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8/10/2019 EPSRC Thermal Managemeng Progress Report Newcastle University 2 (2)
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Newcastle University
EPSRC: Thermal Management of Industrial Processes
National sources of low grade heat available from the process industry
Progress Report
(Feb. 2011)
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List of Abbreviations
AEA: Energy and Environment
BERR: Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (previously Department
for Trade and Industry)BF: Blast Furnace
BFG: Blast Furnace Gas
BOF: Basic Oxygen Furnace
EA PAS: Environment Agencies Public registers
EAF: Electric Arc Furnace
NAP: National Allocation Plan
NEPIC: North East of England Process Industry Cluster
UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme
Unit
PJ: Peta Joule (=1015J)
TWh: Tera Watt-hour (=1012
Wh)
Mt/yr: Million tons per year
List of figures
Figure 1: Schematic of a heat exchanger................................................................................ 7
Figure 2: Heat Transfer Efficiency versus Source Temperature .............................................. 8
Figure 3: Map of industrial heat [3] ....................................................................................... 9
Figure 4: Industrial heat load by industrial sector [3] ........................................................... 10 Figure 5: Schematic representation of a steel production plant ............................................. 14
List of tables
Table 1: Waste heat sources in major industrial processes (cf. Table 11.7 of [7]) .................... 6
Table 2: Steel capacity ......................................................................................................... 14Table 3: Specific energy consumption and energy consumption splits within Steel industry
processes ............................................................................................................................. 14Table 4: gas composition in Steel processes ......................................................................... 15
Table 5: Characterization and classification of potentially recoverable low grade heat gas
streams in the steel industry................................................................................................. 25Table 6: Characterization and classification of potentially recoverable low grade heat cooling
water streams in the steel industry ....................................................................................... 25
Table 7: Gas waste heat sources and potential for recovery .................................................. 26
Table 8: Cooling water waste heat sources and potential for recovery .................................. 27
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Contents
Research context ................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5
1. Developing an Industrial heat load map .......................................................................... 8
2. Potential test case studies ............................................................................................. 10
3. Waste heat survey guidelines ........................................................................................ 11
4. Case Study: Steel production process ........................................................................... 12
4.1. Coke production process ........................................................................................... 16
4.2. Sinter process ........................................................................................................... 17
4.3. Blast Furnace (BF) process ....................................................................................... 18
4.4. Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process................................................................ 19
4.5. Continuous casting process ....................................................................................... 204.6. Hot mill process ....................................................................................................... 21
4.7. Cold mill process ...................................................................................................... 22
4.8. Annealing process .................................................................................................... 23
4.9. Power plant .............................................................................................................. 24
4.10. Low grade heat classification-Summary for Steel production process case study ... 26
4.10.1. Gas .................................................................................................................... 26
4.10.2. Cooling water .................................................................................................... 26
4.11. Potential uses ........................................................................................................ 26
4.11.1. Gas ....................................................................................................................... 26
4.11.2. Cooling water ....................................................................................................... 27
4.12. Concluding remarks .............................................................................................. 27
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Research context
This report presents the progress achieved in the first six months of work of the EPSRC:
Thermal Management of Industrial Processes project.
The first stage of Newcastle Universitys part of this project is to identify the sources of low
grade heat available from the process industry across the UK. Once identified, as many of
these sources as possible will be quantified and characterized.
The objectives of this report are to:
-Identify and characterize opportunities for low grade heat recovery in the UK process
industry.
-Present the first test case study which is that of a steelworks
-Classify waste heat sources in the Steel Industry
The main available sources of information which have been used so far are:
1.
UNEP
2.
AEA3.
EA PAS database (http://www2.environment-agency.gov.uk/epr/)
4.
NAP allocation database
5.
NEPIC
6.
Trade organisations
7.
Steel Industry partner
https://owa.ncl.ac.uk/OWA/redir.aspx?C=9aa965a6fc93488e93a62fe354cc3cbd&URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww2.environment-agency.gov.uk%2fepr%2fhttps://owa.ncl.ac.uk/OWA/redir.aspx?C=9aa965a6fc93488e93a62fe354cc3cbd&URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww2.environment-agency.gov.uk%2fepr%2fhttps://owa.ncl.ac.uk/OWA/redir.aspx?C=9aa965a6fc93488e93a62fe354cc3cbd&URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww2.environment-agency.gov.uk%2fepr%2fhttps://owa.ncl.ac.uk/OWA/redir.aspx?C=9aa965a6fc93488e93a62fe354cc3cbd&URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww2.environment-agency.gov.uk%2fepr%2f8/10/2019 EPSRC Thermal Managemeng Progress Report Newcastle University 2 (2)
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Introduction
Waste heat refers to the heat absorbed by the environment. According to the Energy
Management Handbook [1],Waste heat is that energy which is rejected from a proc ess at a
temperature high enough above the ambient temperature to permit the economic recovery ofsome fraction of that energy for useful purposes. Heat recovery is a generic term used for a
large range of procedures involved with reusing heat otherwise wasted in the environment.
The importance of low-grade heat recovery projects has inevitably increased over the last
couple of years with the current concern for environmental issues and the associated political
policy requiring carbon dioxide emission reduction, as well as general concerns about fuel
security. The Climate Change Act 2008 [2] sets reduction targets, based on 1990 levels, of a
reduction of 80% by 2050 and an interim target of at least 34% by 2020. Given that the
industrial sector represents 40% of the overall CO2 emissions in the UK [3], pressure has
been put on it. For instance, the Climate Change Levy (CCL) [4], a levy on energy use was
applied to industry with a dispensation of 80% available to certain energy-intensive industries
in the form of Climate Change Agreements (CCAs) in return for undertaking energy saving
measures towards predefined goals. The Government have announced that this will be
reduced to 65% by April 2011 [5] thus raising energy costs further. Therefore, the new
priorities in industrys agenda have become to invest more and more in sustainable
technology.
