playground Safety." Hepresents recent unpublished statistics on the scope and causes ofinjuries on playgrounds and discusses key safety elements to preventplayground injuries. Attention is given to modifications that can bemade to specific types of equipment to improve their safety. Theadvantages and disadvantages of various types of playground sur-facing material are presented, as well as information on hazardousequipment that is still being manufactured and sold.

The design of play environments for young children is described inChapters 5 and 6. In Chapter 5, "Play Environments For YoungChildren: Design Perspectives," Steen Esbensen traces the influenceon playground design to include adventure playgrounds, the envi-ronmental yard concept developed by Robin Moore, work yardsusing salvaged materials, and creative playgrounds adapted fromadventure playgrounds. Esbensen reports that.by the 1970s and 1980bsafety concerns had a strong influence on safe playground design. Heregards early childhood play enviromnents as outdoor classrooms.They should be learning environments that encourage child-initiated,teacher-supported activities and promote the child's influence onspace and materials. Esbensen further describes desirable designfeatures of play environments in terms of the types of developmentalplay they should provide in various zones.

In Chapter 6, "Infant-Toddler Playgrounds," Sue Wortham isconcerned with the inclusion of play environments especially de-signed for the developmental needs of infants and toddlers. Shediscusses how play interfaces with development in infants andtoddlers and how play environments can be designed and arrangedto meet babies' needs and abilities for play. Wortham also describeswhy infants need to be outdoors, especially what they learn fromexperiences in the natural environment. She concludes that effectiveinfant-toddler playgrounds combine developmentally appropriatefeatures with natural environments that promote motor play, socialplay, and object play.

11

INTRODUCTION 3

The evolution of commercial play equipment is explained byMarshal Wortham in Chapter 7, "Advances in Playground Equip-ment for Young Children." Like Esbensen, he explains the changesand evolution of play equipment in recent decades that have beeninfluenced by availability of new materials and manufacturing anddesign possibilities. He notes that many manufacturers are respond-ing to safety research in equipment design. They are also influencedby the growing market in playgrounds for younger children stimu-lated by the large growth in child care facilities. He reports that in the1980s more progressive companies availed themselves of currentresearch in child development and began expanding the play value ofequipment designed for childrzn in the early childhood years.

Play equipment maintenance is also related to safety. In Chapter 8,"Maintaining Play Environments: Training, Checklists, and Docu-mentation," Donna Thompson, Larry Bruya, and Mike Crawfordpresent guidelines and checklists for assessing playground featuresfor safety and maintenance. The authors discuss how to conduct asafety inspection, including procedures to use in checking for safeequipment, safe installation of equipment, maintenance of equip-ment and play zones, and how to evaluate the design of equipment.The authors also present a system to document risk on preschool playstructures.

Tom Jambor focuses on perceptual-motor development and how itaffects the total development of the child. In Chapter 9, "PromotingPerceptual-Motor Development in Young Children's Play," he dis-cusses the relationship of perceptual-motor development to thechild's play and how the outdoor environment can be enhanced forchildren's play. Jambor describes how body awareness, spatial aware-ness, directional awareness, and temporal awareness develop in theyoung child. He discusses theories of development and how motorplay facilitates perceptual-motor development. Activities to promoteperceptual-motor skills are also suggested.

In Chapter 10, "The Role of Adults in Children's Play," TomYawkey expands upon information about the adult's influence onchildren's play discussed in earlier chapters. He proposes that adultinvolvement in child play has benefits for child development, inpretend play with physical objects, social play, and persistence inplay. Adult support and involvement in the child's play also benefitslanguage and intellectual competencies and signals to children thatadults approve of their play. He suggests that adults need to considertime, space, materials, and preparatory experiences when planningfor involvement in children's play. He also discusses various strate-gies adults can use to become involved in play activities.

12

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The authors of the final two chapters express a need to expand andenhance "built" play environments with natural features.- In Orapter11, "Outioor PlayWhat Happens Here?" Mary Rivkin expressesconcern that urban children, particularly, have fewer opportunities toplay outdoors. She contrasts the first efforts in developing urbanplaygrounds in the last century with how city children today areinaeasingly playing indoors. Rivkin expresses concern about thequality of research on the ?lay of young children, particularly becausemost research was conducted indaors. She reviews the literature ondevelopmentalist studies on play, outdoor plaY environments Mvarious cultures, and thoughtfully designed playgrounds. She be-fieves that outdoor play is more than a playground and advocates thatwe seek to expand its range and opportunities.

In the final chapter, "Magical Playscapes," James Talbot and JoeFrost express their dissatisfaction with the growing trends to replacenatural play environments with high-tech, slick mechanical environ-ments and to restrict :ree play opportunities for children. Theyencourage those involved in playground design to think back to theimpressionable events of their childhoods and to construct playenvironments that reflect and enhance their most intriguing andmagical memories. Finally, they suggest 19 design principles for thosewho would build magical pimes for children, with children.

The editors would like to thaak Marian Ruomo at the University ofTexas at San Antonio and Selina Jasso and Nancy Treffler-Hammondsat the University of Texas at Austin for typing the manuscripts. Theirpatience and expertise are greatly appreciated.

13

,

National Survey of

Preschool Centers

Playground Equipment

Louis Bowers

The Committee on Play of the American Association for Leisure andRecreation of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreatza and Dance initiated a survey of playground equipmentavailable for use by children in preschool centers in the United States.The study was an extension of the 1985 National Survey of Elemen-tary School Playground Equipment and the AALR 1986 NationalSurvey of Playground Equipment in Community Parks conducted bythe Committee on Play. Both the 1985 and 1986 studies wereconducted in order to secure accurate infonnation that might be usedby educators and designers to improve existing and future play-ground equipment in schools and community parks. The NationalSurvey of Preschool Centers Playground Equipment was undertakento secure information specific to the play environments provided forpreschool age children.

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Survey Instrument Development

The Committee on Play completed in 1985 the development of asurvey instrument designed to describe the type and condition ofplayground equipment in elementary schools. This instrument wasconstructed by Louis Bowers with review input by members of theCommittee on Play. The total process of constructing the surveyinstnenent, experts' review, conducting field trials, and making finalrevisions, took place between May 1984 and April 1985.

The reliability of the survey instrument was established at the 1985AAHPERD Convention by means of training volunteers and comput-ing percentage of agreement of rating of items of surveys completedby 44 volunteers of the same playground. After establishing reliabil-ity, the survey instrument was named the AAHPERD-AALR-COPNational Elementary School Playground Equipment Survey and wasutilized in the National Survey of Elementary School PlaygroundEquipment Study. With slight modification, the survey was also usedin the 1986 National Survey of Community Park Playground Equip-ment.

The Committee on Play made the decision to extend the length ofthe 1985 survey from seven to eight pages so that the new surveywould be more appropriate to the equipment and activities ofpreschool centers.

The eight-page survey instrument was designed to secure informa-tion regarding: (a) the type and quantity of play structures and playmaterials, (b) location of each play structure on the playground, (c)the maintenance status of each play structure, (d) the height andconfiguration of each play structure, and (e) the type of surfacematerial under each play structure. The survey provides informationregarding broken or missing parts, sharp edges and projections, smallopenings within the structures, and other safety conditions. Condi-tions related to signs, trees, pathways, shade structures, wheel toys,manipulative materials, and garden ?teas are also covered.

Survey Instrument Reliability

In October 1988 at the national convention of the National Associationfor the Education of Young Children, 42 volunteers were trained inthe administration of the Preschool Playground Equipment Survey.Joe Frost of the University of Texas instructed the volunteers in theadministration of the survey by means of a 35mm slide presentationof examples of assessment items of the survey.

1 5

NATIONAL SURVEY OF PRESCHOOL CENTERS PLAYGROUND EQUIPMENT 7

Also explained to the volunteers was the procedure they shoulduse to randomly select preschool centers in their area. This procedurecalled for them to obtain a list of all state licensed preschool centerswithin their area and to randomly select on the average of one-of tenpreschool centers using a table of random numbers provided forthem. The volunteers were directed to send all completed surveys toLouis Bowers, Department of Physkal Education, University of SouthFlorida, Tampa, Florida 33620.

