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Carnevale, Anthony P.; And OthersWorkplace Basics: The Skills Employers Want.Amerv.lan Society for Training and Development,Alexandria, VA.Employment and Training Administration (DOL),Washington, D.C.8899-6-0705-75-079-0242p.

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MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.*Basic Skills; *Curriculum Development; *EducationWork Relationship; *Employer Attitudes; EmploymentPotential; *Employment Qualifications; ProgramDevelopment; Program Implementation; School BusinessRelationship; *Skill Development

A two-year research project was conducted todetermine the skills employers consider necessary for the workplace.Recent changes in the economy have made employers begin to realizethat they must assist their current and future workers in achievingcompetency in workplace basics if they are to be competitive.Employers have come to realize the undeniable linkage between workforce skills and the competitive cycle and the importance of basicskills in the face of rapid technical change. The following skillshave been recognized as being extremely important: learning skills;basic skills (reading, writing, computation); listening and oralcommunication; adaptability (creative thinking, problem solving);personal management (self-esteem, goal setting/motivation,personal/career development); group effectiveness (interpersonalskilll, negotiation, teamwork); and influel:a (organizationaleffectiveness and leadership). An applied ,-dproach to developing aprogram to deliver workplace basics must include the following steps:identify and assess problems; build support; propose a plan; performa task analysis; develop and design a curriculum; and implement,evaluate, and monitor the program. (MN)

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WorkplaceBasics:

THE SKILLS EMPLOYERS WANT

The American Society for'Raining is DevelopmentWilliam N. Yeomans, PresidentCurtis Plott, Exec. Vice President

byAnthony P. Carnevale

Leila J. GainerAnn S Meltzer

U.S. Department of LaborEmployment ik Training AdministrationAnn McLaughlin, Secretary

3 Roberts T. Jones, Asst. Secretary

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-WORKPLACE BASICS,

Workplace BasicsCON T KIM

PREFACE

TaRikkikk-f.,

Basic Skills and Competitiveness

Basic Skills and the Competitive Cycle

Basic Skills and Technical Change

Basic Skills and Individual Opportunity

The American Challenge

8 The Skills Employers Want

The Foundation: Knowing How to Learn

10 Competence: Reading, Writing, and Computation

11 Communication: Listening and Oral Communication

12 Adaptability: Creative Thinldng and Problem-Solving

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WORKPLACE BASICS

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Personal Management Self Esteem, GoalSetting/Motivation, and Personal/Career Development

Group Eff, activeness: Interpersonal Skills,Negotiation, and Teamwork

Influence: Organizational Effectiveness and Leadership

PART 3

Blueprint for Success: How to EstablishPrograms to Deliver Workplace Basics

How Does the Applied Approach Work?

Getting the Job Done: How Does the Process Work?

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Step I: Identify and Assess Problems 20

Step II: Build Support 23Step III: Propose a Plan 24

Step IV: Perform a Usk Analysis 25Step V: Design the Curriculum 27

Step VI: Develop the Curriculum 29Step VII: Implement the Program 29

Step VIII: Evaluate and Monitor the Program 31

REFERENCES

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PREFACE

T his publication summarizes a portion of the research conducted under a two-yearjoint project of the American Society for Tr .ining and Development and the U. S.Department of Labor. It represents a brief overview of the findings from our basic

workplace skills research. More comprehensive coverage of this topic and other findings onthe organization and stricture of training will be available in 1989 in four books:

ORGANIZATION AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF TRAINING explores how training is struc-tured, financed, and linked to the strategic goals of employer institutions. It also maps the sizeand scope of training in employer institutions.

TECHNICAL TRAINING examines how technical workers get their training, vtliat it costs,who provides it, how it links to strategic goals, and what the future holds for the technicalworkforce.

ACCOUNTING AND EVALUATION includes an accounting model that represents a testedmethod of capturing training costs and benefits. It also explores effective evaluation methodsthat connect training to strategic change.

BASIC WORKPLACE SKILLS maps out the skills that employers want and charts thestrategic relevance of each skill. A model for establishing a basic workplace skills program,as well as generic curriculum for each skill, is included. In addition, a comprehensive BASICWORKPLACE SKILLS MANUAL will chart the step-by-step process for establishing a basicworkplace skills program. It will include charts and checklists for implementation.

The material in this project was prepared under Grant No 9940705 -75 -079-02 from the Employment and TrainingAdministration, U. S. Department of Labor, under the authority of Title IV, part D, of the Job Training PartnershipAct of 1982. Grantees undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freelytheir professional judgment. Therefore, points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily repre-sent the official position or policy of the Department of Labor.

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WORKPLACE BASICS

ILew technology. Parti-cipative management.Sophisticated statisticalquality controls. Custo-

mer service. Just-in-time produc-tion. The workplace is changing andso are the skills that employees musthave in order to change with it.

But many do not have basics essential for ac-quiring more sophisticated technical skills.

While not a new problem, deficiencies in basicworkplace skills is a growing one. It is a challengeemerging from a volatile mix of demographic,economic and technical forces. These combinedforces are driving the nation toward human cap-ital deficit among both new and experiencedworkers that threatens the competitiveness ofeconomic institutions and acts as a barrier to theindividual opportunity of all Americans.

The nation is facing a startling demographicreality that isn't likely to go away. The group of16-to-24 year olds that is the traditional source ofnew workers is shrinking, and employers willhave to reach into the ranks of the less qualifiedto get their entry-level workforce. That meansthat an increasing number of entry-level workerswill come from groups where historically humanresource investments have been deficient.

If that's news to you, don't feel bad; it's news tomost. Americans are predisposed to the view thatthere are too many qualified people and notenough good jobs to go around. Our recent his-tory encourages us to believe that people aresuperfluous while machinery, financial capitaland natural resources are hard to come by. How-ever, things are rarely as they first appear. Closelyexamined, the apparent excess of Americanworkers proves illusory. In the future, there willlikely be too few well-educated and trained Amer-ican workers looking for their first job.

Ironically, this demographic reality is on acollision course with the notion that employeesmust be able to quickly understand and acquirenew and different skills. As technology becomesmore footloose and instantaneously availableworldwide, the skills of employees become theemployer's competitive edge.

Today's workplace demands not only a good

command of the three R's, but more. Employerswant a new kind of worker with a broad set ofworkplace skills or at least a strong founda-tion of basics that will facilitate learning onthe job.

For employers, the basic workplace skillschallenge has been slowly coming into focusfor some time. Reading, writing and math defi-ciencies have been the first to surface in theworkplace; but, increasingly, skills such as prob-lem-solving, listening, negotiation and knowinghow to learn are being seen as essentials. Defi-ciencies in many of these basic workplace skillsare barriers to entry-level employees, exper-ienced employees, and dislocated workers at-tempting to adapt to economic and techno-logical change within employer institutions.

Employer interest in improving basic skills isdriven by economic concerns. When deficienciesaffect the bottom line, employers respond withtraining or replacement. But, the time-honoredchoice, replacement, is becoming less practicalbecause the supply of workers is shrinking.Increasingly, employers are forced to makerather than buy productive employees. As aresult, interest in providing training in basicworkplace skills is growing.

Employee interest also is growing, primarilybecause workers are being challenged as neverbefore. For those already employed, deficienciesin basic workplace skills threaten adaptation,and short-circuit successful job transitions, andcareer growth. The ground under them is shift-ing as the range of skills needed to participatesuccessfully in this economy expands. They are.less super ised, but more frequently calledupon to identify problems and make crucialdecisions.

Perhaps the most devastating impact ofbasic workplace deficiencies falls upon thedisadvantaged who are outside the economicmainstream, struggling to get in. For thoseattempting to enter the workforce and thosewho have been displaced from their jobs, suchdeficiencies inhibit entry into productive andwell-paying work, pinning those disadvantagedat the bottom of the economic heap.

The upskilling of work in America is driven bytechnical changes, innovation, and a sense ofheightened competition. The picture is further

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WORKPLACE BASI S

complicated by competitive challenges drivingcompanies toward employing an array of stra-tegies that require adaptive and innovativeworkers with strong interpersonal skills.Business strategies such as collaboration (thework team concept), exemplary customer ser-vice, and emphasis on quality demand team-work, listening skills, the ability to set goals,creativity, and problem-solving skills.

Couple this with the movement toward moreparticipative management and employersaggressively driving workers toward decision-making at the point of production or point ofsale, and it is easy to see that new skills must beapplied if employeesand their employersareto succeed in the marketplace.

In fact, one might even say that a new kind ofAmerican worker is being ordered up. And thisnew worker will be expected to have a broad setof skills that were previously required only ofsupervisors and management.

For example, one job already in transition isthat of bank teller. Competitive shifts and newtechnologies have had a profound effect on thestructure, organization, and management ofbanks. A new customer service philosophydemands that traditional institutional and pro-fessional specialties give way to a "one-stop-shopping" approach for financial services.

Traditionally a processor, the bank teller'sprimary role was to perform a series of repeti-tive tasks (checks in, money out, reconciling)very well. Competitive pressures to satisfycustomers' "one -stop" desires have expanded thebank teller's role to include advising customerson a wide range of customized financial ser-vices. The teller now is privy to an array of infor-mation previously in the domain of midlevelmanagers, is empowered to advise customers,and is charged with making judgement calls "onthe line'sthat is, at the point of customer con-tact. Moreover, the teller is linked with data viaa computer terminal, requiring a new range ofskills to operate the equipment and access rele-vant data speedily.

III

In short, to be effective in the workplace thenew bank teller may not need to have the samedegree of skills in a narrow area of expertise, butinstead must have a good knowledge of a widerange of skills.

Taking the First Step

The nation is already taking the fir3t steptoward addressing basic workplace skills defi-ciencies. The voices of business and governmentleaders are joined increasingly in a dialog aimedat effecting damage controlat meeting thechallenge of basic skills deficiencies before itgrows larger. While not insurmountable thischallenge will be difficult to manage unlesspolicy makers and providers of training areequipped with the proper tools.

This booklet, and the book and manual thatwill follow in 1989, are designed to inform thereader about the challenge and the availabletools.

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Basic Skills and CcmpetitivenessIndividuals and employershave viewed basic work-place skills differently inthe past. For individuals,

competency in basic workplace skillshas always been important becausesound basic skills leverage earningsand opportunities. American em-ployers have seen competency inworkplace basics as a prerequisi a forhiring and viewed the accumulationof such skills as solely the respon-sibility of the individual. The em-ployer's interest focused on measur-ing the skills of prospective employeesand screening out those who weremost suitable for hiring.

But times are changing. Employers are begin-ning to see that they must assist their current andfuture workers to achieve competency in work-place basics if they are to be competitive. Thissense of shared responsibility is grounded ineconomic realities and is compelling employers

to invest in workplace basics training programs.Why this shift in at ;tudes? The answer lies, in

part, in demographics and technology.The demography is clear. The entry-level labor

pool is shrinking and will continue to do sothrough the year 2000.