Although a lot has already been done in the past to use energy more efficiently, the industrial
potential for waste heat recovery still represents a thermal energy market potential of some
144 PJ currently lost from industrial processes [6].
This project is particularly interested in low grade heat. The widely accepted definition of this
is, typically, ~250C or less [7].
However, as shown in Table 1, this can vary over the process industries. For example the
exhaust gas temperature of reheat furnaces can reach up to 600C in the Steel industry, and in
the Chemical and Oil industries processes can reject warm gas into the environment with
temperatures up to 340C.
Therefore, the temperature range to consider for the identification of low grade heat sources
will depend on the process industry considered for the analysis.
The main problem in most potential heat recovery applications is how to make effective use
of any recovered heat. There are usually technical solutions to the actual process and thedecision is not normally can it be done? but is it worth it? A key factor in this decision is
the quality of the available heat. The temperature of the heat source is the overriding limiting
factor since, clearly, it must be higher than the required sink temperature. However, the
concept of exergy, which is more normally concerned with the efficiency of heat engines, is
also useful in the comparison of different heat sources. Exergy is the maximum quantity of
technical work one can get from a given low grade heat source.
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Table 1: Waste heat sources in major industrial processes (cf. Table 11.7 of [7])
Industry Plant source Heat content
(GJ/annum)
Temperature
(C)
Nature
Steel Coke oven stack gas 3.88E+06 190 Gas
Steel Sinter from sinter plant 5.52E+06 250 Radiant heatSteel Blast furnace stoves 5.50E+06 250 Pressure Energy Gas
Steel Blast furnace stoves 3.75E+06 300 Pressure Energy Gas
Steel
Finishing soaking pit
reheat furnaces 1.49E+07 200-600/300-400 gas
Steel
Cooling water from
reheating furnaces 1.72E+07 20-40 Water
Glass Container glass melting 2.02E+06 160-200 Gas
Glass Container glass melting 2.02E+06 140-160 Gas
Glass Flat glass melting 1.27E+06 160-200 Gas
Glass Fibre glass melting 140-160 GasGlass Domestic glass melting 1.80E+06 Gas
Glass Other glass melting Gas
Oil Processing furnaces exhaust 6.56E+07 340 Gas
Oil Boiler exhaust 1.94E+07 230 Gas
Oil Condensate 4.80E+06 82 Water
Oil Process water 2.92E+07 50 Water
Oil Condenser cooling water 7.30E+06 45 Water
Chemical Processing furnace exhaust 2.10E+07 340 Gas
Chemical Boiler exhaust 2.30E+07 230 Gas
Chemical Condensate 4.00E+06 82 Water
Chemical Process water 1.00E+07 50 Water
Chemical Condenser cooling water 2.10E+07 45 Water
Electricity Flue gases 1.80E+08 130 Gas
Electricity Cooling water 1.00E+09 25 Water
For any given state defined by the temperature T and the entropy S, with respect to the
ambient standard state , , the specific exergy is defined as, for a continuous flow [8]:
[1],where his the enthalpy.
For a fluid stream, the exergy may be written as [8]:
[2],
where is the fluid specific heat capacity in J/(kg.K)and is the fluid stream mass flowrate in kg/s.
The efficiency of a system producing work from a supply of heat is normally considered in
terms of the first law of thermodynamics which considers that the energy within a process is
conserved. The efficiency is often defined according to the first law in terms of the net
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work output and the energy input. However, this analysis provides no indication of how the
efficiency compares to the maximum efficiency possible, which is not 100%. This is due to
the second law of thermodynamics (which, as was stated by Lord Kelvin, says that it is
impossible to convert heat completely into work). This current study takes this into account
by using the concept of exergy. More precisely, according to Equation (1), exergy accountsfor the irreversibility of the process due to the increase in entropy. Consequences of the
second law of thermodynamics create therefore fundamental constraints on the efficiency of a
heat engine related to the operating temperatures.
In the context of low grade heat recovery, exergy refers to the maximum amount of work
which can be delivered from a system operating between high source temperature and
ambient temperature. It is clearly a measure of the quality of the heat source and, hence, its
usefulness in the consideration of heat recovery applications. Heat recovery necessarily
involves heat transfer and this results in a loss of exergy, i.e. the exergy of the recovered
stream is less than that of the source stream. In other words, the efficiency of the transfer is
temperature dependent and according to Equation (2), exergy is always destroyed when the
process involves a temperature gradient. The exergy efficiency needs to be considered instead
of the energy efficiency. The importance of the exergy efficiency was clearly underlined by
Winter [9] for the design of future industrial processes constrained by energy savings and
CO2 footprint reductions.
In order to define the exergy efficiency of the heat transfer between the source and the
environment, the heat transfer is approximated as a counter flow heat exchanger (cf.Figure
1).
From this approximation, the exergy efficiency, between the heat source and the
environment can be defined as follows: = Exc / Exh [3],
In effect, the efficiency given by Equation (3) is the actual increase in the exergy of the cold
stream Exccompared to the maximum possible exergy available for transfer given by the
difference Exh.