The volunteers, composed of early childhood and physical educa-tion professionals, visited Page Preschool in Garden Grove, Califor-nia, where each surveyor independently used the instrument tosurvey the playground at the preschool. Each volunteer returned thecompleted survey of the Page Preschool playground to Joe Frostbefore I..: wing the playground.

Inter-Rater Objectivity

The suirveys of Page Preschool completed by the 42 volunteers weregiven to Louis Bowers for computation of the percentage of exactagreement between each of the raters on each item. This procedureinvolved tabulating the most frequent response for each item, divid-ing by 42 and converting the result to a percentage.

For example, if 40 of the 42 surveyors checked yes for an item, theinter-rater agreement was 95 percent. For survey items requiring aquantitative response of "how many" or "how high" the number ofresponses that were alike was divided by 42 and converted to apercentage. .

The average percer.tage of agreement for items within each sectionand the average percentage of agreement for all items on the surveywas computed. The overall average percentage of agreement for allitems on the survey was 86 percent.

The following tables provide the percentage of agreement for eachitem and the average percentage of agreement for each section of thesurvey. Considering the large number of volunteer surveyors trained,the limited time for training, and the exacting procedure used toestablish the percentage of agreement for each item, the overallobjectivity of 86 percent is quite high.

(Text continues on page 15)

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TABLE 2.2Inter4tater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 2: Location and Accessibility of Playground Equip-ment

Item % Agreereent

2.1 equipment easily viewed 69.02.2 four-foot wall surrounding 100.0 '-

playground2.3 wheelchair access to equipment 85.7i2.4 wheekhair access on equipment 95,2

Average 87.5

TABLE 2.3IntevRater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 3: Placement and Size of Equipment

Item % Agreement

3.1 ten-foot space between equipment 73.83.2 average number of exposed concrete footings per 85.7

center3.3 desipated traffic patterns on pathways 71.43.4 smaller equipment for younger children 88.03.5 large and small equipment separated 98.6

Average 83.5

TABLE 2.4Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 4: Swing Equipment, Descriptive Information onSwing Structures

Item % Agreement

4.1 separate swing structures4.2 swing seats4.3 metawood seat .4.4 swivel suspensions for seats4.5 swing structures for younger

children4.6 swing seats for infants and toddlers4.7 barriers around swing structures4.8 support structures firmly anchored4.9 sharp corners, edges, and

projections4.10 moving parts in good repair4.11 plastic7covered chains4.12 commercial matting

93.895.2

100.0100.064.2

76.192.685.776.1

62.0100.0100 0

Average 86.0

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TABLE 2.5Inter-Rateie Exact AgreementSurvey Section 5: Percentages for Sliding Structures

Item % AgteeMent

.5.1 slides present 100.05.2 slides with missing or brolcen parts 78.0 .5.3 sharp corners, edgea, or projections 68*:2!5.4 supporting structures firmly 68.2 .

anchored5.5 wide slides 92.65.6 smooth, stable sliding surface 60.05.7 deceleration chute 62.55.8 inches from ground at end of slide 78.05.9 verticatheight of slide 60.0Surface Materials Reported Under Sliding Equipment5.10 commercial matting 100.0

Average 74.0

TABLE 2.6Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 6: Percentages for Climbing Equipment with the Fol-lowing Conditions

Item % Agreement

6.1 climbing structures6.2 firmly anchored structures6.3 securely iastened parts6.4 open holes at end of pipes6.5 small spaces6.6 sharp edges, protrusions6.7 spaces between 7 and 11 inches6.8 maximum height from ground6.9 guard rail around highest platform6.10 opening3 between 41/2 and 9 inchesMaterials Found Under Climbing Equipment6.11 commercial matting

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64.061.961.966.264.069.071.057.078.0'64.0

100.0Average 65.7


TABLE 2.7Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 7: Percentages for Rotating lquipment

Item -16 Agreement

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7.1 through 7.8 Answered correctly. No rotatinguI.ment resent.

TABLE 2.8Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 8: Percentages for Rocking Equipment

Item % Agreement. .

8.1 rocking equipment present 95.28.2 firmly anchored structures 69.08.3 at.1 parts are present 78.58.4 sharp edges, projections 71.48.5 3-in -long hand hold 98.68.6 11-inch foot rest 61.98.7 spring action pinching 60.0

possibleSurface Materials Found Under Rocking Equipment Structures8.8 commercial matting 100.0

Average 76.4

TABLE 2.9Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 9: Percentages for Seesaw Structures

Item % Agreement

9.1 through 9.10 Answered Correctly. No seesaws 100.0resent.

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la PLAYGROUNDS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN: SURVEY AND PERSPECTPIES

TABLE 2.10Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section /A Percentages for Designated Sand Play Areas

Item

10.1 separated sand play areas10.2 dean and debris free10.3 good drainage apment10.4 sand play areas elevated10.5 covered or located to exclude

animals10.6 benches for adult seating

88.064.269.073'.897.6

61.9Average 75.8

TABLE 2.11Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 11: Percentages for Wading Pools

Item % Agreement

11.1 separate water play areas11.2 pool11.3 elevated, fenced, and gated pool areas11.4 dear and free of debris11.5 average depth of pool11.6 benches for adults adjacent to wading

pool

97.6100.097.369.061.067.0

Avera e 82.0

TABLE 2.12Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 12: Percentages for Centers with Signs, Trees, andPathways

Item % Agreement

12.1 overview map of play area12.2 accessible facilities designated12.3 signs for seeking help in case of accident12.4 signs directing wheel toy traffic12.5 sign indicators to direct play *traffic12.6 signs indicating difficulty of play structure12.7 signs prohibiting animals from playground12.8 signs warning against dangerous play activities12.9 sign to expand exploratory play12.10 signs written in other languages common to

region

95.273.578.564.297.695.2

100.0100.097.6

100.0

Average 90.2

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TABLE,2.13Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 13: Percentages for Trees and Shade Structures

% AgrtorPerititem-

13.1 trees located within 50.feet13.2 trees planned as part of play structure13.3 dead trees.used as part of play structure13.4 tree hoilies built;13.5 f trees on perimeter to brealrwind13.6 man-made structures to shade seating13.7 drinking fOUntains near playground

equipment

c`..1.

93.8'100.0 -

714'100.059.6

Avera 83,8

TABLE 2.14Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 14: Pathways

Item % Agreement

14.1 lines likely to occur14.2 hard surface pathways14.3 width of pathway/length of

pathway14.4 hard surface pathway materials14.5 at least one intersectionSurface Materials14.6 commercial matting

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73.897.673.8

97.697.6

100.0Avera ore .

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14 PLAYGROUNDS POR YOUNG CHILDREN: SURVEY AND PERSPECITVES

TABLE 2.15Inter--Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 15: Wheel Toys

Item

15.1 wheel toys available .15.2 riding wheel toys .7.6-

available15.3 push wheel toys available 76:1,15.4 pull wheel toys available 60.O. 'Lefit_ra-81.0'

TABLE 2.16Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 16: Manipulatives

Item % Agreement

16.1 wooden building blocks16.2 tools and buckets available16.. balls and other sporting equipment

available16.4 trucks, cars, and other small toys available

90.583.383.3

83.3Average 85.1

TABLE 2.17Inter-Rater Exact AgreementSurvey Section 17: Garden Area

Item % Agreement

17.1 garden area planted by 97.6children

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Training of a second group of 15 volunteers was conducted byLarry Bruya, a member of the Committee on Play, during a Week-longworkshop on the study of play environments at the ,IJniverSiti ofNebraska at Omaha. Bruya surveyed a preschool center:playground.and comparedthe independeni Surveys of the same preschOOCenterplayground by the volunteers to his ratings. This procedUre reatiliedin an overall agreement of 83.5 percent Based on this high objeCtiv-ity, the data of the surveys of these workshop participants- Wereincluded in the study.