More and more, American employers will nolonger enjoy the luxury of selecting from a fieldof workers with strong basic skills. The demandfor labor will create opr rtunities for those whoare less skilled; the di . antaged will move upthe labor queue and be hired in spite of obviousskill deficiencies. American employers will fill inthe skill gaps and help build individual compe-tence in the basics.

Technology creates both opportunities andproblems for employers. Its very tansferabilityhas leveled the world-wide playing field. Theemployer's competitive edge is increasinglyreliant upon how effectively and efficientlyworkers and machines are integrated and movethrough the production cycle. Successful integra-tion is dependent upon how quickly veteranworkers accumulate new skills. And acquisitionof new skills is facilitated when a worker has asolid grounding in the basics.

Basic Skills and the Competitive CycleIhere is an undeniablelinkage between work-force skills and the com-petitive cycle.

The competitive life cycle of any new strategy,technology, product, or service usually consistsof six distinct stages: discovery; design; devel-opment and articulation of the managementand production systems and processes; produc-tion and service delivery; and development ofnew applications. The time it takes to movethrough these stages is called "cycle time." And

reducing that time while maintaining qualitycan mean competitive advantage.

The company that develops and delivers a pro-duct to the marketplace in the least amount oftime is able to pass on the savings of the shorterproduction cycle This gives a company the edgein (1) offering a less expensive product, (2) cap-turing initial consumer interest in a product, (3)promoting consumer loyalty, and (4) establish-ing a niche in the marketplace that gives the pro-duct an advantage over similar products that arelikely to follow.

Employers have learned that their employees'

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basic skills will be tested at every stage of thecompetitive cycle, influencing cycle time. Goodbasic skills can mean a shorter production cy-cle, improved products, and high quality. Defi-ciencies in such skills can undermine the cycleand cause delays, defects, and customerrejections.

In employer institutions, the initial discoveryand design stages of a new strategy, technology,product, or service are exploratory and ex-perimental. Often, though the workforce may bemare of a change it strategic direction, theinstitution has not fully integrated the newstrategy into its culture. With change comes newmethods of production or service delivery,which overlap with old methods. Moreover, inthis early stage of an innovation, ;ndividual jobassignments are still unclear. As a result, indi-viduals' job responsibilities are broad andambiguous.

To adapt quickly to new workplace demands,employees must know how to learn. They needproblem-solving skills to overcome barriers thatarise in new situations. And in addition to feel-ing comfortable with innovation, they must beable to think creatively as they cope with newchallenges.

During these ambiguous stages, employeeroles are vague. Employees and working teamsare on their own to deal with the unstructuredenvironment characteristic of the early phasesof an innovation. Employees must have the ca-pacity to take responsibility for themselves.They need personal and career managementskills, a strong, realistic sense of self-worth, andthe ability to set and meet goals.

Individual employees also need the basicskills that allow them to interact effectively withother members of the working team. To do thisthey must know how to listen and to commun-icate their thoughts clearly. Effective interactioninvolves knowing how to influence others withinthe organization's culture. And they must be ca-pable of recognizing when, where, and how theyshould assume a leadership role.

Eventually, innovations will be integrated in-to the production or service delivery system inan employer institution. At this point, the basicskills of the entire employee populationin-

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cluding the non-supervisory personnelwl Idetermine the institution's ability to produceproducts or deliver services while maintainingefficiency and quality. The basic skills of pro-duction and service delive employees will alsodetermine the employer's ability to customizeproducts and services for a wide array ofcustomers.

The development of new efficiencies, qualityimprovements, and new applications for theoriginal innovation is the last phase in the cycle.This phase is key to an expanded marketplaceand long-term profitability.

In this stage, creative thinking and problem-solving are essential. As employees apply theirlearning, the employer's store of new knowledgeis enriched. New knowledge eventually trans-lates into efficient production, improvements inquality, and new applications for products orservices. Sometimes changes and new informa-tion yield major advances in strategy and tech-nology or new products and services, and thistriggers yet another competitive cycle.

Workplace basics are important throughoutthe life cycle of a product and the process of ser-vice delivery. With good, solid basics, the work-force can meet the challenge of change becauseemployees continue to build on the knowledgeand skills needed to adapt to innovations. Solidbasics are critical for all employees not justwhite-collar and technical elites such as engi-neers. Production and service delivery person-nel with high levels of basic skills allowemployers to decentralize production and ser-vice delivery. Such decentralization improvesthe institution's ability to customize its productor service and respond more effectively to cus-tomers. Decentralization also allows employersto avail themselves of the skills of all employeesin finding new cost-effective methods for pro-duction or service delivery, generating qualityimprovements, and finding new applications forexisting products and services.

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Basic Skills and Technical Change

New technologies are re-defining basic skill re-quirements. By decen-tralizing the production

of products and services, informa-tion-based technologies are increas-ing the autonomy and value ofemployees at the point of produc-tion and service delivery. At allorganizational levels, the roles ofpersonnel have expanded and theyare now responsible for a widerrange of products and for the cus-tomization of an array of productsfor individual customers. Withthose broader roles, comes greateropportunity to have a positive ornegative effect on efficiency, quality,and innovation.

Technical changes on the job tend to changebasic skill requirements incrementally. Some-times these changes accumulate to the point ofcreating new occupations. In manufacturing,craft occupations such as machinist and tooland die maker are evolving quickly ill, techni-cian and technologist jobs. The same has hap-pened with the skill jobs of assembler, repairperson, and materials handler. In services, thesecretary is evolving into the information man-ager and the bank teller is becoming the finan-cial services portfolio consultant fr.- individualcustomers.

While technologies are eliminating jobs, theyare also increasing the range of skills needed toperform jobs that remain. Over the past decade,the most prominent example of this has takenplace on the factory floor. Once the status leaderand central figure on the working team, themachinist, applied various technologies toshape individual parts of a final product. Careeradvancement depended on sharpening the es-

sential job skill of hand-to-eye coordination.Eventually, when the machinist's hand-to-eyecoordination skills were good enough, he or shebecame a tool and die maker. Enter the robotwith more consistent hand-to-eye coordinationthan the machinist, a better performer of thebasic job task, the robot took the machinist'splace.

At the same time, the technology of advancedautomated manufacturing began doing the jobsof other members of the shop floor team in-cluding the laborer, the materials handler, theoperator/assembler, and the maintenance per-son. Ultimately, all these jobs have become onejob that combines a greater us; of technologywith a single employeethe new technicianresponsible for all the functions performed bythe displaced workers. And although the new jobmay not require the same depth of skill in eachof the more narrow jobs it absorbs, it does re-quire a wider variety of basic skills than any oneof the other jobs.

The expanding range of job tasks and respon-sibilities in the manufacturing technician's jobdemands higher basic levels of reading, writing,and computation. The job of technician will re-quire an understanding of each task associatedwith the jobs included in the technician position.Generally, more autonomous than themachinist, the technician must have higher-levelpersonal management skills. Also responsiblefor troubleshooting, maintaining, updating, andexercising quality control over highly complexmathematically-based machinery, the techni-cian must have better computational skills andbe able to read and to comprehend technicalmanuals. Besides higher competencies in mathand reading, these new tasks demand the skillsto adapt successfully to the joblearning tolearn, creative thinking, and problem solving.

Other effects of technological change will alsoincrease basic skill requirements. lbclurology isthe means to product diversification. Thiscreates a greater need for job-specific productknowledge and basic learning skills strengthsthat help employees keep pace with devel-opment, design, production, and the sale of

changed and new products. And to perform suc-cessfully in this situation, an employee mustknow how to learn. Examples of industrieswhere recent diyersification has expandedworkplace skills requirements include the com-munication and banking industries. In thecommunications industry, a basic line of voiceinstruments has expanded into a myriad of de-livery systems for communicating data and im-agery. The banking industry has expanded too.The basic line of checking and savings productshas grown into an array of financial services.

New information technologies also make itpossible to customize products. Over the pastdecade, both batch production in manufactur-ing and the customization of service productshave advanced markedly. The ability to tailorproducts and services requires the learning andproblem-solving sld:'s that make employeesadaptable. And with customization comes theneed for customer relations. Employees at thepoint of production and service delivery mustknow how to listen and to articulate theirthoughts clearlyto understand and be under-stood. To interact successfully with customers,employees need strong communication skills.They also need interpersonal and negotiationskills to deal with customer grievances andcomplaints.

Changing economic and technical realitiesalter the institutional structures themselves.And these new structures, in turn, change basicskill requirements. Due to technological change,more and more institutions are becoming highlydecentralizedwith profound in .piluations forbasic skills. Among American employers, thenew effective institution recognizes theautonomy of individual employees and teams inproduction, sales, or service. These decentraliz-ed, flexible institutions will meet the challengeof product diversification and intensivecompetition.

With the new decentralized institution::model, resources and authority become avail-able to employees at the lower levels of the struc-ture. This decentralized model eliminates themiddle ls.yers of mane 3ement and flattens theinstitutional hierarchy; this shortens the gapbetween those in control of institutional leader-ship, product development, and strategic de-

cision-making and those responsible for the pro-duction and delivery of the product or service.Instead of managing production and deliveryprocesses, the new institution establishes ac-countability by monitoring outcomes. Managersguide individuals or working teams and inter-vene only when the work is unsatisfactory.

Employees of the new institution need signif-icantly higher basic skills. The new autonomousworkers must have personal management skillsto maintain self-esteem, set goals, and bemotivated. As full members of an autonomousworking team, these employees need higherlevels of interpersonal, teamwork, negotiation,and organizational skillsskills that enhancegroup effectiveness. At various points in the pro-duction or service delivery processes, each in-dividual member of the working team needsleadership skills. To be effective in theirorganization, employees must understand howtheir own personal goals and objectives fit intothe organization's culture and strategic goals.With this understanding, employees can influ-ence the organization to use and develop theirskills in a mutually productive way.

To advance in a single evolving institution, in-dustry, or occupation, employees must be cap-able of taking charge of their own working lives.As economic and technological changes occur,the new, more flexible institution will continueto modify and rebuild itself. In turn, individualswill have to adapt skills for new roles withinthe changing institution. But as it constantlychanges form, appearing and disappearing witheconomic circumstances, the commitment be-tween individuals and specific institutionsdeclines. With this new, more temporary institu-tional "format," employees must be more re-sponsible for their own career development andjob security. More dependent on skill development than any one employer for job security andcareer development, employees need personalmanagement and career development skills.

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Basic Skills and Individual Opportunityworkforce with soundbasic skills will strength-en its employer's abilityto compete. And for the

individual worker, basic skills arethe keys to greater opportunity anda better quality of life. Workerswith good basic skills find it easierto acquire more sophisticated skillsthat leverage better jobs and higherPay.

Research shows that in the U.S. roughly halfof the differences in earnings can be attributedto learning in school and on the job. Accidentsof geography, career choir -s, and the selectionof an employer account for the other half. Earn-ings are a function of the skills people have andthe choices they make regarding how and wherethey use those skills. Poor basic skills limitindividuals' choices and their potential forearning.