Figure 1: Schematic of a heat exchanger
As an example of the effect of temperature on the exergy efficiency, consider a counter-flow
heat exchanger with a 10C approach temperature, the approach temperature being the
minimum temperature difference between the hot fluid and the cold fluid. Th represents the
temperature of the source stream with while Tc represents the temperature of the
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environment sink with .Hot and cold streams are supposed to have same heat capacity. Here, T0= 5C and = 20C.
Figure 2: Heat Transfer Efficiency versus Source Temperature
Figure 2 shows the efficiency variation with the hot fluid source temperature, . The heattransfer efficiency from heat to power decreases as the temperature goes down.
Thus, a high source temperature provides greater choice of applications but also a more
efficient transfer process.
The temperature of the source is of primary importance but the actual energy conversion
depends on many other factors. In fact, the usefulness of the source will also depend on the
quantity, the reliability of supply, the form (gas or liquid, corrosive/non-corrosive) and the
ease of access. Ultimately, a source is not useful unless potential users are found. Users mustbe located within a certain distance of the plant, this distance depends on the distance the heat
can be economically transported.
Heat is usually transported via water or steam. According to the report by Terra Infirma [10] ,
steam with temperature in the range of 120-250C can be transported over ~3 to 5 km while
water with temperature in the range of 90-175C can be transported over 30 km. Other
sources cited in that same report mentioned that 9 miles (~15km) is the economic limit for
low-grade heat.
In fact, how far heat can be transported depends on several factors. If heat is assumed to be
transported via a pipe, the heat loss factor which is the ratio between heat loss and the
quantity of heat supplied by the source, depends on the efficiency of pipe insulation but also
on the average size of the pipe and the temperature of the fluid circulating in the pipe relative
to the annual average of the outdoor temperature. The profitability of the heat recovery
project also depends on the cost invested in heat transportation, the total cost being the sum
of the cost for pipeline installation, for heat losses and for pumping power [11].
Hence, heat transport is case specific and further research will include the definition of a
methodology for determining the distance threshold above which no potential users can be
found for economic heat recovery solution.
1.Developing an Industrial heat load mapIn July 2006, the market potential for surplus heat from industrial processes in the UK was
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95100
35 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190
ExergyEfficiency(%)
Hot Fluid source temperature (C)
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estimated at 144PJ (40TWh) by the Carbon Trust [6] and more recently at, 65 PJ (18 TWh)
by the Governments Office of Climate Change[12] and 36-71 PJ (10-20 TWh) in a report by
McKenna [3].
These figures reflect a great potential which remains unexploited until now.
It should be noted that obtaining exact national data on waste heat is difficult, so most ofthose investigations extrapolated from industrial CO2 emissions, probably due to the relative
ease of obtaining emissions data. This goes some way towards explaining the large variations
between the figures given above.
Figure 3: Map of industrial heat [3]
McKenna [3] developed a procedure to determine the quantity of thermal energy released into
the environment, based on CO2 emission and energy consumed by industries. Emission
factors which give the average emission rate of Carbon released per unit of energy produced
were taken from [13]and energy consumption split by industrial sector was taken from [14].
The emission factors and energy consumption split by industrial sector were then used to
calculate the fuel consumption from combustion. The latter was then used to determine the
heat load for this fuel consumption and the conversion efficiency from fuel to heat estimated
from Carnot cycle efficiency. The actual heat load was weighed against heat recovery factor
for each sector. The recoverable part of the heat load was assumed to be half of the heat
exhaust fraction. In this analysis, temporal variation in heat load was neglected. The head
loads were assumed to be constant over the year.
The results of this investigation are presented inFigure 3.The distribution of industrial heat
loads is represented by the empty circles while the potential for heat recovery is represented
by the solid circles. It is clear from this map that the high temperature recovery potentialconcentrates into 3 main centres corresponding to iron and steel plants. This map [3] has
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already been overtaken by an economic downturn in the industry, resulting in the mothballing
of part of one of the sites. As part of this project, information presentation will be
investigated so large singular sites do not obscure smaller more diffuse, although still
valuable, recovery opportunities.
The energy use for heat is plotted for different types of industry in Figure 4.Low recoveryrepresents the heat recovery potential of source temperature in the range 100-500C and high
recovery the heat recovery potential of source temperature higher than 500C. This
investigation does not include the potential for temperature lower than 100C. While the heat
recovery potential was underestimated, Figure 4 can be used to determine the sectors with
highest heat loads.
Figure 4: Industrial heat load by industrial sector [3]
The largest heat user is the Iron and Steel sector with a heat load around 213 PJ followed by
the chemical sector with 167 PJ. The Food and Drink, Pulp and Paper, Cement, Glass,
Aluminium and Ceramics sectors are also significant heat users.With regards toFigure 4,test case studies will consider most of these industrial sectors. Other
important key sectors in the UK process industry are Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology and
Oil/Biofuel as illustrated by the large number of companies in this sector which are members
of the North East of England Process Industry Cluster (NEPIC, website:
http://www.nepic.co.uk/).
2.Potential test case studies
Following the identification of the sectors with the largest heat demand, companies who are
influential in these sectors will be approached to provide case study material. These are thesectors being considered:
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- Iron and Steel
- Chemical/ Petrochemical
- Food and Drink
- Pulp and Paper
-
Cement- Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology
- Oil and Biofuel
Given the importance of Small and Medium-sized Enterprise (SME) in the UK economy and
given the large number of SME working in different industrial sectors, one of the test case
studies can be based on the selection of a cluster of companies in the Northeast ( in
collaboration with NEPIC) within which both heat sources and potential users would be
identified. This case study would demonstrate industrial ecology for heat transfer, allowing
the investigation of the potential for synergistic relationships across sectors.