Data Representation

The 349 surveys received and tabulated were completed by 62volunteers and represent preschool centers in 31 states. The surveysprovided information about 2,447 play structures, 2,783 portable playmaterials, and 2,919 other provisions on the playgrounds.

While the 349 surveys represent a random selection process withingeographical areas, there is not a high representation of surveys fromeither the northeastern or northwestern states. The distribution andthe number of preschool playgrounds surveyed within each state areshown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. A map of the United States showing the number of preschoolplaygrounds surveyed within each state.

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Results of the Survey

Louis Bowers

The results of the National Survey of Playground Equipment inPreschool Centers are presented in the following series of 17 tables.These results are based on assessments of 349 preschool centerslocated in 31 states. The surveys were administered by 62 trainedvolunteer preschool and physical education .professionals. The play-grounds surveyed were located in preschool centers randomly se-lected from a list of all preschool centers located in each of thecommunities included in the study. A total of 2,447 play structureswere surveyed in 349 preschool centers. In addition, 2,783 portablematerials and 2,919 other provisions were recorded. The averageamount of time used to administer the survey in each preschoolcenter was 27 minutes.

The results of the 349 surveys reported in this chapter wererecorded at the University of South Florida by graduate researchassistants Michael Collins and Mark Hirsch under the direction ofLouis Bowers. Mark Hirsch, however, tabulated the results withBowers.

The following tables provide the tabulated results of the survey ofplayground equipment and portable materials found on preschoolcenters in the United States.

Section 1 focuses on the type and number of pieces of equipmentand other provisions for play. Section 2 focuses on the location and

18 PLAYGROUNDS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN: SURVEY AND PERSPEa1VES

accessibility of the equipment. Section 3 records the placement andsize of equipment.

Sections 4 through 11 report on the size, physical structure,condition, and ground covering beneath individual types of equip-ment.' The play equipment was categorized as swng,-iliding,climbing, rotating, rocking, seesaws, sand play, or wading pool typeequipment.

Section 12 focuses on centers with signs, trees, and pathwqa;Section 13 on trees and shade structures; Section 14 on rvAtirt4ays;Section 15 on wheel toys; Section 16 on manipulative materials; andSection 17 on garden area.

TABLE 3.1Survey Section 1: Types and Numbers of Equipment

Permanent FixedEquipment

Total No.Present

AveragePer Center

PercentageTotal

Equipment

swings 554 1.58 22.63slides 531 1.52 21.70balance beams 219 .62 8.94overhead ladders 186 .53 7.zorocking apparatus 175 .50 7.15tire/net climbers 152 .43 6.21firemen's poles 142 .40 5.80trapeze bars 127 .36 5.19suspended bridges 87 .24 3.55seesaws 76 .21 3.10merry-go-rounds 72 .20 2.94g eodesic domes 66 .18 2.69monkey bars 60 .17 2.45

Total Number of Structures 2,447

1The survey instrument called for the surveyers to indicate the depth of resilientmaterials underneath play equipment. Because the data were incomplete they were notreported in the results. The editors of this volume participated in surveys in 16 statesand found none that met the requirements for resilient surfaces.

27

TABLE 3.1, confirmed

RESULTS OF THE SURVEY 19

Portable MaterialsTotal No.Present

AveragePer Center

PercentageTotal

Equipment

tricycles 1,039 2.97 37.33loose tires 536 1.53 19.25sand 276 .79 9.91wagons 231 .66 8.30barrels 167 .47 6.00loose boards or other 151 .43 5.43water 100 .28 3.59wheelbarrows 97 .27 3.48building materials 59 .16 2.12gardening tools 54 .15 1.94art materials 51 .14 1.83carpentry tools 22 .06 .79

Total Portable Materials 2,783

Other Provisions

PercentageTotal No. Average TotalPresent Per Center Equipment

tablesgrassy areas for organized gamesaccessible water-supply hose or faucetsseparate sand play areashard surface area for gamesshade structu. ks (man-made)storage fok ',unable play materialsPlay housesstorage for maintenance equipmentcars (for dramatic play)areas for digging soiltrucks (for dramatic play)natural areas for plantswater play areastoilet faatiesprovisions for animal careboats (for dramatic play)amphitheatres

Total Otl. r Provisions

372 1.06 12.74318 .91 10.89296 .84 10.14276 .79 9.45255 .73 8.73253 .72 8.66175 .50 5.99156 .44 5.34137 .39 4.69128 .36 4.38125 .35 4.28110 .31 3.76104 .29 3.56100 .28 3.4268 .19 2.3217 .04 .5816 .04 .5413 .03 .44

2,919

20 PLAYGROUNDS POR YOUNG CHILDREN: SURVEY AND PERSPECTIVES

TABLE 3.2Survey Section 2: Location and Accessibility of PlaygoundEquipment

Item

2.12.2

2.32.4

equipment easily viewedfour-foot wall surroundingplaygroundwheelchair access to equipmentwheelchair access on equipment

PercentageYet

Percentage.N0

72 2285 15

18 825 95

TABLE 3.3Survey Section 3: Placement and Size of Equipment

ItemPercentage Percentage

yes No

3.1 ten foot space between equipment 55 453.2 average number of exposed concrete footings per center = 1.003.3 designated traffic patterns on pathways 75 253.4 s.n.., equipment for younger children 47 533.5 large and small equipment separated 36 64

TABLE 3.4Survey Section 4: Swing Equipment, Des=iptive Information on 5i4Swing Structures

Item Number Average/Center

4.1 separate swing struct4.2 swing seats

4.3 metal/wood seats

4.4 swivel suspensions for seats

4.5 swing structures for youngerchildren

4.64.74.8

swing seats for infants and toddlersbarriers around swing structuressupport structures firmly anchored

29

5541,455

1.58Average/Swing

Structure1.62

73 Percentage of TotalSwing Seats

5.0194 Percentage of Total

Swing Seats13.4

191 Percentage of TotalSwing Structures

34.0245 1760 11

509 83

TABLE 3.4, continued

Item


4.9 sharp corners, edges, andprojectionn

4.10 moving parts in good repair4.11 plastic covered chains

Number Averageo/CeMer

119 21

419 7658 10.

4.12 Surfacing Materials Under Swingssand 29.00

d-packed dirt 15.00Ciss20.00

pea gravel 12.00day 6.00

"mulch` : 5.00commercial rhiting 4.29tan bark 3.00rocks, pebbles, stones 1.87carpeted turf 1.74asphaltconcreteother

.58

.29

.87

TABLE 3.5Survey Section 5: Percentages for 531 Sliding Structures

Item Average Number Percentage

5.1 slides present 531 21.75.2 slides with missing or broken parts 34 6.05.3 sharp corners, edges, or projections 94 18.05.4 suppIrting structures firmly

anchored446 84.0

5.5 wide slides 110 21.05.6 smooth, stable sliding surface 479 90.05.7 deceleration chute 264 50.05.8 inches from ground at end of slide 71/4"5.9 vertical height of slide 5'5"

5.10Surface Materials Under Sliding Equipmentsand 34.0grass 19.0padced dirt 11.0pea gravel 10.0clay 6.0mulch 5.0commercial matting 4.0bark wood 3.0concide 2.0

turf 1.7p t .8

other 3.1

`Av.. ,,,,'11:4


TABLE i6SOrSayectton 6: Percentages for 1,0461Pieces of dintbing,Equipment Sikh the FollOwing CniditiOnCr-

IWO 'Average

6.1 climbing structures6.2 firmly anchored structures6.3 securely fastened parts

. 6.4 open holes at end of pipes6.5 small spaces6.6 sharp edges, protrusions6.7 spaces between 7 and 11 inches