The processes of developing basic skills inschool and applying them on the job comple-ment each other. Basic academic skills expandand grow when used on the job. People use whatthey learned on one job to leverage a better job.Compared with all other variables tnat affectearnings, learning on the job has the most pow-erful effect. Available data tends to support thefa that on-the-job learningespecially formallearningcan leverage earnings by as much as30 percent.

In most studies, between 10 and 13 percent oflifetime earnings among Americans can be at-tributed to the initial learning that takes placein school. But these studies do not address thefact that academic preparation leverages learn-ing on the job. For instance, those with only ahigh school diploma are not likely to get on-the-job training, whereas those with the diplomaplus two years of formal education have a 20 per-cent greater chance of securing such training.And those who have some college educationhave a 50 percent greater chance. The increas-

ing probability of getting training on the jobpeaks at 16 years of schooling for all but thehigh-tech industries. There the connection be-tween education and on-the-job training con-tinues to increase for those with post-graduatedegrees.

The relationship between basic skills and op-portunity seems to be strengthening over time.According to Andy Sum and Gordon Berlin,while inflation and declining productivityreduced the earnings of all Americans, the earn-ings of the least educated declined most. Duringthe last recessionary period, high school drop-outs experienced a staggering 40 percent declinein earnings, the earnings of those with a highschool degree, some college, or a college degreedeclined by 30 percent, 26 percent, and 11 per-cent respectively. Between 1960 and r84, theearning differences between high school gradu-ates and dropouts increased from 30 percent to60 percent.

Many have argued that during the late 60'sand throughout the 70's employers establishedincreasing educational requirements for jobs tosort through the volume of baby boomers. And,say Sum and Berlin, many employers continuethis despite the growing scarcity of entry-leveljob seekers.

Studies by John Bishop have demonstratedthat employees with strong basic skills are moreproductive than those with weaker skills. How-ever, he also points out that employers do notfully rewary. -le contributions of more skilledand productive employees, because reward sys-tems are tied to such factors as academiccredentials, seniority, and job classifications.

Available evidence also shows that, althoughemployers do not fully reward employees fortheir basic skills, there is some correlation be-tween abilities and rewards. When Berlin andSum analyzed the earnings of young workerswho had taken the Armed Forces QualicvingTest, they discovered major differences in earn-ings lemong people with the same number ofyears in school but different basic skill levels.The :analysis revealed that dropouts who scoreda "low high" on the Armed Forces Qualifying

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Test earn only half as much as dropouts withhigher scores. Among high school graduates,males with the better basic skills earn two-thirds more and females three times as much.Deficiency in basic skills stands as the finalbarrier to employment of the poor and dis-advantaged. Tnough the current scarcity ofentry-level labor offers a steady supply of workto those prepared for jobs, lack of preparationis an obstacle to reducing unemployment rates

FIGURE 1

MIRWHO HAS LOW BASIC SKILLS?

among the poor. Such skill deficiencies are alsoamong the principal causes of the social path-ology that torments the poor.

In a survey of disadvantaged 19-to-23-year-olds, Berlin and Sum found that low basic skillswere distinguishing characteristics of the group:68 percent were arrested, 85 percent were unwedmothers, 79 percent were welfare dependents,85 percent were dropouts, and 72 percent wereunemployed.

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65% ofthose arrested

05% of 79% ofunwed mothers welfare dependents

115% of

dropouts

The American Challengeow a country responds toeconomic and technicalchangewhether its re-sponse will be strong or

weakdepends on how the countryintegrates learning within itsemployer institutions. That integra-tion also determines how employerinstitutions will be structured.

Americau and French economies investheavily in the formal education and workplace

72% ofthe unemployed

learning of white-collar and higher-level techni-cal elites, but less in non-college skill and craftworkers. The result: in these institutional struc-tures managers, senior-level technical person-nel, and other white-collar employees havevested control over the production processes.Institutions in these countries focus on educat-ing technical elites, creating a highly structuredmarAgerial hierarchy that controls mass pro-duction. Such institutions combine large dosesor technology developed by technical elites withthe relatively unskilled labor in production.

In contrast, Germany relies more on the for-

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ra"*": 0 v "01...P,7,

mal training of craft and skill employees fortechnical direction, and its employer structureshave fewer layers of managerial and white-collarpersonnel than those of either France orAmerica.

Most countries specialize in the goods andservices that give them comparative advantagein the production and organizational uses ofhuman resources. The U.S. enjoys this advan-tage through its development and use of higher-skilled white-collar and technical personnel. Asa result, we do well in the early stages of a newtechnology or product line when higher-levelskills are critical. In later phases of the develop-ment of new technol( gies or new products,Americans extend mar cet penetration by com-bining mass production technologies with inten-sively managed organizational innovations.

Americans rely on highly-skilled scientistsand engineers for mass production technology.They rely on managerial, supervisory, and otherwhite-collar and professional personnel todevelop institutional alternatives to achieve lowproduction costs and wide dissemination of pro-ducts. Uses of white-collar and managerialtalent, such as decentralized management,diversified firms, and the multinational corpora-tion, have made America successful in expan-ding the dissemination of new products and ex-ploiting new technologies.

But while these links between our humanresource development system and the employereconomy have given the US. competitive advan-tage during early stages of new products andtechnologies, the nation is less competitive inlater phases of mass production and technolo-gical dissemination. In the production phase ofthe competitive cycle, America does not competewell. The US. does not satisfactorily developefficiency or quality during that phase. It needsimprovements in developing applications of newstrategies, technologies, or products andservices.

America's inability to sustain competitive ad-vantage argues for better basic skills amongnon-supervisory skill and craft employees. Withbetter skills, this group can participate more ef-fectively in those phases that need improvement.Upskilling is becoming more crucial as tech-nical and economic changes increase corn-

panics' reliance on individuals and workingteams who are directly responsible for the pro-duction and the sale of competitive products andservices.

In a comparison among countries, the moreeducated and trained half of the American workforce competes well with the white-collar am.technical elites of its economic rivals. But theother half of the workforce is not as well pre-pared, and this is where the US. is losing thecompetitive race. This fact presents a majorchallenge for American educators and em-ployers. Academic and employer institutionsmust stop catering to the development and useof white-collar and technical elites. Instead, theymust choose a more broad-based mission thatis attentive to the non-college bound and thenonsupervisory employee

15

The Skills Employers Want

Many employers say thatthe most importantskills for any employeeare the academic trium-

viratereading, writing and com-putation. With increasing regulari-ty, employers are telling the media,"Give me people who can read,write, and do simple math and I'lltrain them for the jobs I haveavailable!' But probing further, onefinds that employers want goodbasic academic skills and muchmore.

Employer complaints focus on serious defi-ciencies in areas that include problem solving,personal management, and interpersonal skills.The abilities to conceptualize, organize, and ver-balize thoughts, resolve conflicts, and work inteams are increasingly cited as critical.

So what are the skillsthese basic workplaceskillsthat employers want? They certainlyinclude basic skills associated with formalschooling. But academic skills such as reading,writing and arithmetic comprise just the tip ofthe iceberg.

Employers want employees who can learn theparticular skills of an available job who have"learned how to learn."

Employers want employees who will hear thekey points that make up a customer's concerns(listening) and who can convey an adequateresponse (oral communications).

Employers want employees who can think ontheir feet (problem-solving) and who can comeup with innovative solutions when needed(creative thinking).

Employers want employees who have pride inthemselves and their potential to be successful(self-esteem); who know how to get things done(goal setting/motivation); and who have somesense of the skills needed to perform well in theworkplace (personal and career development).

Employers want employees who can get alongwith customers, suppliers or co-workers (inter-personal and negotiation skills); who can workwith others to achieve a goal (teamwork); whohave some sense of where the organization isheaded and what they must do to make a con-tribution (organizational effectiveness); and whocan assume responsibility and motivate co-workers when necessary (leadership).

This is a prescription for a well-roundedworker who has acquired a number of discreteskills and who has the capability to acquiremore sophisticated skills when necessary.

Employers want employees who can get alongwith customers, suppliers or co-workers (inter-personal and negotiation skills); who can workwith others to achieve a goal (teamwork); whohave some sense of where the organization isheaded and what they must do to make a con-tribution (organizational effectiveness); and whocan assume responsibility and motivate co-workers when necessary (leadership).

This is a prescription for a well-roundedworker who has acquired a number of discreteskills and who has the capability to acquiremore sophisticated skills when necessary.

The Foundation: Knowing How to Learnhe accumulation ofknowledge in our societyis respected and encour-aged. But rarely do we,

as children, learn the principles

that prepare us to absorb and applyinformation effectively.

Knowing how to learn is the most basic of allskills because it is the key that unlocks futuresuccess. Equipped with this skill, an individual

16

WORKPLACE BASICS

can achieve competency in all other basic work-place skills from reading through leadership.Without this skill, learning is not as rapid noras efficient and comprehensive.

The first step in providing this skill is todiscover how an employee best absorbs informa-tion. Identifying a trainee's sensory prefer-encevisual, auditory, tactileand design) ngtraining that integrates that preference is essen-tial. Training in this skill also means expos; n'the employee to various learning strategies andanalytical approaches and providing instructionon how best to apply these tools.

0;

Often, however, just being aware of one's ownpreferred learning approaches and becomingexposed to various learning strategies will in-spire dramatic improvements in learning.

Learning is now a fact of life in the workplaceEven routine jobs are evolving as the demandsof the workplace expand. Competitive pressurescompel employers to shift employees betweenjobs and responsibilities, putting a premium onthe ability to absorb, process, and apply newinformation quickly and ;effectively. The com-plexity, amount, and availability of informationcompounds the issue

17

I

WORKPLACE BASICS

From the employer's perspective, an employeewho knows how to learn is more cost-effectivebecause time and resources spent on trainingcan be reduced. Employers recognize that long-term relationships with employees are the mostcost-effective; therefore, employee ability toadapt to company needs through retraining pro-grams becomes crucial as technology createsshifts in job market demand and job content.Employers see the skill of knowing how to learnas the key to retraining efforts.

But most important, the employees who know

how to learn can greatly assist an employer inmeeting its strategic goals and competitivechallenges, by more efficiently applying newknowledge to job duties and tasks.

Productivity, innovation, and competitivenessall depend on developing the learning capabili-ty of the workforce. Machinery and processesare transferable from company to company andcountry to country. But it is the application ofhuman resources to technology and systemsthat provides the competitive edge.

Competence: Reading, Writing and Computationaasic academic skillsreading, writing and corn-putation- have long beenrevered as the toys to suc-

cess in society and the workplace Intheory these skills have been essen-tial, but in ractice workers haveoften succeeded because of "a strongback and willing hands:'

The workplace of the past was one wherethose with limited academic achievements couldsucceed. Jobs often required going through themotions of a regularized process or repetitiveinteraction with machines. In that workplace,illiteracy and innumeracy could be hiddenor ignored.