3.Waste heat survey guidelinesIt is important to define a methodology while processing industrial partner data for
identifying waste heat.
First, all the thermal energy streams containing sensible and/ or latent heat that flow from the
plant into the environment are identified.
For each thermal energy stream, the following information is given:
Waste heat source composition
Gas moisture content
Flow rate
Temperature
Ease of access for utilisation
Heat content or specific enthalpy
Reliability of supply
Secondly, the accuracy of the collected data will be established by determining the total heat
balance of the system under investigation. This will be verified by double checking with the
industrial partner.
There are a large number of types of plant and equipment from which waste heat is available.
The following three basic heat sources can be identified:
-Gases and vapour
-Liquids
-Solids (the least common category)
Potential for waste heat recovery exists in items common to many sites in the process
industries such as [1]:
-Air compressors
-
Boilers
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-Prime movers
-Refrigeration plants
-Distillation plants
-Dryers
-
Dyeing and finishing plants-Evaporators
-Furnaces
-Gas turbines
-Kilns
-
Ovens
-
Pasteurisers
-
Process coolers
-
Process heaters
-Spinning and weaving equipment
-
Sterilisation equipment
-
Ventilation equipment
-Washers
The standard gas volume reference conditions used in this study will be those of ISO 13443
which defines a temperature of 15C and a pressure of 101325 kPa.
4.Case Study: Steel production process
The steel production consists of 3 main steps:
-
Iron making
- Steel making
- Steel casting and rolling
Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of the steel production process.
Steel production in the UK is concentrated in the Blast Furnace (BF) / Basic Oxygen Furnace
(BOF) route (for primary steel) and the Electric Arc Furnace route (for secondary steel).
4.1. Primary steel production process
Data from a thermal energy audit in a steelworks has been provided by Corus. Data is
averaged over the year. The steelworks produces nearly 5 million tons of steel slabs per
annum. The steel capacity of the plant is given inTable 2 at different stages of the production
process.
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Coal
Coke oven
Blast furnace
Molten Iron
Coke
CO gas
Basic oxygen furnace
Iron Ore
Sinter
Powder
BF gas
Power plant
Low carbon steel
Continuous casting (Concast)
Slab
Coil
Hot mill
Cold mill
Annealing processing line
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Figure 5: Schematic representation of a steel production plant
Table 2: Steel capacity
Total BF
capacity(Mt/yr)
Total sinter
capacity(Mt/yr)
Total coke
capacity(Mt/yr)
Total liquid
steel capacity(Mt/yr)
Capacity
as cast(Mt/yr)
4.3 4.7 0.9 4.9 4.7
Table 3: Specific energy consumption and energy consumption splits within Steel industry processes
OperationSEC
(GJ/t)
COG/BFG/
natural gasSolid fuel Electricity Steam Other
Coke ovens 2.95 0.93 0.02 0.05
Sinter strands 1.64 0.08 0.85 0.07
Blast furnace 14.7 0.75 0.01 0.24
Basic oxygen
furnace1.44 0.19 0.39 0.42
Continuous
casting0.31 1.00
Slab mill 2.870.36
0.64
Hot rolling 2.43 0.35 0.65
Cold rolling 1.69 0.56 0.44
Pickling 1.27 0.67 0.33
Electric Arc
furnace2.50 0.75 0.25
McKenna [3] produced an approximation of the Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) and
energy consumption splits by process for a steelworks (cf. Table 3). The information
contained in Table 3 can be used in order to determine the total heat balance for each process
of the steelworks under investigation once waste heat sources are identified.
The Steel production plant is composed of the following individual processes:- Coke oven
- Sinter
- Blast Furnace (BF)
- Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
- Continuous casting
- Hot mill
- Cold mill
- Annealing processing line
-
Power plantSteel production is a continuous process and therefore the waste heat sources are highly
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consistent over time.
Table 4: gas composition in Steel processes
GAS BLEND H2 O2 N2 CO2 NO2 CO SO2 CH4 H2O
Coke Oven Gas 0.61 0.002 0.03 0.017 0 0.07 0 0.245 0Blast Furnace Gas 0.035 0 0.465 0.25 0 0.25 0 0 0
BOS gas 0.02 0 0.13 0.15 0 0.7 0 0 0
Sinter Gas 0 0.1667 0.7562 0.0415 0 0 0 0 0.0345
Fume 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 0
Coke oven flue gas1 0 0.068 0.725 0.052 0 0 0 0 0.0156
Blast Furnace flue gas1 0 0.079 0.705 0.202 0 0 0 0 0.014
Ammonia incinerator gas2 0 0.18 0.68 0.01 0.0049 0.00589 0.0665 0 0.0526
Underfiring gas
at the coke oven
3
0 0.0735 0.715 0.127 0 0 0 0 0.085
Data provided by Corus for this study has been drawn together from various sources.
Information on gases came from the environmental department of the participating site.
Information on cooling water was obtained from cooling tower manufacturers.
Various types of information were collated from the plants control rooms and from contacts
on site.
Data error margin is reported to be 10%. Data are averaged over approximately a year.
Steam waste heat has not been quantified by the thermal energy audit used for this study but
according to Corus, the steam energy waste from the 11 bar system is estimated at 0.83 PJ/yr,
which is equivalent to ~ 5millions of natural gas utilisation. Cardiff University is in the
process of assessing the steam thermal energy losses and redesigning the steam distribution
system.
A description of each process is given in the following sections. For each process, the
low-grade heat sources are identified in orange. Intermediate heat streams are given in red
while incoming gas streams are given in blue and incoming products are given in green.