6.8 maximum height hull ground 5 feetPercentages for Climbing Equipment Height0 feet to 2 feet 11 inches 11.443 feet to 3 feet 11 inches 10.994 feet to 4 feet 11 inches 21.535 feet to 5 feet 11 inches . 16.60,6 feet to 6 feet 11 inches 14.437 feet to 7 feet 11 inches 10.658 feet to 8 feet 11 Inches . 8.599, feet to 9 feet 11 inches 2.40

10 feet to 10 feet 11 inches 2.4011 feet to 11 feet 11 inches .34

6.9 guard rail around ltighest 61platform

6.10 openings between 41/2 and 9inches

6:11

44

Surface Materials Found Under Climbing Equipment with anAverage Maximum Height of 5 Feet 4 Inchessand 33.0grass 22.0dirt 14.5pea gravel 8.7clay 5.0mulch 5.0-commercial matting 3.0wood/bark 2.5gravel 1.5asphalt 1.2concrete 1.2carpet turf .7weeds .7other

-

31

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`1-1' 001115'

1-$NMVin$,ON:cid co oci ad ad ao ao

,,:o,:?;1-t;

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.:. ,

,

RESULTS OF THE-SURVEY 25

TABLE 3.9Survey Section 9: Percentages for 76 SeesartSfructures-

Item

9.1 seesaw structures present9.2 seesaws present

9.3 highest hei,ght of seats9.4 fumly anchored structures9.5 internal moving parts accessible

to (rpm-9.6 securepints.and fasteners9.7 sharp corners or projections9.8 cushions Impact of seat landing9.9 3-inch-long hand holds

AVeri100:NOTIbliCrergel#10

76 ;103 1.6,04,t-,

Structure37 inches

4440

722619-68

9.10: Surface Materials Found Under 76 Seesaw Structuresgrasssanddirtclaypea gravelasphaltconcretestonewood/barkcarpet

38.020.86.96.95.55.55.55.52.71.3

TABLE 3.10Survey Section 10: Percentages for 276 Designated Sand Play Areas

Item Number Percentage

10.1 separated sand play areas10.2 dean and debris free10.3 good drainage apparent10.4 sand play areas elevated10.5 covered or located to exclude

animals10.6 benches for adult seating

276 9.981:062.030.018.0

38.0

r)4

-- -"s

- 414


TABLE 3.11Survey Section 11: Percentages for 100 Wading Pools

irItem Numb11.1 separate water play areas 100 3.11.2 .1 65%; wakirfall 0%; water cascade

1 ; spray 0%; sprinkle 15%; water canal2%; water wheel 2%; water table 10%;other 6%

11.3 elevated, fenced, and gated pool areas 45.611.4 clear and free of debris 52.011.5 average depth of pool 51/2"11.6 benches for adults adjacent to wading 25

pool

TABLE 3.12Survey Section 12: Percentages for 198 Centers with Signs, Trees, andPathways

ItemPercentage Percentage

Yes No \

12.1 overview map of play area 1 99.012.2 accessible facilities designated 3 97.012.3 signs for seeking help in a.ae of accident 1 99.012.4 signs directing wheel toy traffic 3 97.012.5 sign indicators to direct play traffic 3 97.012.6 signs indicating difficulty of play structure .6 99.412.7 signs prohibiting anim& from .6 99.4

playground12.8 signs warning against dangerous play .3 99.7

activities12.9 sign to expand explcratnry play 100.012.10 signs written in other ianguages common 100.0

to region

35

TABLE 3:13Survey-Section 13: Percentages for Tunes antiSitaciatiritiures

.AlierageTerItem iCenter: NeiCAVO-_

4


13.1 trees located within 50 feet13.2 treee planned as.part of play structure13.3 dead_treet used as part of play

structiire13.4 tiee- hiises built13.5 treet oh perimeter io break wind13.6 man made structurei to shade seating

Meafurements:width.14',..height.9' length-23' depth 7'Materiel Type:wood 60%; metal 22%; plastic 11.1%;concrete 16.6%; doth 0%; other 0%

13.7 drinking fountains near playgroundequipment

,.23'

.82

.23

23 77-

TABLE 3.14Survey Section 14: Pathways

Item Averagee Yes, No

14.1 lines likely to occur14.2 hard surface pathways14.3 width of pathway

length of pathway14.5 at least one intersection

12'76'

14.4 hard surface pathwaymaterials

Percentageconcrete 66.1asphalt 27.4fine gravel 2.1brick 1.6dirt 1.0crushed limestone .5sand .5wood .5

47 5353 47

25 75

t4

12

irel "it; M

3

'

sts.1

In

Cr,

Young Children and

Playground Safety

Joe L. Frost

In 1981, following more than a decade of intensive study, the UnitedStates Consumer Product Safety Commission published voluntaryguidelines for public playground safety (USCPSC, 1981a, 1981b).Although the guidelines are incomplete and imperfect, they are themost carefully developed and most widely used guidelines yetdeveloped in this country. They are addressed primarily to childrenages 5 to 12 and public playground equipment, but the guidelines arerelevant, with modifications for children's age, size, and develop-mental levels, to preschool playgrounds.

With the initiation of the National Electronic Injury SurveillanceSystem (NEISS) in 1972, systematic injury data for playgroundinjuries were collected from a sample of I- ipital emergency roomsacross the United States, and the public becanh: aware of the scope ofthese injuries.

Playground Injuries

The NEISS data revealed a gradually increasing number of play-ground injuries during the 1980s, growing from 154,828 in 1980 to


208,488 in 1985 and 202,346 in 1988 (Figure 4.1). The slight decline ininjuries reported between 1985 and 1988 may be due to growingawareness of safety problems on playgrounds and increasing num-bers of lawsuits.

The NE1SS data are dustered by age groups: 0-4-year-olds; 5-14-year-olds; and older (Table 4.1). Young children are at fargreater riskon playgrounds than older children. Probable causes are relativelypoor coordination and logical reasoning and inappropriate equipment(e.g., sized for older children).

Equipment Involved in InjuriesDuring 1988, the equipment most frequently implicated in injurieswas swings (all children), followed in descending order by climbingequipment, slides, other categories, and seesaws (Table 4.1). Theinjuries on swings involved children ages 0-4 in 33 percent of thecases and 5-14-year-olds in 60 percent. The injury ratio on slides wasequally divided between the two age groups. Older children (5-14)were far more frequently injured on climbing equipment (79 percent)than were 0-4-year-olds (19 percent).

More boys were injured than were girls. Clearly, the high incidenceof injuries on swings, climbers, and slides was in large part a functionof their frequency on playgrounds. Other equipment, such as see-saws, merry-go-rounds, etc., may have been implicated in injuries onan equivalent, proportional basis.

HOMER OF1 MAJURI ES

225000

200000

175000

150000

125000

100000

75000

50000

25000

El NOMMENM MMIEMBIOMM@RI

M M el Fil Eg M E3 M MMOM-M M'e OMNIEl 121 M 11 gi M 1M M M

1979 loso 1911 1912 1913 1914 loss 1114 ini `itioYEAR

Figure 4.1. Total playground injuries-1979-1988 (USCPSC)

YOUNG CHILDREN AND PLAYGROUND SAFETY 31

The AALR Nlational Survey of Preschool Playgrounds, reported inthis book, revealed that the most common equipment on play-grounds, in descending order, was climbers, swings, slides, seesaws,and rotating equipment. Using these data (Table 4.2) and CPSc injurydata for all ages, we determine that seesaws, in proportion to

TABLE 4.1Equipment Involved In Injuries-1988 (USCPSC)

Equipment Number0-4Yrs.

5-14Yrs. Older

Swings 76,089 33.1 59.8 7.1Climbing equipment 57,217 18.7 78.5 2.8Slides 42,806 48.1 48.8 3.1Seesaws 9,686 32.2 63.0 4.8Other 16,548

Total 202,346

TABLE 4.2Equipment on Preschool Playgrounds and Proportion of Injuries(Survey of 349 Sites-1988)

InjuriesAll Percent

Type Number Ages Implicated

Climbing equipment 1,046 57,217 1.8Swings 554 76,089 0.7Slides 531 42,806 1.2Seesaws 76 9,686 0.8Rotating equipment 72 N.A. N.A.

frequency on playgrounds, were implicated in slightly more injuriesthan were swings, but only about half as frequently as were climbersand slides.