But today's workplace is one that increasinglyinvolves interaction with sophisticated, com-puterized machinery that requires good readingskills for efficient use. The introduction ofapproaches such as statistical process control(SPC) demand higher mathematical skills. Andwriting is frequently the first step in com-municating with customers, interacting withmachines, documenting competitive transac-tions, or successfully moving new ideas into theworkplace

America is fortunate in that the vast majorityof our workers are literate and numerate. Butfrequently, employees cannot use these skillseffectively in the workplace Sometimes it is

10 because they are "rusty" and are called upon to

use mathematical principles they haven't usedfor 20 years or sa Sometimes it is because skillsmust be used in a different context than origin-ally learned. Sometimes, the base knowledge isthere but there is no understanding of how toexpand and apply it. All of these problems createthe need for employer-provided training inreading, writing, and computation.

The challenge of providing traditional aca-demic skills in the workplace is one that can bemet by using an applied approach to basic work-place skills training, using or adapting materialsand concepts that are job.ased.

This requires an awareness that sometimesthe intended use of a skill makes that skill morecomplex. For example, traditional classroomreading instruction is designed to teach discretereading skills, in isolation, for the purpose ofincreasing a student's ability to follow directionsor internalize data for future recall. For thisreason, even some students who master readingin an academic setting are not prepared for theway they will use the skill in the workplace

Reading tads on the jobs are different. Theyrequire the reader to be analytical, to sum-marize information, and to monitor one's owncomprehension of the reading task. This is aninterpretive approach that requires the readerto have active involvement with the reading task.From the employer perspective, basic trainingin reading should focus on teaching reading pro-cesses for locating information and forusing higher level thinking strategies to solveproblems.

18

WOR LA E's.BASIC

Similarly, the traditional classroom approachto teaching writing focuses on description(creative writing) or on the articulation oflearned responses concerning facts and events(essays). Workplace writing relies on analysis,conceptualization, synthesis and distillation ofinformation, and clear, succinct articulation ofpoints and proposals.

In schools, mathematical concepts are pre-sented sequentially, beginning with funda-mental concepts like addition and subtractionand working through to higher level operationssuch as geometry and trigonometry. Traditionalmath education is a group a Itivity with theinstructor and the group focusing on sampleproblems presented by the instructor. This isfollowed by independent practice, repeateddrills, and finally standardized tests to measureproficiency level.

Workplace math skills are taught contextuallyto reflect their actual use on the job; instruc-tional materials simulate specific job tasks.Building on the prior math knowledge of the

learner and emphasizing problem identifica-tion, reasoning, estimation, and problem-solving, this approach has been shown to pro-duce the quickest, most effective results inemployee performance.

Most employers today cannot compete suc-cessfully without a workforce that has soundbasic academic skills. Workers spend an averageof one and one-half to two hours per workdayengaged in reading forms, charts, graphs, man-uals, computer terminals, and so on. Writingremains the primary form of communicationfor transmitting policies, procedures, and con-cepts. Computation is used daily to conduct in-ventories, report on production levels; measuremachine parts or specifications, and so on.

Deficiencies in such basic workplace skillscreate barriers that impair an employer's abilityto meet strategic goals and to be competitive.They are reflected in productivity decline, in-creased accident rates, costly production errors,and the inability to effect critical job retraining.

Communication: Listening and

Oral Communicationaeading and writing areessential communica-tion tools, but it isthrough listening and

speaking that we interact most fre-quently. The average person spends8.4 percent of communications timewrit1ng, 13.3 percent reading, 23percent speaking, and 55 percentlistening.

Workers spend most of their day in some formof communication. They communicate witheach other about procedures and problems andthey relay information to and receive it fromcustomers. Success on the job is linked to goodcommunications skills. In fact, recent studieshave indicated that only job knowledge ranksabove communications skills as a factor forworkplace success.

Ironically, American schools offer scant in-struction in oral communication or listening.While extensive formal training in reading andwriting is provided, instruction in speakingskills is generally provided as an elective courselinked to drama, debating, and so on. Virtuallyno training in listening is available.

Instruction in effective oral communicationskills rests on providing workers with an under-. anding of the importance of voice inflectionand body language when communicating. Thestyles that people use when communicatingaffect how they are perceived and what is heard.Workplace training in oral communication sim-ulates actual workplace circumstances and in-structs employees in recognizing their dominantstyles of communication and how they are mani-fested, understanding and valuing communica-tion approaches that are different in style fromtheir own, and adjusting their dominant style tosomeone whose style differs.

In

11

WORKPLACE

Listening skills curricula should also simu-late actual workplace experiences and assisttrainees to understand how listening styleaffects the transmission and receipt of informa-tion. Instruction should focus on the five listen-ing skills that are critical for workplace success:listening for content; listening to conversations;listening for long-term contexts; listening foremotional meaning; and listening to followdirections.

Employees who lack proficiency in oral com-munication and listening skills are handicapped

E4 to their learning and communicating abili-t ies, and their persona: i and professional devel-opment. Business leaders estimate that deficien-cies in these skills cost employers millions eachyear in lost productivity and errors.

Communication is central to the smoothoperation of a competitive venture. Communica-tions skills are at the heart of getting and keep-ing customers. Pitching innovation, contributingto quality circles, resolving conflict and pro-viding meaningful feedback all hinge on oralcommunication and listening skills.

Adaptability: Creative Thinking and

Problem-Solving

An organization's ability toachieve its strategic ob-jectives often depends onhow quickly and effec-

tively it can transcend barriers toimproved productivity and compe-titiveness. These pressures putcreative thinking and problem solv-ing at a premium --at all levels of anorganization.

Problem solving skills include the ability torecognize and define problems, invent and im-plement solutions, and track and evaluate re-sults. Cognitive skills, group interaction skills,and problem-prow-W:4 skills are all crucial tosuccessful problem solving. Workplace trainingprograms in problem solving simulate real prob-lems and are keyed to the organization's goals.

New approaches to problem solving, organi-zational design, or product development allspring from the individual capacity for creativethinking. In the workplace, creative thinkingis generally manifested as creative problemsolving or creative innovation. Often a groupactivity, creative problem solving is charac-

12 terized by effective teamwork the examination

ft;

of problems in new ways, and the invention ofnew solutions to existing problems. Either anindividual or group activity, creative innovationrefers to the development of new activities thatexpand markets, and improve such elements asproductivity.

Training in maths ddnking is designed to ex-pand the thinking processes of trainees, to allowtrainees to escape from logical and sequentialthought patterns. For example, exercises to pro-mote divergent thinking (finding connectionsbetween seemingly unrelated ideas) might beconducted. Most training in creative thinkinginvolves problem solving, personality warmnessand development, and group teambuildingactivities.

An organization's ability to achieve its strate-gic objectives often depends on the problem-solving and creative-thinking skills of its work-force. Unresolved problems create dysfunctionalrelationships in the workplace. Ultimately, theybecome impediments to flexibility and todealing with strategic change in an open-endedand creative way. Creative solutions help theorganization to move forward toward its stra-tegic goals.

20

*411.114.

Personal Management: Self Esteem,

Goal Setting/Motivation, andPersonal/Career Development

n individual's effec-tiveness in the work-place can be linkeddirectly to positive self-

esteem and successful personalmanagement. A good self-imagemeans the employee takes pride inhis or her work. The ability to setpals and meet them will becomeevident as production quotas areexceeded or deadlines met. Solidpersonal and career developmentskills are apparent in efficient inte-gration of new technology or pro-cesses, creative thinking, high pro-ductivity, and a pursuit of skillsenhancement through training oreducation.

In the past, employers viewed employees withsolid occupation-specific skills as having all "theright stuff" for success on the job. But todayworkers are increasingly called upon to makedecisions at the point of production or point ofsale and to display good interpersonal skillswhen they work in teams or with customers. Theconfidence that engenders success in theseareas springs from a positive sense of self worth.

Ironically, just as employers are recognizingthe need for employees with positive self esteem,they are faced with a shrinking entry-level laborpool which will propel them toward selectingworkers from populations that have been buf-feted by poverty, circumstance, and environ-ment workers who frequently have low self-esteem. And at the same time, the frustrationsof business todayfrequent mergers, down-

sizing, lay-offscan erode the self-esteem ofestablished workers who feel powerless orunable to progress toward their career goals.

Workplace training to enhance self-esteem isat the core of training to expand job-specificoccupational skills or provide remediation. Keyelements of self-egoem training include assist-ing employees to recognize their current skills;be aware of their impact on others; understandtheir emotional set points and abilities to copewith stress, change, criticism, and so on; anddeal with their own limits by recognizing theneed for and seeking new information to applyto problems and construct solution&

For an employer to succeed in the market-place, employees must be motivated; they mustpossess the ability to set and to meet reasonablegoals. From the shop floor to the salesroom, themotivated employee comes out on top.

Poor performance can often be linked to defi-ciencies in these skills (although sometimes theroot causes are mitigating circumstances suchas low pay or poor working conditions). Indi-vidual employees' lack of motivation or goal-setting skills can produce an organizationalundercurrent of repeated errors, absenteeism,and quality problems, or it can construct bar-riers along the path to change

'Damning in motivation/goal setting is rootedin techniques for setting and meeting definedobjectives, including recognizing signposts of in-cremental success along the way toward meet-ing a goal. Like self-esteem training, it focuseson self-awareness and adaptability as keys todealing with things or people It also emphasizesself-direction and organizational savvy.

Personal and Career Development skills reston a foundation of good self-esteem and motiva-tion. Employees who exhibit these skills in-crease their value in the workplace and in theemployment marketplace Employers valuethese skills in employees because they usually

21

13

auttizo..1M.

indicate successful job transitions and effectivetraining experiences.

Unfortunately, the educational system pro-vides little formal training in defining careerdirection and identifing the education and train-ing needed to achieve career goals. Conse-quently, many people enter the workforce withlittle understanding of these skills and react tojob opportunities as they surface. This patch-work-quilt approach to career development,which worked well in a time when employeescould reasonably expect a long-term career withone employer, is no longer viable.

Training in personal and career developmentskills includes providing employees with techni-ques for understanding and expanding theirskills inventories, career planning, and careermanagement. Goal setting is important as is

structuring individual career progressionmodels that explore the training add educa-tional preparation needed to meet career goals.Importantly, training should be complementedby on-going counseling and by the organization'sclearly articulated support of potential careerpaths for individual jobs.

Organizations have traditionally viewed theskills of self-esteem, goaliettinghnotivation, andpersonal/career development as those an indi-vidual should acquire outside the workplace.But the demands of today's evolving workplaceare influencing employers to recognize that theymust look beyond providing occupation-specificskills. They must include training in the more in-tangible skills that together make a productiveand competitive workforce.

Group Effectiveness:

Interpersonal Skills, Negotiation; and Teamwork

j. n the past two decades,there has been a tremen-dous increase in the useof teams in the work-

place. The team approach has beenlinked conclusively to higher pm-ductivity and product quality, aswell as to increased quality of work-life. Change strategies are usuallydependent upon the ability of em-ployees to pull together and refocuson the new common goal.