Each stream is characterised by the temperature, the mass flow rate and the specific enthalpy
calculated at a temperature of 15C and a pressure of 101325 kPa.For gas heat source analysis, composition is also necessary. Gas molar fractions and molar
masses are given inTable 4.
The same properties are unknown for the input streams but would be necessary for a full
energy balance check as recommended in Section3.
1 The composition was determined for 8% oxygen combustion
2 The ammonia stream is combusted at ~1000C. It was assumed that at such high temperature only NO2 was
formed. The waste gas was then diluted with air to reach 210C temperature.3 The composition of underfiring coke oven is derived from the mixture of 50% coke oven flue gas and 50%
blast furnace flue gas.
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4.1.1. Coke production process
Coke ovens produce coke from coal for use in the Blast Furnace as a reducing agent and fuel.
Within the oven coal is heated for several hours or days to produce coke through pyrolysis.
The main sources available for thermal energy recovery (cf. orange stream) are gas
underfiring at maximum temperature of 220C and cooling water at 40C. Most of the gas
from the coke oven is reused in the plant and therefore is not available for recovery.
Gas underfiring
Heat not quantified
(No data available)
Heat available:46 MW
Air
Coal
Coke oven Cooling + Chemical recovery
Heat available:15 MW
Heat available:0.9 MW
Cooling water
Raw gas
Lean gas NH3combustion
gas
Heat available:3.6 MW
Heat available:21 MW
NH3gas priorto dilution
Heat available:42 MW
External Quench of hot coke
Coke for quenching
SteamQuenched coke
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4.1.2. Sinter process
Sinter plants produce the fine powder of iron ore for injection into the BF.
Sinter gas at a maximum temperature of 180C and cooling water at 50C are the main
streams available for recovery.
Air
Iron ore
Mixing
Furnace
Breaker bar + Cooler Sinter bed
Fan
Powder to BF
; ; Heat available:0.2 MW
Heat available:72 MW
Heat available:44 MW
Heat available:7.5 MW
Heat available:3.6 MW
Cooling water
End of sinter gasDe-dust gasCombustion gas
EPS
Stack 1 Stack 2 End of sinterstrand
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4.1.3. Blast Furnace (BF) process
The blast furnace is the vessel within which iron ore is reduced by coke at high temperatures
to yield pig iron. The main sources available for recovery are cooling water at maximum
temperature of 40C, fume (air) at 50C and BF flare gas at 200C. Combustion gas is reused
in the power plant.
; ; Heat available:2.7MW
BF bBF a
Heat available:5.6MW
Tuyere
Heat available:29MW
Heat available:11 MW
Convector hood
AirHot stoves
Cooling water
Copperwork
Powder
Blast Furnace vessel (BF a/BF b)
Coke Limestone
Dust catcher
; ; Heat available:18MW
Cooling water
Venturi scrubberCooler
Gas
Cast house Fume (Air)
Combustion gas (CO, BF)
Heat available:15MW
Heat available:12MW
Skimmer
SlagLiquid iron ; ;
Heat available:14MW
Flare BF gas
Gas
Stack
Heat available:45MW
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4.1.4. Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process
The BOF converts pig iron into steel by adding oxygen to remove the carbon, as well as
amounts of silicon, manganese and phosphorous.
The waste heat sources are from the fume (air) at a maximum temperature of 50C, BOS gas
at a maximum temperature of 150C and cooling water at 35C.
Heat available:3MW
Heat available:22MW
Molten iron
Ladle
Heat available:3.8MW
Heat available:3.8MW
Heat available:1.2MW
Heat available:33MW
Desulphurization
Oxygen
Extraction
Fume
Cooling water
BOS gas
FumeSteel
Primary BOS
Extraction A10A
Fume
Secondary BOSFluxes Secondary cooler
Slag
BOS gas
Slag
Burnt lime
Heat available:1.6MW
Laddle preheaters 1 to 4NG Combustion gas
; ; ; Heat available:2.5MW
Steel for concast
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4.1.5. Continuous casting process
The continuous casting process is a batch wise process in moulds before reheating for rolling.
Water is the only waste heat source available in continuous casting with a maximum
temperature of 42C.
Water spray
Caster 1 Caster 2
Heat available:16MW
Low carbon steel + Alloy
Caster 3
WaterWater
Heat available:40MW
Heat available:9MW
Heat available:29MW
Heat available:14MW
SteamSteam
SteamSlabSlab
Slab
Heat available:28MW
Water
Heat available:40MW
Water spray
Heat available:39MW
Heat available:16MW
Water spray
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4.1.7. Cold mill process
The metal passes through rollers at a temperature below its recrystallization temperature in
order to increase metal yield strength and hardness.
Note that the fume at 30C and extraction gas (air) at 40C provide less than 1 megawatt of
energy. No data is currently available for the cooling water from this process.
Cooling water
Not quantified (No data available)
Coil from hot mill
Quenching tank
Stretch leveler
Pickling line
; ; ; Heat available:0.1MW
Heat available:0.9MW
Fume (air)
Coils
Extraction gas
Cold rolling
; ; ; Heat available:0.4MW
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4.1.8.Annealing process
This process induces metal ductility in steel from the cold mill.
Waste heat source which has been identified and available for recovery is in the exhaust gasstream from heat treatment process at 600C.