The three AALR National Surveys of Playgrounds (public schools,public parks, preschools) revealed that preschool playgrounds con-tain a far wider array of equipment and materials than do publicschools and public parks (Tables 4.3, 4.4, 4.5).

The relative absence of "portable materials" and "other provisions"(Tables 4.4, 4.5) on public school and public park playgrounds reflectsthe absence of storage for portable materials and the emphasis onmotor development and organized games. Assuming that children's


play is spread over a wider range of equipmeht and vatted& Is,attention to preschool safety must be expanded to match equipmentselection, playground zoning, installation, maintenance, and super-vision of these more complex play environments.

TABLE 4.3Playground Equipment

Permsnera fixed Preschoolequipment equ'pment

Publicschools

equipment

Swings 554 397Slides 531 300Balance beams 219 249Overhead ladders 186 323Rocking amratus 175 84Tire/net dbers 152 26Firemen poles 142 281Trapeze bars 127 904Suspended bridges 87 36Seesaws 76 183M-go-rounds 72 44GeWesic domes 66 109Monkey bars ,-3 240

Tot-1 number 2,447 3,178

TABLE 4.4Phyground Equipment

equIPMent

3703636492

192

951325570974166

1,637

PreschoolPortable materials equipment

Tricydes 1,039Loose tires 536Sand 276Wagons 231Barrels 167Loose boards or other 151Water 100Wheelbarrows 97Building materials 59Gardemng tools 54Art materials 51Carpentry tools 22

Total ...umber 2,783

41

YOUNG CHILDREN AND PLAYGROUND SAFETY

TABLE 4.5Playground Equipment

Other provisions

33

Grassy areas for organized gamesAccessible water-supply hose or faucets 296Separaie sand play areas 276 -Hard surface area for games 255Shaded structures (man-made) 253Storage for portable play materials 175Play houses 156Storage for maintenance equipment 137Cars (for dramatic play) 128Areas for digging soil 125Tablet 118Truchs (for dramatic play) 110Natural areas for plants 104Water play areas 100Toilet Willies 68Provisions for animal care 17Boats (for dramatic play) 16Amphitheatres 13

Total number 2,665

Injuries and FatalitiesDuring 1988 th e frequency order of injuries for all age groups treatedat emergency rooms was, most to least, fractures, lacerations, con-cussions, strains/vrains, hematomas, dislocations, pi:waves, dentalinjuries, foreig bodies, avulsions, crushing, amputations, ingestion,hemorrhage, and burns. Fractures lead the list of serious injuries,accounting for over one-fourth of all injuries. The large nnjority offractures were to the arms, followed by leg fractures.

Overall, head area injuries were the leading types of injury. Theywere especially prevalent among young children. Head first falls fromheights of 3 or more meters is "almost always likely to result infracture or concussion" (King & Ball, 1989). Some United Statesstudies indicate that concussion and/or skull frarture can result froma fall of 6 inches onto hard surfaces such as concrete. A range ofstudies from various countries, reported by King and Ball (1989) showthfi: falls from heights account for most playground injuries. Suchdata support the need for resilient surfacing under and aroundplayground equipment.

4 2

34 PLAYGROUNDS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN: SURVEY AND PERSPECITVES

The CPSC reported 28 playground fatalities occurring tie:mei,March 1985 and February 1987. The leading cause of these fatalitieswas asphyxiation/strangulation, resulting from such accidents ashead/neck entrapment, entanglement in suspended element% andclothing entrapment on S-hooks and protruding elements. The dataavailable for the 1970s show that falling onto hard surfaces was theprincipal cause of playground fatalities. Growing awareness of theneed for resilient surfacing under and around playground equipmentmay have affected the fatality data over the past decade. 1

The single most common cause of death in 1985-87 was hangings inswing chains and ropes. Four children were strangled on slidesbecause clothing was caught in protruding elements or because theywere Entangled by ropes. Two children died of skull fracturesinflicted by swings. Most of the fatalities occurred at home play-grounds. Children are less likely to be closely supervised at homethan at school. Furtivn, most back-yard equipment i of cheap, poorlydesigned construction.

Concern over playground injuries and fatalities prompted theCPSC in 1987 to, develop a b, iad-based playground safety program.The program iricludes: updating injury data, defining hazard pat-terns, identifying children's developmental patterns and age charac-teristics, revising safety handbooks, developing information materi-als, and developing safety guidelines for preschools. In addition,playground specialists are working with the American Society forTesting and Materials to develop safety standards for playgroundequipment (all ages) and for playground surfacing. Since no Ameri-can guidelines or standards for preschool playgrounds are yet avail-able, the author draws from existing guidelines/standards of variouscountries and agencies and from personal experience in developingthe next topic, Preventing Playground Injuries.

Preventing Playground InjuriesThis section is presented in two parts: General Hazard Analysis andPlayground Equipment Analysis. The content is not intended to beexhaustive but key safety elements often implicated in injuries arediscussed. The key information sources lnd guidelines/standai.lsfrom the United States and other countries deal more specifically witholder children than with preschool children, so modifications foryoung children have been made by the author. These modificationswere gleaned from aafety literature, personal interactions with play/safety specialists, and experience in legal litigation involving play-ground injuries.

43


General Hazard Analysis

Entrapment

Over the past two decades a number of children have been entrappedin playground equipment. The consequences of head and/or neckentrapment can be brain damage or death. Most of the children,implicated are preschool children. The CPSC guidelines warn thataccessible components of moving apparatus and climbing,or slidingstructures should not be of a configuration that can entrap any partofthe user's body. No component or group of componentS should forman angle or opening that can trap a user's head. The CPSC does notgive specific dimensions except for exercise rings. The guidelinesfrom various agencies and countries range from warning against 5inch to 10 inch inside diameter to 31/2 inch to 9 inch diameteropenings. The critical dimensions are width of child's head anddistance from tip of chin to the top back of the head. Taking intoaccount all ages, two- to twelve-year-olds, an opening may beconsidered to present an entrapment hazard if the distance betweeninterior surfaces of openings is between 31/2-4 inches to 8-9 inches.This criterien should be applied to all adjacent surfaces, includingspace between ladder rungs, space between steps, space betweenhorizoiaal ladder rungs, and space between deck railings. Flexiblenets should also be examined for entrapment areas.

Heights

The NEISS data show that most injuries and some fatalities onplaygrounds result from falls onto hard surfaces. Height is a criticalfactor because the farther the child falls, the more likely the child willbe injured. All major playground guidelines, CPSC and those of othercountries, require that protective surfacing be placed under andaround all equipment to protect children. The height of equipmentshould not exceed the capacity of the installed surface to nrotect thechid in a fall. European standards restrict climbing heights to 8 to 9feet. The CPSC guidelines do not specify a moximum height. Giventhe number of injuries resulting from falls, the poor in; *ntenance ofplaygrounds, and the improper surfacing existing on playgrounds,the maximum fall height for children should not exceed the Europeanstandard. Fall heights should be reduced for younger age groups. Ageneral rule of thumb is that equipment fall heights should not exceedby more than a few inches the reaching height of children whenstanding on the protective surface underneath the equipment. It is

4 4

4t-


important for play value that decks be of sufficient height for childrento play underneath.

Pinch, Crush, and Shearing PointsLife and limb threatening shearing pointi are sOmetimes found on theundercarriage of rotating apparatus, such as merry-go-rounds. Pinchor shearing actions are-also found on seesaws, glider swings,:andpulleys of cable rides. The CPSC guidelines state: "There shonlci-beno accessible Pinch, crush, or shear points caused by-eomponentsmoving relative to each other, or to a fixed component when theequipment is moved through its anticipated use cycle." The stan-dards of other countries contain similar statements. In normal play,children use play equipment in ways not intended. Consequently,designers, installers, and users must be alert to detect unusualdrcumstances that can endanger children. Merry-go-rounds shouldnot have openings or holes jr1 the base that allow children to insertany part of the body, including the fingers. The fulcrum of seesawsshould be totally enclosed or designed with springs that do not allowpinching or crushing.