Whenever people work together, successfulinteraction depends upon effective interper-sonal skills, focused negotiation, and a sense ofgroup purpose. The quality of these three factorsdefines and controls working relationships.

Interpersonal skills training is directedtoward assisting the employee to recognize and

14 improve the ability to judge and balance appro-

priate behavior, cope with undesirable behaviorin other., absorb stress, deal with ambiguity,listen, inspire confidence in others, structuresocial interaction, share responsibility, and in-teract easily with others.

Such skills are essential to successful negotia-tion. Conflicts, both major and minor, are a factof worklife. They can sap productivity and short-circuit strategic plans.

The key to diffusing potential conflict situa-tions is to enhance employee negotiating skillsat all levels.

Training in this skill includes techniques forseparating people from the problem, focusing oninterests not positions, inventing options formutual gain, and insisting on the use of objec-tive criteria. It also relies on a sound base of in-terpersonal skills and a clear understanding ofthe approach demanded by the circumstance

Interpersonal and negotiation skills are thecornerstones of successful teamwork. Teamsare organized in the workplace so that appropri-ate talents and skills can be directed through

2

WILLIMAILVILAIILILLIMUIN

group effort to accomplish vital tasks and goals.This pooling of resources, however, frequentlyrequires team members to have an array of skillsthat individual or routine jobs do not demand.

Quality teamwork results when team mem-bers know how to recognize and cope withvarious and unique personalities and when eachhas a sense of the cultures and approaches thatother team members represent. Team membersalso need an understanding of group dynam-ics, which evolve and change as the team ap-proaches its goal. Lastly, team members must beaware of the technical skills that fellowmembers have and how those skills can beapplied.

Teamwork can only occur when team mem-bers provide and receive feedback in a focused

manner. Individuals gather and process infor-mation in personalized ways; good teamworkcalls for the recognition and use of certainvaluable differences between members of theteam.

Training in teamwork is crafted to capture theessential elements of building team relation-ships. The major objective is to develop an inven-tory of skills and attitudes that can be appliedsuccessfully in the workplace to resolve pro-blems and foster innovation.

The strategic relevance of interpersonal, nego-tiation, and teamwork skills is evident. They arebasic tools for achieving the flexibility and adap-tability that America's workforce must have inorder to remain competitive.

Influence:

Organizational Effectiveness and Leadership

Io be effective in an orga-nization, employees needa sense of the workingsof the organization and

how their actions affect organiza-tional and strategic objectives.Skilled in scoping out the forcesand factors that interfere with theemployer's ability to accomplish itstasks, the worker can be a masterpmblem-solver, an innovator, and ateam-builder.

Organizations are a tapestry of explicit andimplicit power structures. In the explicit struc-ture, leadership is conferred and represented bytitle and authority. In the implicit structure,leadership is a delicately sculpted image builtby cultivating the respect of peers, and projec-ting a sense of reliability, goal orientation,and vision.

Both organizational effectiveness and leader-

ship skills are basics for success in tomorrow'sworkplace. Those who have these skills can helpemployers create the conditions for achievinggoals and for succeeding in the marketplace.

Basic training in organizational effectivenessis geared toward providing the trainee with anunderstanding of what organizations are, whythey exist, and how one can navigate the com-plex social waters of varying types of organiza-tions. Once armed with this basic framework,the trainee is exposed to the organizational cul-ture of his or her employer, its goals, values, cul-ture and traditional modes of operation. Lastly,training in skills that make the employee a fullyfunctioning member of the organization - inter-personal, communications, and group dynamicsskills - completes the picture.

Organizational effectiveness skills are thebuilding blocks for leadership Unaccompaniedby them, leadership skills can be misplaced andeven counterproductive.

At its most elementary level, leadershipmeans that a person can influence other:, to actin a certain way. Every person may need at times

23

15

16

111101EILLILLILIAIIIILSCAt*

FIGURE 3

WORKPLACE BASICS: A CHECKLIST

Learning to Learn

3 R's (Reading, Writing, Computation)

Communication: Listening & Oral Communication

Creative Thinidng/Problem Solving

Self-Esteem/Goal Setting-Motivation/Personal & Career Development

Interpersonal/Negotiation/Teamwork

Organizational Effectiveness/Leadership

24

to influence his or her work group and to pro-vide a vision of what the organization as a wholeor the specific task at hand requires. Leadershipskills are necessary, therefore, for every level ofthe organization from the chief executive to theline worker.

Leadership skills training for the averageemployee includes the following components:how to understand the organization's strategiesand tactics for achieving goals; leadership asan exchange process between leaders and fol-lowers; situational approaches for the task-centered leader; strategies for sound decision-making; developing and communicating avision; influencing the behavior of others; andthe importance of projecting emotional stability.

To compete in world markas, employers needemployees who can operate effectively withinthe parameters of their organization, assumeresponsibility willingly, and motivate coworkerstoward exemplary performance. These skillsonce identified with the "fast track'!--are nowbasic ingredients.

Part IIIBlueprint for Success:

How to Establish Programs

to Deliver Workplace Basicsrograms cleated to provideemployees with trainingin basic workplace skillsare most successful when

are preceded by a well-constructed actionthat includes an in-house marketing cam-to marshal management and union support,

t connects the workplace basics programemployer's competitive strategies;

use a systematic approach to trainingdevelopment, and delivery;incorporate an applied learning method

uses a functional context approach to job-training .

r, these three elements constitute an "ap-approach" to workplace training that better

the needs and realities of today's work-This innovative approach merges politicales such as scarce dollars, technological

and the sometimes conflicting perspec-of management and laborwith state-of-the-

on training design, learning methods,on investment.

a general preparing for battle, the Work-Basics advocate must be aware of the factors

influence a battle plan. Organizational capa-

bilities, workplace changes and challenges, and thecultural dynamics of the company all come intoconsideration. More important, marshalling thesupport of management and unions is a pivotalactivity in any effort of this kind; for without suchsupport, the program will be devoid of an institu-tional base and will have a limited chance forsuccess.

The major strength of the applied approach isthat it rarely strays from the day-to-day reality ofthe workplace and it is linked to both the individualon the job and ultimately, to the employer's bottomline. Research and experience in adult traininghave shown that linking learning to a worker'sactual job carries benefits for both employee andemployer. More cost-effective than broad-basedtraining this applied approach provides trainingtailored to the employer's specific needs and amore rapid integration of learning with actual jobneeds, resulting in higher employee productivity.For trainees, the applied approach improves reten-tion because they will immediately and repeat :41yuse the newly-acquired knowledge. It also im-proves job performance because the trainees willapply their new knowledge to actual job needs. Andit increases the potential for higher individualearnings and career advancement.

How Does the Applied Approach Work?he applied approach is apragmatic, work-basedprogram developmentand implementation

At its heart are two basicets:nployers need to have training programswill consistently improve job performance.

The best method for improving job perfor-mance is to approach training needs system-atically.

Because the employer views bask skills prob-lems as barriers to productivity and market-place success, the employer's primary con-cern is to fill the gap between what employeesknow and what they need to know to improvejob performance

2517

WORKPL*

The applied approach to training meetsemployer need through a multistage process (seechart below). The stages are dynamic and in-teractive like the changing patterns of akaleidoscope. All stages exert a significant andcontinual influence throughout the process.

Obviously, at various points throughout theprocess, one stage or the other will inevitablydominate. Throughout, however, all stages pro-vide a continual undercurrent of influence. Forexample, results of a needs assessment will in-evitably undergo rethinking as new knowledgeis acquired during design and implementation.Evaluation of training effects on actual job per-formance will invariably test and challenge notonly the training program design and implemen-tation, but also the interpretation of the originalneeds assessment itself.

Just as the steps in the process itself arekaleidoscopic, so too are the demands placed onpersonnel charged with implementing the ap-plied approach to Workplace Basics. To be effec-tive, personnel must have political savvy, organ-izational skills, ana technical expertise.First an investigator must determine the scopeof the workplace problem and the magnitude ofany training response. If the initial investigationindicates that a significant training effort isrequired, and advocate with strong organiza-tional and influencing skills is needed to securemanagement and union support. Once supportis secured, the process requires a trainingpractitioner, schooled in task analysis and train-ing design, development, implementation, andevaluation.

Blueprint for Success

tillSTEP I: IDENTIFY JOB CHAN AES OR PROBLEMS RELATED TO BASIC

WORKPLACE SKILLS

Assess the Extent of the ProblemForm a Company-Wide Representative Advisory CommitteeAnalyze Selected JobsDocument Employee Performance DeficienciesIdentify Population to be Targeted for TrainingBuild Cooperation With Unions

illSTEP II: BUILD MANAGEMENT AND UNION SUPPORT FOR SKILLS TRAINING

PROGRAMS IN WORKPLACE BASICS

Make the Case for Skills Training Programs in Workplace BasicsBuild Support for Skills Training Programs in Workplace Basics

iiSTEP III: PRESENT STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN TO MANAGEMENT AND

UNIONS FOR APPROVAL

Present the Strategy/Action Plan for TrainingSelect a Trainir7 Program Architect: In-House Staff vs. External Providers

18

26

IISTEP IV: PERFORM A TASK ANALYSIS OF EACH SELECTED JOB OR JOB FAMILY

Perform a Task AnalysisDetermine Whether to Select a Quick Route Thmugh Task Analysis, and Which Process

is Most AppropriateReview the Generic Elements of the Task Analysis Processes

STEP V: DESIGN THE CURRICULUM

Design a Performance - Based /Functional Context Instructional ProgramDesign Evaluation SystemDesign a Documentation and Recordkeeping SystemObtain Final Budget Approval to Implement Program

STEP VI: DEVELOP THE CURRICULUM

Prepare the Course OutlineSelect Delivery Method and Instructional MaterialsSelect Facilities Site and Designate Equipment RequirementsDevelop Evaluation and Monitoring Instruments

STEP VII: IMPLEMENT THE PROGRAM

Select and Train the Instructional StaffCon ,ider a Learning Contract

iSTEP VIII: EVALUATE AND MONITOR THE TRAINING PROGRAM

Carry Out Initial EvaluationBegin On-going Program MonitoringConnect Back to Management

37 19

Getting the Job Done: How Does

the Process Work?Following is an executivesummary of the innova-tive applied approachmodel for establishing a

training program to provide basicworkplace skills. Based on inputfrom experts and practitioners, ex-tensive review of state-of-the-artliterature, and seminal work in in-structional systems design by theU.S. military, the model is a blue-print for successful establishment

idIDENTIFY JOB CHANGES OR PROBLEMS THAT MAY REQUIRE BASIC

WORKPLACE SKILLS TRAINING

and implementation of a WorkplaceBasics Program.

The model itself can be found in ASTD's forth-coming book on Workplace Basics. In addition,it is the foundation of an instructional manualfor mounting a Workplace Basics effort. Boththe book and the manual will be available fromJossey-Bass publishers in 1989.