Coil from cold mill
Heat treatment
High cooling rate Gas Jet
Cooler (HGJC)
; ; ; Heat available:17.7MW
Temper mill
Coils
Accumulator
Electrostatic oiler
Exhaust gas
; ; ; Heat available:10MW
Quench tank 1
Quench tank 2
; ; ; Heat available: 9 MW
Cooling water
; ; ; Heat available:2.9MW
Cooling water
; ; ; Heat available:17.7MW
Cooling water from entry
Cooling water from exhaust
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4.1.9. Power plant
The power plant recovers (Blast Furnace and Coke Oven) combustion gas heat in order to
convert it into electricity. It corresponds to a Rankine cycle for steam. The excess of steam or
steam bleed-off is drawn from the boiler through the continuous blow down system, the latter
being the only low grade heat source available in the power plant unit.
Steam represents a potential source for recovery. No information is available for steam
bleed-off in the power plant but the total steam loss within the site is estimated to be ~26
MW.
Continuous blow
down system
Steam (Bleed off)
Water to condense steam
(Dock supply)
Turbine
Boilers
; ; Heat available:37MW
CO and BF combustion gasBoiler A
; ; ; Heat available:26.6MW
Pump
; ; ; Heat available:7MW
CO and BF combustion gasBoiler D
; ; ; Heat available:17MW
Steam
; ; ; Heat available:11MW
CO and BF combustion gasBoiler B
Cooling water to
Condenser
; ; Heat available:104MW
CO and BF combustion gas
Boiler C
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Table 5: Characterization and classification of potentially recoverable low grade heat gas streams in the steel industry
Location TypeComposition Tout
(C)
Quantity
(kg/s)
Exergy
(MW)H2 O2 N2 CO2 CO CH4 NO2 H2O
Cold mill stretch
leveller
Stretch leveller
extraction fume0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 30 12 0.002
Cold mill Pickle line extraction gas 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 40 22 0.014
BOS Primary Hot metal pouring fume 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 50 60 0.088
BOS Secondary Fume 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 50 86 0.125
BOS Primary BOS gas 0.02 0 0.13 0.15 0.7 0 0 0 70 32 0.125
BOS primary Hot metal pouring fume 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 40 191 0.126
BF a flare BF gas 0.03 0 0.585 0.128 0.257 0 0 0 200 3 0.148
BOS primary Dephulsurisation gas 0.02 0 0.13 0.15 0.7 0 0 0 150 10 0.229
Casthouse (north) Fume 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 50 185 0.27
Casthouse (south) Fume 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 50 185 0.27
Sinter Dedust Sinter gas 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 50 245 0.36
BF b Flare BF gas 0.03 0 0.585 0.128 0.257 0 0 0 200 10 0.443
End of sinter Strand Sinter gas 0 0.21 0.79 0 0 0 0 0 180 36 0.734
Ammonia
incinerator NH3 combustion gas 0 0.18 0.68 0.010.005
89 0 0.0049 0.0526 210 10.75 0.827
Coke oven gas
underfiring
mixture of FB and Coke
Oven gas0.3 0.001 0.3 0.075 0.2 0.13 0 0 220 100 5.128
Main stack Sinter gas 0 0.1669 0.7562 0.0415 0 0 0 0.0345 130 388 6.666
Power plant bleed
offWater vapour 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 N/A N/A N/A
Table 6: Characterization and classification of potentially recoverable low grade heat cooling water streams in the
steel industry
Type Location Tout(C) Quantity(kg/s) Exergy (MW)
Cooling water Breaker bar cooler (sinter) 50 9 0.016
Cooling water Gas wash (BF b) 41 257 0.311
Cooling water Hot mill re-heat furnace B 38 233 0.337
Cooling water Hot mill re-heat furnace A 38 218 0.353
Cooling water Gas wash (BF a) 35 307 0.466
Cooling spray Caster 3 40 200 0.535
cooling / quench water Hot mill run out table 35 444 0.599
Cooling water Caster 3 33 542 0.62
Cooling water Open cooling (BF a) 35 665 0.651
Cooling water Copperwork (BF b) 40 1405 0.701
Cooling water Tuyere (BF b) 37 417 0.81
Cooling water BOS primary (North & South) 35 565 0.824
Cooling water Open cooling (BF b) 36 511 0.882
Cooling water Caster 1 42 316 1.019
Cooling spray Caster 2 40 486 1.296
Cooling spray Caster 1 40 495 1.32
Cooling water Caster 2 40 497 1.32
Main recirculating cooling
water Coke oven 40 556 1.518
dirty water return hot mill 35 1827 2.457
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4.1.10. Low grade heat classification-Summary for
Primary steel production process case study
As identified in previous sections, the sources of low grade heat come mainly from stacks and
cooling towers. In this section, gas and cooling water streams identified in previous sections
are classified in terms of their exergy (values provided by the steelworks) and characterised
with the properties defined in Section 4.
4.1)10.1. GasTable 5 gives the main properties of gas low grade heat streams classified as a function of
their exergy values. For gas, exergy is given by Equation (2). It depends on temperature, mass
flow rate and calorific capacity of the streams. The most exergetic stream has a temperature
of 130C but is available in higher quantity (388 kg/s).
4.1)10.2. Cooling water
Cooling water low grade heat streams are characterised inTable 6.
The exergy of the water streams depends on the temperature difference in the cooling towers.
Streams with highest mass flow rate present the highest exergy.
4.1.11. Potential uses
Some initial recommendations for waste heat source utilisation are specified in this section.
4.1)11.1. Gas
Table 7 lists the main gas sources identified in the processes as a function of their temperature
range and gives an indication for potential recovery technology.