Protrusions and Sharp AreasTh- :PSC guidelines specify that there should be no protrusions orsharp areas that are likely to cut or puncture the body or catchclothing. Common violations include exposed bolt ends, exposedends of tubing, and protrusions on upper portions of support poststhat may catch clothing and result in strangulation. Metal slide bedsshould be checked carefully to ensure that sharp edges are notexposed. Large splinters, protruding nails, and open ends of wireropes are frequent violations. Nails should not be used in playgroundequipment. Common remedies for protrusions include counter-sinking or recessing potential hazards on hardware and coveringprotruding bolts or tubing with permanent caps or plugs that can ber2moved only with tools. Protrusions on suspended members ofswing assemblies are particularly hazardous since small area impactscan cause skull fracture or skull penetration. All S-hooks should becompletely closed to avoid clothing entrapment hazards. It is likelythat S-hooks will be prohibited by future standards. Satisfactorysubstitutions for S-hooks are already available.

45


Suspended HazardsThe CPSC guidelines pr-hibit suspended cables, wires, ropes, orsimilar components within ',J degrees of the horizontal and less than7 feet above the ground surface. The Canadian (Canadian Institute ofChild Health, 1984) and Seattle (Seattle Department of Parks andRecreation, 1986) guidelines specify that no suspended elements lessthan 1 inch in diameter should be installed in such a manner thatallows contact by the user in motion. Such guidelines are notintended to eliminate items such as guard-rails, cargo nets, andclimbing grids. Visibility of suspended elements can be enhanced byuse of bright colors. Plastic coatings may have some positive effect.

Protective RailingsThe CPSC guidelines prescribe protective barriers at least 38 incheshigh around elevated walking surfaces above 30 inches in height.These should surround the surface except for necessary exits andopenings. Dimensions are not prescribed for preschool children.Maximum hand-rail heights can be reduced for younger children.Based on elbow heights of 95th percentile twelve-year-old children(38 inches) and 95th percentile five-year-old children (26 inches), themaximum rail height should correspond to these dimensions. Hand-rail height would va.,7y from about 20 to 26 inches for preschool agechildren. Hand-rail heights are particularly critical for younger chil-dren because of their relatively low levels of motor coordination andstrength.

Consumer InformationAll playgound equipment should be clearly marked with the name,address, and telephone number of the manufacturer. Although notpresently required, it is expected that in the future, manufacturerswill attach vendor certificates specifying that the equipment conformsto national guidelines or standards. Complete installation and main-tenance specifications should also be provided by the manufacturer.These should include guidelines for surfacing.

Toxic Materials and Poisonous PlantsBefore beginning a playground, the site should be checked for theexistence of toxic materials such as previous land-fill materials ordrainage from industrial plants. In addition, children may be exposedto pesticides sprayed in play areas or to toxic wood preservatives in


playground equipment. The CPSC recomniends that manufacturersensure that play equipment not contain any hazardous substancesthat children can ingest, inhale, or absorb through the body. Nofederal agency presently protects against toxic wood preservatives. Areport by Consultants in Epidemiology and Occupational Health, Inc.(1984) conduded that the maximum arsenic exposure for childrenfrom usingplayground equipment is "within the normal variation ofcarcinogenic exposure for children" (p. 21). On the other hand,,thefederal Environmental Protection Agency (Parents Maga;ine; May1985) conduded that infants and toddlers crawling or playing ondecks or playground equipment treated with wood preservatives"may be especially susceptible to ill effects since their tolerance totoxins is lower than that of adults" (p. 10). The EPA recommends thatdecks containing these substances be sealed with at least two coats ofshellac or other sealant. In addition, many plants commonly used onplaygrounds are poisonous. The prospective playground developershould consult with expert plant nursery operators or other qualifiedpeople in the local area to ensure that no plants used on playgroundsa re poisonous.

Electrical HazardsThe issue of electrical hazards on playgrounds is not addressed byany of the standards or guidelines of industrialized countries. Nev-ertheless, electrical hazards on playgrounds are very common. Thesehazards include exposed air conditioners, electrical switch boxes, andguy wires or other support or access members that allow children toclimb into contact with electric wires. All electrical equipment onplaygrounds should be fenced or made inaccessible to children, andchildren should be alerted to potential hazards.

Playground SignsBecause of the growing frequency of lawsuits from playgroundinjuries, signs are appearing on playgrounds with increasing fre-quency. The Seattle guidelines recommend placing signs for parentsand teachers at the entry to all playgrounds. These signs wouldindicate: (a) special features of the area, (b) suggestions for adultinteraction, (c) age group or developmental skills served, and (d)degree of difficulty. Others (Pale Incorporated, 1986; Bruya, 1988)recommend expanding the functions of signs to indude information,directions, identification, regulations, and promotion of curriculum.

4 7


Playground Equipment Analysis

39

In the following section, safety problems relevant to the mostcommon playground equipment are examined. A growing practice inschools and cities is to destroy or remove playground equipment thatis implicated. in injuries. In most cases, this represents poor judg-ment, for hazardous equipment can often be made safe by modifica-tion of the structure or by providing the appropriate resilient materialunderneath the structure. Equipment is frequently blamed for inju-ries that are caused by improper surfacing. A second important factorto keep in mind is that playground equipment can be made morechallenging without sacrificing safety.

Climbing EquipmentBoth metal and wood are common materials used in manufacturingplayground equipment. Wood is softer and more forgiving in contactswith bodies, but it is prone to splintering, rot, and wear. Metal, on theother hand, may be hot and unattractive. The newer powder-coatedmetals, including both steel and aluminum, however, resist heatbuild-up and offer a satisfactory alternative to bare or painted metal.Until recently, exposed bolts were common on almost all commercialmetal equipment. Now, efforts are being made to install smooth boltassemblies or to use materials that do not protrude.

A common hazardous feature that is still being perpetuated bynumerous manufacturers is the design of equipment that allowschildren to fall from one point onto another part of the equipment.For example, the support structure at the bottom entry to chainclimbers presents a hazard in the fall zone, as do the ladder rungslending access to horizontal ladders. Access routes to climbers anddecks may include ladders, steps, and stairways. Ladders with rungsshould be installed at a 75 degree to 90 degree angle, ladder type stepsat 50 degrees to 75 degrees, and stairways at 35 degrees or less.Climbers should not have components that obstruct falls to protectivesurfacing from the top of the structure or from the inside or outsideof the structure. They should not have projections that can entrapclothing, or openings that can entrap portions of the body, includingfingers and heads. For example, the distance between rungs onhorizontal ladders shculd be greater than 9 inches and less than 12-14inches to satisfy entrapment requirements for older children. Nine to12 inch distances between rungs is appropriate for preschool chil-dren, based upon age and developmental levels. A general practical

48


guideline for height of horizontal ladders should be slightly above thereaching height of 95th percentile users. Climbing structures shouldbe zoned to avoid interference with adjacent structures or compo-nents. Equipment design should not facilitate climbing on the top ofsupport bars of trapeze-type equipment.

SwingsSwings are frequently involved in playground injuries. Commonaccidents/injuries include the child falling from the swing to a hardsurface, the child falling from the swing and being hit by the seat, andthe child running into the path of a moving swing. Most seriousswing injuries can be prevented by installing and maintaining propersurfacing underneath the equipment and by providing proper swingseats. The acceptable swing seats are made of light-weight, flexiblematerials such as rubber and plastic. Heavy glider-type projectilessach as animal-form seats with protruding elements are extremelyhazardous.