The following steps do not need to be followedsequentially. However, if all steps are covered,the chances of establishing and impelementinga successful Workplace Basics program areenhanced significantly. As in baseball, to scorea "home run" you have to touch all the bases!

STEP I:

20

he first hint of basicskills problems may ap-pear, for example, in asupervisor's report on

the slower-than-anticipated in-tegration of a new machine on theshop floor. The new quality circleprogramwhich relies so heavilyon teamworkmay be going bad-ly because employees "aren't get-ting along." Or problems may sur-face when employees "self-report"that they need help to successful-ly handle new responsibilities.

But the hint or appearance of a problem isnot sufficient; more information is needed. Thekey to winning management and union supportfor establishing a Workplace Basics programlies in good, solid front-end work.

ku 8

Assess the Extent of the Problem

How far-reaching is the workplace basicsproblem? An investigation into the size andscope of the challenge ahead is essential todetermine the appropriate level of response.

The first step is to assess the extent of theskills problem and consider options for mitigat-ing it. Is training the only solution? Sometimes,the solution to a problem is not training, butmodification of written materials, a change inpolicy, new technology, and so forth.

'freating the visible signs of distress, however,may only provide temporary relief. While suchsigns should be kept in perspective, they couldbe syr' ptomatic. Initial reactive measuresshoulu be followed by a shift into a proactiveposture. Specific instances of workplace basicsproblems could be the tip of the icebergkeyindicators of broader-based organization-widedistress. Undetected and unchecked, such prob-lems can affect safety, integration of new tech-

28

or processes, or individual careerent.er complaints about quality or super-

reports of difficulty in instituting work-changes could be important signals.

r a worker self-reports basic ski!' ss and seeks help, it could be an indica-

a more pervasive problem. Other work-lack not only the skills, but the courage

e forward and seek help.

a Company-Wide RepresentativeCommittee

lvement of employee representatives asrs during the investigation and through-workplace basics effort is essential. Themethod for accomplishing this is to'sh a representative task force or ad-committee.

y, filch committees include represen-from the training and human resources

ent, operational department heads orsors directly affected by any proposed

g program, plant managers, union oremployee representatives, and employees

Ives. The committee should be carefullycted. It is an important vehicle forg company-wide acceptance for theg pmgra.re group from the committee should be

ted as the task analysis subcommittee.with expert knowledge of the jobs to becould be asked to serve on job-specific

committees that will validate the finalsting for each job or job family in their

of expertise.important, politically and strategicallyop a strategy for gaining employee ac-

ce of the program. The program shouldy visible and publicized in employee

letters or notices posted on bulletinIt is particularly important that em-

know the start-up date for training andrson to contact for more information.

representatives should be briefedfisted to spread the word that the pro-

will not jeopardize anyone's employmentThe positive aspects of the programalways command center stage. It should

ted as an effort to improve company-

wide technical readiness; offer employees achance for improving their promotion possi-bilities; and maximize limited training dollarsto improve both company and individualperformance.

Sensitivity is important Lecause the potentialfor misunderstanding is great. Employees needto be reassured that the investigation will notresult in loss of jobs. If they know what is goingon and why, they are more likely to support theestablishment of a training program. Withoutemployee concurrence and cooperation, theWorkplace Basics program will never leave thelaunching pad.

Analyze Selected Jobs

After the investigation, comes job analysis.When selecting jobs for analysis, "proceed

with caution." Analysis may be limited to thosejobs that have been identified through mana-gers' reports about employee deficiencies orthrough difficulties that employees self-report.But if there is any suspicion that these reportsare indicative of a larger problem, more analy-ses should be conducted.

The first step in job analysis is to acquire jobdescriptions, which are general summaries ofwhat a person does on a job and the conditionsunder which he or she works. In larger compa-nies, job descriptions are usually found on filein company personnel offices. Companies thatdo not maintain job description files can findadequate substitutes in the Dictionary of Oc-cupational Titles published by the U.S. Depart-ment of Labor or through a literature search onjob descriptions developed by other companiesin their industry or related industries.

Obviously, a job description is only theoutline of a job. The second step in the jobanalysis process is to analyze the job descrip-tion. This identifies the duties of a job or fam-ily of jobs and the basic workplace skills re-quired to perform these duties.

Job description research and analysis doesnot require a heavy commitment of staff or dol-lars up-front. The activity can be carried out byin-house personnel with some experience in jobanalysis. If no experienced in-house person isavailable, an outside expert can be hired to per-form this limited task at relatively little cost.

29

21

FIGURE 4

JOB DESCRIPTION: MACHINIST

The machinist is a skilled metal worker who shapes metal ornon-metal parts by using machine or hand tools. He is able toselect the proper tools and materials required for each job, andto plan the cutting, bending, etc. and finishing operations in theirproper order so that work can be completed according toblueprint or written specifications. Can interpret blueprints andread precision instruments. Able to convert fractional values intodecimal equivalents.

The machinist is able to set up and operate most types ofmachine tools. He selects the appropriate machine and cuttingtools that will turn raw material Into an intricate, precise pert(Mar,er, 19671

Document Employee PerformanceDeficiencies

After job analysis is completed, informationmust be documented about the performance ofindividual employees or groups of employees inthe selected jobs.

At this time, it is important to have a prelim-inary idea of who will receive training in work-place basics. This information will provide arough size and scope of the problem and will benecessary for making an effective case to estab-lish a training program. In addition, thisgroundwork provides the foundation for moresophisticated targeting of trainee populationsfor tailored curriculum design (Step V).

Training that is critical to employer need,however, is frequently required as a conditionof employment or promotion. In this case, themost cost-effective approach is to link the basicworkplace skills training directly to the jobthrough the applied approach described in thismodel.

22

Identify Population to be'Ihrgeted for 'Training

The term "required training" often raises em-ployee fears that the training is a managementscheme for weeding out the less-effective mem-bers of the workforce Employees and their rep-resentatives should, therefore, be involvedthroughout the crafting of the basic workplaceskills program, and especially during the devel-opment of the training curriculum.

The way that required training is presentedis very important. The goal is to put employeesat ease and to make the training experience apositive one. Employees should be assured thatthe employer values them and will keep infor-mation about their participation confidential.Any public characterizations that might exposepersonal deficiencies should be avoided. Op-portunities should be provided for employeesto jointly identify and agree upon their learn-ing goals with their managers. They can accom-plish this through a learning-by-objectives(LBO) process, for example.

30

Build Cooperation With Unions

The chances of establishing a successfulbasic workplace skills program increase whenmanagement and unions provide support.Unions can work as partners with managementin setting goals, providing funding, selectingcourse content and training providers, or inlocating volunteers from the rank and file whocan be trained to be basic workplace skilltrainers.

Enlisting thf, union or employee representa-tive to help explain the process to the em-ployees, the job analyst must gather employeeperformance data by means of the following: in-formal conversations with workers, supervi-sors or union representatives; observation ofworkers; surveys; reviewing lir on grievancerecords; analyzing performance appraisals orexit interviews, and so on.

The skill profiles of prior job holders can alsobe resources for performance data if there is askills match with current job holders. At mini-mum, such profiles can provide a useful and

nonthreatening starting point to analyze basicworkplace skill requirements for a particularjob family.

Good record keeping is essential. Informa-tion gathered at this stage may be useful laterto target potential trainees, support trainingbudget requests, or answer inquiries about theneed to establish a basic workplace skills train-ing Program.

Inquiry into the need for training must beconsistent throughout this stage Are the per-formance problems, in fact, caused by skill defi-ciencies? Or are other factors creating theseproblemsfactors such as an insufficient in-centive system, a need for more selectiverecruiting, an inadequate equipment mainte-nance schedule, poor union-management rela-tions, and so on? Training may not be the ap-propriate remedy for what ails the employer.Other corrective action such as redesigning hir-ing specifications, changing equipment main-tenance schedules, or rewriting manuals maybe more realistic solutions.

BUILD MANAGEMENT AND UNION SUPPORT FOR SKILLSTRAINING PROGRAMS IN WORKPLACE BASICS

nce training is identifiedas the right solution, theadvocacy process begins.To be successful, an ad-

vocate of workplace basics mustskillfully use two toolslogic andpolitics.

The case for establishing a Workplace BasicsProgram rests on a foundation of data collectedthrough Step I. It must be a proactive case thatillustrates the impact of basic workplace skillsdeficiencies on the employer's ability to operateeffectively. Left unchecked, will basic work-place skills deficiencies affect the employer'sbottom line? What is the impact on productiv-ity, quality, or safety? Has the introduction ofnew technology or production processes beenimpaired?

Being proactive also means anticipating how

basic workplace skills deficiencies will affectthe employer's future plans. Will implementa-tion of strategic changes be hampered? Canproduct diversification or customization stra-tegies be successful given employees' currentskills? Can the workforce cope with proposedshifts in organizational philosophy or manage-ment practices that demand a higher base ofskills?

The logical arguments for establishing aworkplace basics program can be persuasive.But success in making the case and in sustain-ing an organizational commitment to a trainingprogram often rests on less tangible factors.There must be a base of support for launchinga basic workplace skills program. Politicscomes into play.

Leaders who might support a workplacebasics training program need to be courted.Support from influential managers, unionofficials, employee representatives, and the in-

STEP N:

23

formal leadership structure is critical tosuccessfully launching a program. Ideally,leadership on this issue from the Chief Ex-ecutive Officer (CEO) provides tremendousleverage in getting support from other levels ofthe institutional hierarchy, as well as from topunion officials or the board of directors.

Coalition building is also essential. The pro-cess of coalition building should begin by se-curing commitment from a respected leader-ship figure in the formal or informal authoritystructure of the institution. Here again, theCEO is ideal for this role, but coalition leader.ship may also come from farther down themanagement ladder from members of the gov-erning board or from employee representatives.Effective coalition leaders are those who cancommunicate both horizontally and verticallythroughout the organization and who can forgenetworks of allies.

To be most effective, coalitions must includerepresentative stakeholders from both the insti-tution's formal and informal authority struc-tures. Mistrust or resistance to the program canbe short-circuited by involving nonsupervisoryemployees. Union or employee representativescan play important roles in reducing employeeanxieties about the program. One effectivemethod of building coalitions is to carefullycraft some formal or informal stakeholder com-mittees or advisory groups to garner expandedsupport throughout all levels of the organiza-tion. To maximize the impact of this political ef-

fort, all commitments for support should beleveraged to build additional support andgather additional allies.

This is also the time to begin laying thegroundwork for a sustained institutional com-mitment to the training program. Leadership isa powerful and necessary ingredient forlaunching any program, but it is fragile andoften temporary. Programs that flourish underone leader often wither when that leader'stenure endsunless the leadership vision is in-stitutionalized through administrative pro-cesses and structures. Budget and staffing com-mitments are key here, but they too will be seenas temporary solutions unless basic workplaceskills training is linked to the strategic decision-making structure of the employer.