Table 7: Gas waste heat sources and potential for recovery
Source Temperature Potential uses
Extraction systemsTypically 30-80 oC Heat pipes, ORC, Kalina, Biomass
drying, coal drying
Combustion stacks 150-250 oCHeat pipes, ORC, Kalina, Biomass
drying, coal drying
BF stoves 200 oCHeat pipes, ORC, Kalina, Biomass
drying, coal drying
CO underfiring gases 220 oCHeat pipes, ORC, Kalina, Biomass
drying, coal drying
Steam from casters and continuous
blow-down systemNot quantified Steam boiler
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4.1)11.2. Cooling water
If the temperature is high enough (typically > 80C), the Kalina cycle can be used for
recovery of cooling water stream heat (cf.Table 8).
Table 8: Cooling water waste heat sources and potential for recovery
Source Potential uses
Cooling water
systems with
T40 C and
high flows
Heat pumps and Kalina,
space/office/buildings heating
4.1)11.3. Concluding remarks
Streams have been characterised by their temperature, mass flow rate, composition (for gas
streams), specific enthalpy and they have been classified in terms of their exergy which
represents the maximum technical work one can get from the stream heat.
Low grade heat sources identified as potentially recoverable mainly come from cooling
towers and stacks throughout the plant and are available either as gas or cooling water. The
specific heat consumed by each Steel making process unit can be approximated as the sum of
the specific steam and natural gas consumptions given in Table 3. For a capacity of 4.9.10 6
tons of steel produced per annum and based on exergy values of the waste streams given in
Table 6 and Table 7, the percentage of low grade heat can be determined for each process unit
as shown in Table 9. This report shows that the recoverable potential for low grade heat
represents approximately 1.1% of the heat consumption. This is nevertheless equivalent to
approximately to 60 MW.Table 9: Percentage of low grade heat in each unit of the primary steel making process
Operation
Heat
consumption
(MW)Flue gas stream
(%)Cooling water stream
(%)
Steam
stream (%) Low grade heat(%)
Coke ovens 449.1977423 1.33 0.34 1.66
Sinter strands 236.9824962 3.27 0.01 3.28
Blast furnace 4522.431507 0.03 0.08 0.11
Basic oxygen
furnace 136.4840183 0.51 0.60 1.11
Continuous casting 30.82699137 0.00 19.82 19.82
Hot rolling 245.4195205 0.00 1.53 1.53
Cold rolling 115.5390665 0.00 0.01 0.01
Total 6193.366 0.25 0.5 0.42 1.1%
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It is worth mentioning that low temperature gas with recovery potential does not exceed
250C in the steel industry although gas streams with higher temperature are available within
the plant but either recovered internally or inaccessible for over-the-fence activities. Gas
streams with the highest exergy are not those with the highest temperature (130C) but those
available in higher quantity.Potential for cooling water heat recovery is available throughout the steelworks in large
quantities with a maximum temperature of 50C. Despite low temperature range, cooling
water represents a recoverable potential of approximately 30 MW.
The next section attempts to extrapolate this finding to the steel sector.
4.2. Secondary steel production process
Secondary Steel is produced in an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) in which the scrap is
electrically heated (cf.Figure 6).Figure 7 gives the overview of the mass streams in an EAF.
An estimate of the energy consumed is given in Table 10. The total specific energy
consumption is in the range 2.3-2.7 GJ/t with 1.25-1.8 GJ/t for the electricity use. In the UK
and according to [3], the EAF specific consumption is 2.5 GJ/t and 0.75% of the energy
consumed is electricity which corresponds to about 1.8 GJ/t. As a first approximation, the
heat consumption can be considered as equivalent to the electricity consumption given that
the EAF is perfectly insulated. EAF emission mass streams are given in Figure 7. They
represent the main source of waste energy since the cooling water is not available for
recovery as it circulates in a closed cycle. The European Commission reported in [15] that
85-90% of the emissions from EAF are recoverable and that the primary off gas represents
95% of the emissions. It is therefore conservative to assume that the heat recovery fraction is
15% of the heat consumption (~1.8 GJ/t). According to [16], after cooling at about 200-300
C, the primary gas is mixed with the secondary gas at 50-70 C coming from the canopy
hood situated over the EAF in order to reach the filtering at a temperature typically below
130C. The temperature of the flue gas from the EAF is approximated to 140 C before the
filtering (typically between 130 and 200C). The potential for low grade heat in the
Secondary steel production process sector can be estimated from the calculation of the exergy
of the flue gas stream.Table 11 gives the list of the EAF in the UK with the heat consumption
and potential for low grade heat.
Figure 6: Schematic presentation of a Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) [17]
Filtering
Flue gasfor
recovery
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Figure 7: EAF mass stream overview [18]
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Table 10: Input and output mass stream from a EAF [18]
Table 11: EAF low grade heat potential in the UK
Location Capacity(105tons/annum) Heat consumption(MW) Waste heat recovery potential(MW)
Celsa UK (Cardiff) 1.2 71 1.92
Thamesteel (Sheerness) 0.72 43 1.15
Outokumpu (Sheffield) 0.54 32 0.86
Corus UK Ltd (Rotherham) 1.25 74 2
Forgemasters (Sheffield) 1.30 7.8 0.2
4.3. Overview of the steel sector
The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) [19] was launched in 2005 to
meet its GHG emissions reduction target under the Kyoto Protocol. The EU has to make an
eight per cent reduction on 1990 levels by 2012.