Swings are typically installed too close together. The CPSC recom-mends 18 inches between seats and between seats and support posts.Standards of other countries take a more conservative position,recommending 24 to 36 inches between these elements. The presentauthor recommends 24 inches between swings and 36 inches betweenswings and support structures. Swings should be selected accordingto the various age and developmental needs groups. Infant swingseats need safety straps. Special swings for wheelchairs may beneeied for special children. The height of swing beams should besized to age groups (the higher the swing beam the higher theswinging potellt:41). The beam height of swings should follow thPgeneral height requirement for all playground equipment. In generalterms, the swing beam should not exceed about 8 feet with 6 to 7 feetbeing more appropriate for preschool children. The height of theswing seat from the ground should vary from about 16 inches to 18inches for school-age children; 12 inches to 15 inches for preschoolchildren. Seats for toddlers are placed at a height convenient foradults who are supervising the play activity. The swings should beplaced away from traffic areas. Attaching swings to a superstructureincreases the possibility of conflicts during play. Extra protection fromtraffic can be provided by low fences or vertically embedded tiresaround swing areas. Surfacing materials should be extended to theextent needed to protect children from falls from the swing seat at itsmaximum height, or at least twice the length of the swing chain.

,..ormor....-----

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SlidesSome of the most common hazards on slides include excessiveheights lack of transition decks between ladders and slides, lack ofsafety railings, insufficient height of slide sides, and inappropriate orpoorly maintained surfve material underneath. Over 300 childrenreceived burns severe enough to seek emergency room.treatment in1988 from playing on slides. The modern, high quality plastic slidesare recommended as a solution to this problem. Since toddlers may"freeze" to a hot surface and receive very severe burns, the authorrecommends that no bare metal decks or slides be installed in toddlerplaygrounds in hot climates. The CPSC specifies a platform deck of atleast 10 inches width at the top entrance to the slide. However, sucha small deck area is not sufficient for this purpose. Most modernsuper-structures employ decks 4 feet square to provide entry and exitsurfaces to slides and other exercise options. The CPSC recommendsthat exit surfaces of slides be at least 16 inches long and parallel to theground and that the exit itself be 9 to 15 inches above the ground. Thelength of the exit region and the height above the exit Should varyaccording to age and size of potential users. Protective railings shouldbe provided at the top of the slide chute; they should be at least 24inches long for both younger and older children. The current CPSCheight recommendation of 21 inches for protective barriers is appro-priate for twelve-year-old users, but for preschoolers a 16-inch heightis more appropriate.

The CPSC recommends a slope not exceeding 30 degrees but inactual play applications, speed of descent varies with the type of slidematerial and the length of the slide. The German standard (DeutscheInstitut fur Normung. 1985) specifies a maximum slope of 40 degrees;this may be more realistic under certain conditions. The speed of theslide should be tested by installers during installation to determinethe appropriate angle.

In high impact areas such as the exit of slides, surface materialsshould be given special consideration. Loose surfacing materials areneeded, up to 2 feet deep, because of the frequent displacement ofmaterials and the inadequacy of th..st maintenance programs. TheCPSC guidelines recommend that the sides of slides be at least 21/2inches in height for the entire length of the sliding surface. This is aninadequate dimension. Other countries (Kompan, 1984) require thesides of slides to be 4 to 6 inches high and preschool slides arerequired to be even higher (71/2 inches in Australia). Minimally, slidesfor all ages should have sides at least 4 inches high.

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Merry-go-roundsMerry-go-rounds have a reputation for being hazardous and forhaving limited play function. However, available data do not supportthese contentions. They are more limited in certain play functionsthan some equipment and some merry-go-rounds are extremelyhazardous, particularly those with open spaces in the platform wherechildren can place parts of the body inside and receive severeshearing type injuries. Shearing actions in the undercarriage of badlydesigned devices severely injure children when they climb under-neath the structure. On the other hand, numerous manufacturersproduce reasonably safe merry-go-rounds that can add fun andchallenge to the playground. Merry-go-rounds are useful for vestib-ular stimulation (sense of balance), motor activity, and dramatic play.The acceptable types have solid circular bases with strong rigidhand-holds and are free of shearing mechanisms underneath thecircular base. At the present time, poorly designed, badly worn, andill-maintained merry-go-rounds are crushing and amputating fingersand crushing legs. Such outmoded devices should be removed fromplaygrounds. Serious attention needs to be given to design, installa-tion, maintenance, and supervision of merry-go-rounds. Excessiverotational speed should be limited by supervision and/or by design ofthe equipment. Protective sinfacing should be provided under andaround the equipment.

SeesawsSeesaws are functionally narrow as play devices but they do providefor social activity of children, cooperative play, balance activity, anda limited degree of motor activity: they may be retreats for relaxationand quiet activity. Injuries involving seesaws result from falls, beinghit by moving devices, being punctured by splinters, being cut byexposed bolts, having hands crushed by fulcrums, and having feetcrushed between the ends of seesaws and the ground.

Car tires are commonly used to cushion the effect of seesaws hittingthe ground. These may be attached to the bottom of the seesaw orburied in the ground. Fulcrums of seesaws should be completelyenclosed unless they are of the spring type, in which case the springshould not allow for crushing of fingers. The distance betweenseesaws should be twice the arm length of users and the heightshould be sized to the age group. The Australian standard specifies amaximum of 6 feet from the ground to the end of the seesaw atmaximum height. This appears to be excessive, certainly for pre-

51


school children. Rocking type seesaws, spring mounted seesaws, orscaled down seesaws are appropriate for preschool children. Protec-tive surfacing should be provided.

Portable Play MaterialsThe high quality preschool playground contains a wide variety ofportable play materials, including barrels, crates, tires, etc. Thesematerials, like the heavy-dt. ty playground equipment, should besubjected to regular inspecion, including examination for loose parts,broken parts, and parts that may be dislodged and swallowed. Allsuch material should be kept in good repair. A supply of parts forwheeled vehicles is needed to ensure safe equipment. A storagefacility adjacent to the playground may be needed to protect thematerials from the elements and from vandalism and theft.

playground Surfacing

The Consumer Product Safety Commission identified falling fromequipment onto hard surfacing as the major cause of playgroundinjuries. Between 60 and 70 percent of all injuries occur as children fallonto surfacing material beneath the equipment or fall from one part ofequipment onto another part. Recent CPSC data show that 90 percentof serious injuries in playgrounds result from falls to hard surfaces(Tinsworth & Kramer, 1990). Consequently, the most direct means forreducing playground injuries is by installing resilient surfacing ma-terial under and around the playground equipment as recommendedby CPSC.

Although no large-scale scientific studies have been conductedrec;arding the effectiveness of surfacing material in real life play-ground conditions, data from the Los Angeles school system giveindications of its effectiveness. Over a 20-year period, ending in 1951with the fall of a six-year-old boy from a swing onto an asphaltsurface, the Los Angeles school system recorded 11 playgrounddeaths. In 1955 the Los Angeles school system installed rubbersurfacing under playground equipment, and no additicaal deathswere reported during the next decade. Further, the incidence offractures and concussions was reduced from 1.25 per school in 1951 to0.47 in 1965 (Butwinick, 1974).

Commercial surfacing material is only one of several types availablethat meet the requirements of the CPSC. Others can be categorizedunder "loose organic materials" and "loose inorganic materials."

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Loose organic materials include bark nuggets, mulch, coco shellmulch, and shredded wood. Inorganic loose materials include sandand pea gravel. All of the available materials have both advantagesand disadvantages.

Loose Organic Materials

Advantages:These materials present an esthetically pleasing appearance.These materials are usually inexpensive.These materials are not carried into buildings as readily as areinorganic loose materials.

Disadvantages:These materials decompose over time.The trapped air necessary for protective cushioning is affected byrain and humidity.These materials will freeze.When wet these materials may allow for micro-organism growth.Wind may blow these materials.These materials may be blown into children's eyes.They may harbor insects.They may lose their cushioning properties as dirt and othermaterials are combined with them.They require constant maintenance.