Efforts to build institutional commitmentmust focus on "destigmatizing" basic work-place skills training by making it an acceptedand integral part of the employer's overall train-ing agenda rather than a remedial add-on.Whenever training needs are being examined,questions about basic workplace skills defici-encies should be part of that discussion. Withtraining including basic workplace skills linkedto the strategic management process, inven-torying of employee skills including the basicswill become somewhat routine, triggered by theanticipation of events such as shifts in institu-tional strategies, creation of new jobs, or newsafety regulations.

PRESENT STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN TO MANAGEMENT ANDUNIONS FOR APPROVAL

hile the workplacebasics advocate con-structs a base of sup-port, he or she must also

be developing an action plan forestablishing a basic workplace skillstraining program. Once developed,the plan should be presented for the

24 approval of management and labor.

It should anticipate and addressemployee concerns. If the union isproposed as a training program co-funder and operator, it will need tohave an equal vote with manage-ment in order for the program to ad-vance toward its goals.

A formal meeting with key decision-makersshould be requested to brief them on the plan.

32

ritten copies of the plan should be providedeach person responsible for approving the

roposal. Both the plan and the presentationuld be comprehensive and concise and ;n-

ude these items:

Conclusions that can be drawn from (Step I)preliminary research;

Strategic implications of those findings;

A recommendation that a program bedeveloped;

Options for establishing a training program(include a rough cost analysis; timeframe;program content, responsibilities and design;profile of bamers to implementation such ascost, staffing, and so on.); and

The recommended option based on cost ver-sus bandit to the employer.

An important part of the training proposal isconsideration of whether an outside trainingprovider should be called in to assist with allor part of the training program. Would an out-side provider be needed to design and developcustomized training or provide an off-the-shelftraining program? Should a combination of in-house expertise and outside consultation beused?

If the answer is to seek outside help, there area variety of sources. Local school districts, com-munity colleges and universities, nonprofit lit-eracy groups, for-profit organizations and indi-viduals, private industry councils (PICs), andothers in the community can supplement in-

house expertise.Small businesses (fewer than500 employees) should also consider largerlocal employers as potential providers. Largercompanies may be willing and interested inallowing access to their training for a fee. If pro-prietary rights are not an issue, these compa-nies may choose to provide a smaller companywith copies of already developed curricula foruse free of charge or under a contractualarmrgement.

Because outside providers have varyingstrengths and weaknesses, and not al: will beequally suitable, a competitive bidding processor request for proposal (RFP) is a users: tool forfinding a resource that meets specific employerneeds. But before a selection is made, the fol-lowing minimum information about those pro-viders under consideration for the job shouldbe gathered:

experience with training in an appliedcontext;

experience in working with adults over 21;

approach to program design anddevelopment;

capability to perform the designated tasks;

prior experience and success rate;

cost and time requirements; and

references.

The hiring agent must proceed with caution,and be clear and exact about required services.

PERFORM A TASK ANALYSIS ON EACH SELECTED JOB ORJOB FAMILY

he next step is to identifythose skills required toperform the tasks and

L,,- duties of the specific jobsfeatured in the workplace basicstraining. This process or task analy-sis is keyed to the competencies ac-tually required to pert rm work in

the targeted jobs. It is a more in-depth and structured look at the de-scriptions of job duties that wereprepared in Step Ithe initialinvestigation.

An accurate task analysis lays the foundationfor a good instructional program. With infor-mation gained from the task analysis, instruc-

33

STEP IV:

FIGURE 5

COMPONENTS OF AANALYSIS PROCESS

GENERIC TASK

1'

tors can develop lessons en those skills,knowledge, and attitudes learners need to per-form a job successfully.

In any task analysis, the first steps are toreview all related literature on the subject andcollect all available task listings, comprehen-sive lists of those tasks performed by workerson a part ular job. There are many excellentpublishe istings of job tasks that can be ob-tained f m such institutions as The N2tiontiCenter for Vocational Education, The OhioState U iversity, The V-TEC's Consortium, andseveral tate education agencies.

In instances, but particularly where exist-ing ta listings are being adapted, it is crucial

26 for ta analyses to be accurate and validated

by company employees familiar with the job.The task analysis usually breaks a job into

three component parts. The task listing is acomprehensive list of tasks performed by work-ers on a job. The task detailinga systematicbreakdown of each task to determine the skills,sequencing, knowledge, and attitudes an indi-vidual needs to know to perform a single tasksuccessfully. The task inventory consists of listsof duties and tasks and questions for in-cumbent workers about the way a task isperformed.

There are many techniques for performing atask analysis. Some commonly in use includeopen-ended or closed questionnaires, individ-ual or group interviews, observation of workers

34

on the job, and analysis of existing documentssuch as manuals or other instructionalmaterials.

Some sophisticated methodologies have beendeveloped that combine several of these tech-niques into integrated systems for performingtask analyses. These include DACUM (Develop-ing A Clirriculum) by the National Academy forVocational Education; the Adult CompetencyEducation (ACE) Project , based on a taxonomyof basic skills common to 75 jobs; and the liter-acy task analysis developed by Professor Larry

DESIGN CURRICULUM

To ensure continuitythroughout program de-sign, development andimplementation, the

position of program managershould be filled no later than thedesign stage. Other key personnelmay also be hired early on, depend-ing on the internal needs of the or-ganization. These key personnelshould play an integral role through-out the evolution of the program.The curriculum stage includes de-sign of the instructional program,consideration of the evaluation in-struments and process, design of arecordkeeping system and craftingof an operational budget

Curriculum design is strongly influenced bythe duties and tasks of the targeted jobs. But itshould also take into account the trainees.Often, employers will make basic workplaceskills training programs available as anemployee benefit. Such programs are for em-ployees who are seeking self-improvement orwho sense that keeping a job or securing a pro-motion is not possible without improving theirskills. Basic workplace skills programs of thiskind are generally not driven by the economic

t".

Mikulecky, director of the Learning SkillsCenter, at Indiana University.

The entire process of task analysis can be dis-tilled into several generic components. Thechart on page 26 illustrates the basic tenets ofthat generic approach.

Any model for analysis must be based in ob-taining information from expert or highlyskilled workers. Without this type of input, in-formation on how a job ought to be performedis simply speculation.

or strategic needs of the employer and, there-fore, do not necessarily need to be linked to theemployee's job.

In such cases, it is often more cost-effectivefor an employer to have an external providerdesign a generalized curriculum for a partic-ular workplace skill, or to simply provide tui-tion reimbursement for basic workplace skillstraining that the employee selects from an out-side provider.

Design a Performance-Based/Functional Context InstructionalProgram

Most state-of-the-art training designs todayare performance-based and focus on the traineemastering those tagl:s that have been desig-nated essential for successful performance onthe job. Standards for successful performanceare clear, and success is measured by learning,not by the amount of time the employee takesto perform the task.

This approach is particularly effective foradults when it is combined with a functionalcontext learning methodology that uses job-related materials and concepts as the basis fortraining. The functional context approach isgeared toward filling in the gap between whatthe trainee already knows and what he needs toknow to be effective on the job. It takes into ac-count the existing knowledge and skills of thetrainee and builds upon them.

35

STEP V:

27

At the heart of the design process for a per-formance based/functional context curriculumare two key concepts: written performance ob-jectives and criterion-referenced testing. Per-formance objectives are essential to measuringtraining success and should be written for eachtask selected for training. In a performance-based system, learners need to master onlywhat they do not already know to successfullycarry out a specific task. Therefore, the objec-tives should specify what the learners are cur-rently able to do on the job, the corditionsunder which they mu.-.. verform while demon-strating mastery of the objective, and thedesired future level of performance.

Criterion-referenced testing involves pre- andpost-training test phases. The pre-training testphase is diagnostic, and determines where em-ployee skill deficiencies lie. Post-trainingcriterion tests should be of the identical lengthand format as the pre-test, but test only thosetask behaviors treated during the instructionalprogram. Criterion-referenced tests emphasizelearner performance. Their objective is toverify the learner's mastery of tasks identifiedin the performance objectives. Construction ofrelevant, functional pre-and post-tests is acomplished most effectively after the perfor-mance objectives have been written and thelearning materials developed.

Using a performance-based approach accel-erates the learning process and enhanceslearner retention. For example, an individualwho is working as a machinist, but alreadyknows how to change fractions into decimals,would not be required to relearn this skill dur-ing training. He or she would move on to newareas of learning.

Evaluation Instruments,Recordkeeping , and Documentation

During this stage of the design process, it isimportant to consider how the training pro-gram will be evaluated, what records are impor-tant, and how much it will cost to operate theprogram.

Without sound, objective training evaluation,we have only subjective assessments of value

28 and success. b these times of tight resources,

that is not enough to justify continuing a train-ing program. Evaluation must be keyed to dis-covering the most appropriate and cost-effective training response and to illustratinghow that training helps the organization meetits strategic goals.

Although viewed traditionally as a final activ-ity of a training program, evaluation must beplanned during the training design phase. Goodevaluation design identifies program proce-dures for collecting, interpreting and reportingdata and specifies when and from whom pro-gram data will be collected. Such a desig.. en-sures steps for gathering informatit i that theevaluator will use to compare pre- and post-program behavior and draw conclusions. (SeeStep VIII for a more detailed discussion ofevaluation).

Another important step during the designstage is to establish a documentation processto collect, record, analyze, and report accuratedata on individual learners' progress and per-formance. This documentation should providewritten proof that the training occurred, as wellas evidence that it was provided according tothe curriculum design.

At this stage a good recordkeeping systemshould also be designed that should includeemployee learning contracts and other types ofback-up documentation. Decisions on howrecord keeping will be done (manually or bycomputer) and by whom, as well as how exten-sive it will be, will determine the design of theforms to be developed. Only data directlyrelated to the training should be included suchas attendance, hours of instruction, pre- andpost-skill test results, employee educationalbackground.

Budgeting

This is also the time to consider the budgetimplications of program operation.Before ex-tensive time and energy go into the develop-ment of curriculum materials, a final imple-mentation budget should be presented to man-agement for approval and the go-ahead to ira-plement the training program.

36

OP THE CURRICULUMhe process of curriculumdevelopment involvescrafting the curriculum;integrating instructional

quest pinpointing deliveryfacilities and equipment;

the development of measure-t tools.three major steps in developing a curric-are:

Prepare the course outline.'What tasks don need to master before they can per-

this task?" The tasks should be put in pri-order, as they will be presented during

moving from simplest to most com-Because the goal of instruction is im-

job performance,the tasks should beuenced according to which ones will be

important for the employee to master into achieve that goal.

'Develop individual lesson plans.The lessonshoald identify what the learner actually

to do on the job, not what the instructort like to teach. The focus should be on tasks and performance objectives.

'Develop instructional materials. -Materialsd be developed or adapted from existingrces where appropriate. Only materialwill help the learner satisfy the perfor-

objectives should be selected for eachMaterial should be at the level, or move

the level the learner will use on the job.d any material developed specifically for

PLEMENT THE PROGRAMne of the most importantactivities during theearly implementationperiod is moving the

ployee awareness campaign ing,h gear to "talk up" the new train-

(rig program. Meetings should be

L

,...

children. Research shows that adults learn dif-ferently from children and their learning stylesalso differ.)

The process of curriculum development alsoinvolves selecting instructional techniques thatwill minimize costs without affecting the qual-ity of results. The techniques used will deter-mine the type of facility, the number of instruc-tional personnel, the cost of producing originalmaterials, and so on. All of these factors, plusthe impact on individual learning, must betaken into consideration.

Several delivery systems can be uzeti to pre-sent instructional material, all of which havevarying strengths and weaknesses. These in-clude traditional classroom, multimediaclassroom, tutored video classroom, interactiveTV classroom, self-study, guided learningcenter, computer-based training (CBT), and in-teractive videodisc with personal computer.

The next step is to make decisions aboutfacilities and hardware. Selecting appropriatefacilities and training equipment depends on anumber of variables including the type oflearn-ing required (heavy equipment, production line,office); instructional strategies selected (com-puter-assisted; traditional classroom, self-study); location (on- or off -site); number oflearners (few or many); budgetary restrictions;time available for training; training presenter(in-house or external); and the curriculum.

The final step is to develop evaluation andmonitoring instruments. The development pro-cess should include line managers and super-visors, to establish a common perspective onthe kind of training needed and the standardsthat constitute improved work performanceafter training.

scheduled to answer employee ques-tions and present a positiveview ofthe program. Informationabout thetraining should also beprominentlydisplayed in employee newsletters STEP ighand on bulletin boards.

Another important part of the early im-

S1E101116

a

i

37

29

FIGURE 6

Is

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONALSTAFF: A CHECKLIST

Is the person familiar with adult learning and thepaYchningY of learning?

Has the person a history of actuallyworking withadults and what kind of evaluation feedback isavailable on performance?

What is the level of subject expertise?

Will the person be comfortable using new subjectcurricula and Instructional approaches that are notschool based?

Does the person have experience teaching basicworkplace skills in a job-related context?

Will the person be responsive to company re-quirements and working with company personnel?

plementation period is staff selection. By thisstage, the program manager should be on-board and have actively participated in thedevelopment of the training program design.The manager is also responsible for developingall program operating objectives; planning,organizing, staffing, and supervising the train-ing project; and evaluating and linking thetraining program to the employer'soperationsand goals.The individual selected for this posi-tion should have a substantial knowledge of theemployer's corporate culture and practices, aswell as a background in adult education, train-

30 ing, and evaluation.

As part of the staffing function, the managermay select an outside provider to assist with allor part of the training program. Whether theprogram is to be provided by in-house or exter-nal staff, there are a number of key staff posi-tions that must be filled.

The second most important staff position isprogram administrator. The administrator eval-uates instructional staff performance, selectsfacilities and equipment; schedules instruc-tional staff, ensures that course material isprepared and available; and assures programfollow-up. This individual should havea strongbackground in project management, and in-structional technology, some background andexperience in working with adults, and someexperience using evaluation techniques.

Together the program manager and programadministrator should select the instructionalstaff. Successful instructors in job-relatedbasic workplace training programs must havespecial skills as shown in the checklist to theleft.

Few companies can afford to hire full time in-structors of basic workplace skills, but thereare other options. Experienced employees andmanagers may take train-the-trainercourses tobecome part- or full-time peer trainers. Theyshould also receive special training in instruc-tional techniques and support counseling. Peertrainers will be most effective if paired withprofessional trainers. Together these two in-structional staffs can also facilitate company-wide employee "buy-in" in a manner that can-not be replicated in any other way.

Other options include contracting withan ex-ternal provider for program delivery or hiringpart-time instructors from outside the organi-zation. With creative scheduling, these ap-proaches can have a payoff in flexibility andquality programming.

It is also important to consider counseling anintegral part of a successful trainingprogram.Many employees will not have been in a formallearning situation for some time and will beafraid of failure. Some will also have had nega-tive experiences in school and will be anxiousabout whether they will perform well in thisnew program. Providing a counselor to com-municate the company's commitment to suc-

3 8

cessful learning is a necessary reinforcementmechPnism. While counseling may be handledby instructional staff, a separate counselingstaff is recommended.

The performance-based training approachuses a "competency profile" to track traineeprogress toward acquiring competencies for a

particular functional job or area. Additionaldocumentatior night include the learning con-tract, which aetails learning objectives andmeasures of achievement; records of atten-dance and hours of instruction; pre- and post-test results; or trainee educational backgroundinformation, and so on.

EVALUATE AND MONITOR THE TRAINING PROGRAMEvaluation provides infor-mation about the effi-ciency, effectiveness, andusefulness of the pro-

gram. Without evaluation there is noobjective wnv to determine whetheror not training has made adifference.

Once a program has completed at least onecycle and employees have returned to theirwork stations, evaluation can begin. The design,development, and implementation establishesthe groundwork for effective evaluation.Available data sources should include surveysof trainee reactions, pre- and post-tests tomeasure learning, observation of employeebehavior, and interviews. It should identifychangessuch as productivity improvements,cost reductions, quality improvements, orreduced turnoverthat have occurred in theworkplace since the training. All factors mustbe considered when evaluating the effec-tiveness of training. No one factor alone willprovide accurate feedback.

Evaluation should be performed periodicallyto determine whether or not program goals arebeing met. Also important, program monitoring

provides continual feedback on whether in-struction is working well from day to day.Usually, personnel trained specially in evalua-tion techniques or an independent evaluationspecialists carry out program evaluation. Pro-gram monitoring falls within the domain of theprogram manager, project administrator andinstructional staff.

Monitoring and evaluation should be viewedas "living processes." Together they provide theinformation for adjusting and improving theprogram design to assure efficient, and effec-tive delivery of the basic workplace skills train-ing program.

Because the applied approach to training inworkplace basics is one that emphasizes rele-vance to the workplace and to employer need,evaluation and monitoring are especially im-portant. They provide the basic data for mak-ing the case to management that training is im-portant to the organization's strategic goals anddaily operations.

39

STEP VIII:

31

References and

Suggested Reading

Abella, K.T., Building Successful Raining Pro-grams, Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.,Reading MA, 1986.

Armed Forces Staff, Handbook for Designers ofInstructional Development, Vols. I-VI, Army, Navyor Air Force, 1978.

Bean, J.A. and Lipka RA, Self-Concept, Self-Esteem and the Curriculum, Teachers CollegeColumbia University, New York, NY, 1986.

Berk RA, ed. Criterion - Referenced Measurement:The State of the Art, The Johns Hopkins Univers-ity Press, Baltimore, MD, 1980.

Berlin, G. and Sum, A., Toward More PerfectUnion: Basic Skills, Poor Families, and Our Eco-nomic Future Ford Foundation, New York, 1988.

Bishop, J., Information Externalities and theSocial Pay-Off, Working Paper #87-06, CornellUniversity, Ithaca, NY, 1987.

Bolton, R., People Skills: How to Assert Yourself,Listen to Others, and Resolve Conflict, Simon &Schuster, New York, NY, 1979.

Brookfield, S., Developing Critical Thinkers,Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 1987.

Campbell:flume, L, Manning K., Okeafor K. andWilliams E.J., Building Basic Skills: Models forImplementation, The National Center for Re-search in Vocational Education, Columbus, OH,1983.

Carkhuff, RR., and Fisher SG., Instructional Sys-tems Design I: Designing the Instructional System,Human Resources Development Press, Amherst,MA, 1984.

Carlisle, K.E, and Arwady J.P, Analyzing Jobs andTasks, Educational Technology Publications,Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986.

Davies, I.K., Competency Based Learning: Tech-nology, Management and Design, McGraw-Hill,New York, NY, 1973.

32

Duffy, T.M., Literacy Instruction in the Military,Communication Design Center, Carnegie MellonUniversity, Pittsburg, PA, 1983.

Elsea, J.G., First Impressions, Best Impression,Simon and Schuster/Fireside Books, New York,N.Y., 1986.

Ends, E.J. and Page C.W., Organizational TeamBuilding Winthrop Publishers, Cambridge, MA,1977.

Fields, E.L, Hull W.L. and Sechler, JA, Adult Lit-eracy: IndustryBased Training Programs, The Na-tional Center for Research in Vocational Educa-tion, Columbus, OH, 1987.

Fisher, R. and Ury W, Getting To Yes: NegotiatingAgreement Without Giving In Houghton Mifflin,Boston, MA, 1981.

Flynn, P., Facilitating Technological Change: TheHuman Resource Challenge, Ballinger PublishingCompany, Cambridge, MA, 1988.

Graves, D., Corporate Culture-Diagnosis andChange, St. Martin's Press, New York, NY, 1986.

Job Raining In Small and Large Firms, U.S. SmallBusiness Administration, Washington, DC., 1988.

Kirkpatrick, D., "Evaluation;' Training and Devel-opment Handbook (Third Edition), Robert L.Craig [Editor], McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1987.

Kirsch, IS. and Jungeblut A., Literacy: Profiles ofAmerica's Young Adults, Educational Testing Ser-vice, National Ansessment of Educational Pro-gress, Princeton, NJ, 1986.

Kloosterman, P. and Harty H., Need Sensing As-sessing, and Validation for Science, Mathematics,Computer, and Foreign Language Education in theState of Indiana. Final Report, Bloomington: In-diana University School of Education, 1986.[ERIC Document Na ED 272 391]

40

Lillard, L and Tan HW, Private Sector Training:Who Gets It and What Ore Its Effect, Rand Cor-poration, Santa Monica, CA, 1986.

Lombardo, C., "Costilenefit Analysis of Training,"ASTD Handbook Volume 2, For Technical andSkills Twining ASTD, Alexandria, VA, 1986.

Lustcnnan, S., Mends In Corporate Education andTraining, The Conference Board, New York, NY,1985.

Lutz, B., "Eciacation and Employment: Contrast-ing Evidence From France and the Federal Re-public of Germany," European Journal of Educa-tion, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1981.

Mager, R.F., Preparing Instructional Objectives(Revised Second Edition), Pittman Learning Inc.,E elmont, CA, 1984.

Manuele, CA, "Modifying Vocational Maturity in&tilts With Delayed Career Development: A LifeSkills Approach;' The Vocational Guidance Quar-terly, December, 1984.

Miller, WC., The Creative Edge, Addison-Wesley,Reading, MA, 1987.

Myers, I.B, 23pe and Teamwork, Center for Appli-cations of Psychological Types, Gainesville, FL,1974.

Mink, O., Mink, R, and Owen IC.0., Groups AtWork, Educational Technology Publications,Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1987.

National Alliance of Business, Building a Qual-ity Workforce, Sponsored by U.S. Department ofLabor, US. Department of Education, and US.Department of Commerce, July 1988.

Nierenberg, GI., Fundamentals of Negotiating,Hawthorne Books, Inc., New York, NY, 1975.

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