Under the EU ETS, energy intensive industries must monitor and annually report their GHG
emissions. The list of the energy intensive industries published by the European Commission
in 2007 [20] was used in order to identify the main heat emitters in the sector steel. It is worth
mentioning that some of the large heat emitters recently have or are in the process of closing
down which reduces significantly the potential compared with previous market potential
estimates such as in [21]. The potential for low grade heat as steam, water and flue gas was
estimated for each industry whose emissions were listed in [20] and whose heat consumption
and percentage for low grade heat were estimated, based on the results presented in theprevious sections. The results are summarized in Table 12.The total potential for low grade
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heat recovery in the Steel sector is estimated to be approximately 137 MW, i.e. approximately
1.2 TWh. This represents less than 10% of the potential estimated in 1994 and reviewed in
[22]. Apart from the fact that some of the large heat emitters have closed down, another
reason for such a difference is that the potential estimated in this study considers the exergy
instead of the energy content which only represents the useful part of the heat sourcesidentified. This represents nevertheless a significant amount of energy with regards to the
potential uses as discussed in the next section. The low grade heat sources were located on a
map as shown inFigure 8 with the associated potential for low grade heat recovery for both
primary and secondary steel making processes.
Table 12: Low grade heat recoverable potential in the Steel sector in the UK
Type of productsCapacity
(105tn/an)
Gas (MW) Water (MW) Steam (MW)
Total
low grade heat
recoverable
potential (MW)
EAF steel 6.21 8.03 0 0 8.03
Primary steel 9.6 31 35 59 125
Hot and cold
rolling for
automotive
steel making
2 3.76 0 0 3.76
NA NA 43 35 59 137
Figure 8: mapping of low grade heat potential in the Steel sector
4.4. Uses for low grade heat
In order to harness the potential of the low grade heat identified in the Steel sector, there is a
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need for matching the sources with potential end-users in the surrounding of the plant. The
review by Ammar et al. [22] have identified how low grade heat could be used in the future to
reply to the societal needs. The most attractive application is to produce electricity. The
feasibility of such application is however limited to temperature higher than typically
approximately 70C for the most advanced Rankine cycle derivatives. This is the case formore than 50% of the flue gas streams identified. One of the most important challenges is to
harness the potential of the waste water streams abundantly available at lower temperatures
(between 35 and 55C). As underlined in Section 4.11, space heating/cooling can be an
interesting alternative for low temperature. Typical heat and cooling loads are provided in
Table 13 .Table 13: Typical heat and cooling loads
Heat loadMaximum thermal
energy consumption (kW)
Minimum thermal energy
consumption (kW)Sources
Office (per m2) 0.1 0.001 energy audit dataMiddlebrough
School (per pupil) 0.15 1.15Energy audit data
County Durham
Greenhouse (per m ) 55 0.1 Bremer Energie Institut
Data centre (per rack) with COP ~ 2 60 30 [23]
Supermarket (per m ) with COP~4 0.16 0.04 [24]
The viability of a low grade heat recovery projectdepends on whether the heat available can
economically be transferred from the source to an identified sink. So far, however, there has
been little discussion about the economic distance from the source to the sink. Industrial heat
is usually transported via water or steam. According to the report by Terra Infirma [25], steam
with a temperature of 120-250C can be transported over approximately 3 to 5 km while
water with a temperature of 90-175C can be transported over 30 km. Other sources cited in
that same report mentioned that 9 miles (around 15km) is the economic limit for low-grade
heat. In fact, how far heat can be transported depends on several factors. If heat is assumed to
be transported via a pipe, the heat loss factor, which is defined as the ratio between heat loss
and the quantity of heat supplied by the source, depends on the pipe material and the
efficiency of its insulation, pipe diameter and the temperature of the fluid circulating in the
pipe. The profitability of any heat recovery project will also depend upon the cost invested in
heat transportation, the total cost being the sum of the pipeline installation, heat losses and
pumping cost [11]. For long distances (typically over 10 km), sorption processes are efficient
heat transportation systems [26] [27] Recently, Lin et al. [28] investigated the performance
and the economics of a 500 MW transportation system over 50 km, with the heat coming
from a nuclear plant. They showed a payback period of 3 years and 8 months for the whole
system. Less waste heat is available for free from the process industry and therefore the
economics of the low grade heat recovery project need to be revised accordingly. However
this is nevertheless evidence of a potentially economic method to transport low grade heat.
The economic distance can be defined as the limit for economically transferring low grade
heat from the source to the sink. The value of the economic distance is likely to increase overtime as the price of the fuel equivalent to the low grade heat recovery savings is likely to keep
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increasing. Within the scope of this study, the feasibility of using low grade heat to provide
heating is examined for 3 characteristic transportation radii from the heat source; 1 kilometer,
9 kilometers and 25 kilometers. Port Talbot is chosen as a case study. The heat map produced
by the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) is used in order to
determine the heat potential from the demand side. The results are summarized in Table 12for the different characteristic distances from Port Talbot steelworks.Table 14: Heat consumers at different radii from Port Talbot Steelworks
Heat consumers 25 km 9 km 1 km
Public Buildings (MW) 2.141 0 0
Commercial Offices (MW) 0.757 2 0
Hotel and Catering (MW) 2.642 0 0
Other Services (MW) 1.025 8 0
Retail (MW) 2.518 5 0
Sport and Leisure (MW) 0.613 0 0
Small Scale Industrial (MW) 41.991 0 0
Domestic (MW) 100.72 3 0.2
Schools (MW) 0.866 0 0
Hospitals (MW) 0.675 0 0
Warehouses (MW) 1.775 0 0
Total (MW) 155.7 18 0.2
Most of the heat demand is located more than 9 km away from the heat sources identified in
the steelworks. Within a radius of 25 km, the potential for heat demand overcome the heat
supply with approximately 155 MW. Most of the heat demand comes from households.Industrial low grade heat could therefore be integrated in a new district heating scheme to
retrofit community heating.
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