Proper installation of these materials requires that they be kept inplace 10 to 12 inches deep in all areas, particularly in high impactareas such as ends of slides and underneath swings.

Inorganic Loose Materials

Advantages:Sand is an excellent play material. (Pea gravel has relatively littleplay value.)These materials are inexpensive in most areas.

Disadvantages:These materials are displaced by children's playing and must bereplenished regularly.These materials may be blown or thrown into children's eyes.These materials may become compacted.They may harbor insects or broken glass.They may lose their cushioning properties as they are combinedwith dirt or other materials.

'A;


These materials may freeze (sand is particularlY prone to freez-ing).Pea gravel is parficularly hard to walk on.These materials require continuous maintenance.Wheel chairs will not roll on these materials.When installed adjacent to wheeled vehicle tracks they createslippery areas on the hard surface.

Proper installation of inorganic loose materials requires that they bekept in place, 10 to 12 inches deep, with particular attention given tohigh impact and high use areas such as ends of slides and underneathswings.

Loose materials or inorganic materials should never be installedover conaete or asphalt because with use, and the "pitting effect,"hard surfaces are not properly protected.

Commercial Materials (e.g., rubber mats,synthetic turf)

Advantages:Some of these materials appear to be very durable. Durabilitytests in real playground situations have not been conducted oversufficient time to allow clear conclusions.These materials are easier to keep clean than are the loosematerials. In most applications hosing down is all that is requiredto clean the surface areas.These laaterials require less maintenance than loose materials.

Disadvantages:These materials are subject to vandalism.They must be used on level, compact surfaces such as asphalt,concrete, or packed aggregate.These materials may be flammable.Performance of these materials depends upon the base founda-tion.They may be constructed using toxic materials.These materials are very expensive, ranging in price from $8.00to $14.00 per square foot (1990 prices) plus the cost of a solid basefoundatw.

Depth of surfacing materials must vary with height of equipment.The surface materials must meet approved G Tests of the CPSC andinstallation must be done by trained installers. A variation of com-mercial materials, not mentioned above, is the chopped rubber

5-4

46 PLAYGROUNDS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN: SURVEY AND PERSPECIIVES

material that is poured into place and remains in a relatively loosestate. These materials have additional disadvantages compared toother commercial materials. They are subject to shifting, must bereplenished regularly, and may be ingested by small children.

A great deal of controversy is currently revolving around theappropriateness of various surfacing materials. Laboratory test datasubmitted to the National Recreation and Park Association (1976) bythe Franklin Testing Institute resulted in the following conclusions:

Extremely Hazardousconcrete, asphalt, packed earth

Conditionally Acceptablegym mat 2", double thick gym mat, rubber mat, double thick rubbermats, pea 6,-.3vel, wood chips

Acceptablesand 8-10"

In its February 1979 report (Mahajan & Beine, 1979) Impact Attenu-ation Performance of Surfaces Under Playground Equipment, the NationalBureau of Standards conclue d that pea gravel failed the 200g droptest for heights under 4 fe,:t This finding contradicts tests by theFranklin Institute, just deFtAbed, and other published data byplayground and surfacing companies. Recent tests conducted by theConsumer Product Safety Commission (Ramsey & Preston, 1990)found that pea gravel met the 200g drop test to heights of approxi-mately 6 to 7 feet.

Consequer v. questions must be raised about the qi.i.tlity and sizeof the pea gravel tested. Pea gravel ranges in size from about 1/16 to1/2 inch in diameter and in some cases crushed rock may bedesigrated "pea gravel." Fine (1/4 inch) river-washed pea gravelappears to be the most desirable type.

The American Society foi Tesng and Materials is currently devel-oping playground surfacing standards. With the publication of thesestandards, clearer direction will be available. It must be rememberedby all playground developers and users that surfacing material, nomatter how excellent initially, is useless unless it is properly main-tained. For loose materials Cais means constant attention to inspectionand repair. It is very likely that high-use playgrounds at public parksand public schools will increasingly use commercial materials sincethe mainte:tance requirements are considerably less than for loosematerials.

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YOUNG CHILDRaN AND PLAYGROUND SAFETY

Safety ResponsibilitieF,

The results of the national survey o'.1->:eschool playgounds, reportedin this book, reveal an overall r att Tn nf port'. equipment design,neglect, abuse, and lack of mairf enan e. Another major contributingfactor to playground injuries is etle on-going sale of hazardousequipment by manufacturers and their representatives.

Frost (1990) compared the equipment in the 1989 catalogs of 24national distributors against the Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion guidelines. He found that half of these companies marketedequipment with "extensive violations" or "extreme violations"; nineof the companies marketed equipment with "limited violations" or"some violations"; only three companies marketed equipment withno violafions. Despite the fact that such violations were confirmed inindependent, blind analyses, many manufacturers continue to denythat their products are unsafe or that they violate CPSC guidelines.

fortunately, a growing number of manufaciurers are improving thesafety features of their equipment. A few interact regularly in nationaland international conferences, workshops, and professional orgaai-zations with play specialists from various disciplines. A large repre-sentation is involved in the development of naional safety standards/guidelines, sponsored by the Consumer Product Safety Commissionand the American Society for Testing and Materials. A few manufac-turers are improving their involvement in consumer education byproviding information on child development, installation, mainte-nance, and supervision to prospective purchasers of their equipment.

It is clear that no single group, workins alone, can significantlyimprove the safety of children's playgrounds. National agencies candevelop and monitor safety guidelines/standards and manufacturerscan improve equipment design and offer educational services. Buteducated consumers are needed to ensure that high quality programsof maintenance (Chapter 8) and play leadership (Chapter 10) areavailable. Finally, we must provide safety education for all childrenand build strong physical fitness programs to help them meetplayground challenges with intelligence and skill.

ReferencesButwinick, E. (1974). Petition requesting the issuance of a consumer

product safety standard for public playground slides, swinging.,pparatus and climbing equipment. Washington, DC: UnitedStates Consumer Product Safety Commission.

sorior


Canadian Institute of Child Health. (1984). Draft for children's playspaces and equipment. Canadian Institute of Child Health.

Consultants in Epidemiology and Occupational Health, Inc. (1984).Evaluation of risk to children using arsenic-treated playground equipment.Sacamento, CA: California State Department of Health Services.

Deutsche Institut fur Normung (DIN). (1985). Playground equipment forchildren: Concepts, safety requirements, testing. Berlin, West Germany:Deutsche Institut fur Normung. Translation by British StandardsInstitution.

Frost, J.L. (1990). How safe is American playground equipment. TexasChild Care Quarierly.

King, K., & Ball, D. (1989) A holistic approach to accident and injuryprevention in children's playgrounds. London: LCS, Great GuildfordHouse.

Xompan, Inc. (1984). Playgrounds and safety: Comparisons betweenvarious playground equipment standardsAmerican, Australian, British,German. Windsor Locks, CT: Kompan, Inc.

Mahajan, B.M., & Beine, W.B. (1979). Impact attenuation performance ofsurfaces installed under playground equipment. Bethesda, MD: Con-sumer Product Safety Commission.

National Recreation and Park Association. (1976). Proposed safetystandard for public playground equipment. Arlington, VA: Na-tional Recreation and Park Association.

Parent's Magazine. (1985). Beware! Wood preservatives can kill. Par-ent's Magazine, May 1985.

Ramsey, L.F., & Preston, J.D. (1990). Impact attenuation performance ofplayground surfacing materials. Washington, DC: U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety Commission.

Seattle Department of Parks and Recreation. (1986). Draft designguidelines for play areas. Seattle, WA: Seattle Department of Parksand Recreation.

Tinsworth, D.K., & Kramer, J.T. (1990). Playground equipment relatedinjuries and deaths. Washington, DC: U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission.

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. (1981a). A handbook forpublic playground safety. Volume 1: General guidelines for new andexisting playgrounds Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice.

Documents

ERIC - Education Resources Information CenterFrost, Joe L., Ed. grounds for Young Children: National Survey and P*rspectives. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation