How can technology and airport layout be used to increase the runway efficiency of selected airports in the UK? What factors inhibit the efficiency of smaller UK airfields?

By Tom Milligan

Abstract

This report details the ways in which airports in the UK already have or are planning to introduce technology and efficient airport layout in order to increase the flow of air traffic through the airport. The introduction of new technology at UK airports has increased runway and therefore airport efficiency dramatically over the past few decades(4). For the efficient use of a runway it is very important that runway occupancy time is kept to a minimum, which highlights the importance of airport and taxiway layout(3).

This report details the effective use of rapid-exit taxiways as well as stand layout when looking at airport layout and looks at the more modern technology such as RNAV (GNSS) approaches and the new point merge technology developed by Eurocontrol13 and being trialled at London Heathrow airport12. The report also discusses ways in which weather significantly affects airport and runway efficiency at the selected UK airfields.

The report then goes on to its second part. Within this section the factors inhibiting airfield efficiency in the UK are discussed. This focusses on two airfields in the UK one within controlled airspace and one outside of controlled airspace1. Throughout this section the report details the difficulties faced by air traffic control, pilots and operators both of the aerodromes and airlines utilising the airfields10. Airspace layout and design is then discussed with reference to local knowledge and procedures10.

Finally the report is concluded and the findings are detailed within the conclusion.

Introduction

In this report I will be discussing how airports in the UK have implemented new and old technology to increase airport and runway efficiency. I have selected six airfields from the UK to compare the technology they currently use and the newer technology and concepts available to them. I will also discuss the limitations of two of the six airfields pointing out areas that could be improved to allow for greater efficiency.

There are, at the time of writing, 63 airfields in the UK that have the capabilities and licence to provide an Air Traffic Control service1, with varying degrees of traffic levels2, rules and airspace surrounding the airfield itself6. From this group I have selected six airports with varying traffic levels that I will be focussing on throughout the project, they are:

London Heathrow (EGLL/LHR), London Gatwick (EGKK/LGW), Manchester (EGCC/MAN), London Stansted (EGSS/STN), East Midlands (EGNX/EMA), Blackpool (EGNH/BLK).

I have listed the airfields above in decreasing order of traffic movements for March 20122. I will compare the varying degree of traffic levels at the London airports and Manchester airport while looking at the limitations leading to a lower number of movements at both East Midlands airport and Blackpool airfield.

The Airfields

In this section I will introduce you to each airfield and give you a short and basic description of the airports layout, location and primary purpose. The airfields are listed in order of total movements for March 2012 based on this document supplied by the CAA2.

- London Heathrow AirportLondon Heathrow operates on a dual runway system for the majority of the busy period each day. The dual runway operations (DRO) allow for separate arrival and departure runways and therefore a more expeditious flow of traffic in and out of the 6 terminals.1

London Heathrow is situated 12 nautical miles (nm) west of London1 and is surrounded by Class A

airspace by both the London CTRA, control zone, and the London TMAA (LTMA), London Terminal Manoeuvring Area(1). The rules of Class A airspace restrict flights of Visual Flight Rules (VFR) around the local area of the airport, thus increasing the priority of the flights of Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) that are scheduled at London Heathrow6.1

For the airport diagram see appendix 1.

- London Gatwick AirportAlthough London Gatwick has two licenced runways, the airport almost always utilises single runway operations (SRO). The southern runway is generally used in standard operations; however, at the discretion of the airport operator, operations can switch to the northern runway especially in extreme circumstances such as runway contamination (snow/ice, debris etc.), emergencies or after prior arrangements for maintenance.1

London Gatwick is situated 24.7 nm South of London. Also inside the LTMAA the airfield is surrounded by Class A airspace down to 2500 feet (ft) and the Gatwick Control Area D (CTA) Class D airspace1. The Class D airspace in the immediate vicinity of the aerodrome allows for the acceptance of VFR aircraft into the airfield while, unlike uncontrolled (Class F/G) airspace, the controller retains the right to refuse entrance to the VFR traffic into the CTA/CTR and the vicinity of the airport giving the scheduled IFR flights a far greater priority6.1

For the airport diagram see appendix 2.

- Manchester AirportManchester airport has two runways and operates both SRO and DRO configurations subject to traffic levels. With SRO being implemented for the majority of the time while DRO is used for the busy periods this allows a degree of flexibility for Air Traffic Control (ATC) and the airport authority to accommodate larger amounts of traffic.1

The airport itself is surrounded by Class D airspace the Manchester CTA/CTRD and above it the Class A Manchester Terminal Maneuvering Area (MTMA)1. The MTMA handles all of the airways traffic both into and out of Manchester and Liverpool and occasionally Hawarden6.1

For the airport diagram see appendix 3.

- London Stansted AirportLondon Stansted Airport has one runway and is situated 2.5 nm north east of Bishop Stortford, inside the LTMAA

1. It has a dedicated class D CTA and CTR around the airport, allowing VFR flight into and out of the airfield as well as being surrounded by the LTMAA down to Altitude (ALT) 2500ft to give protection and priority to IFR scheduled flights6.1

The airport has two transponder mandatory zones (TMZ), one to the north east and one to the south west under the final approach tracks (FAT) to the runway. The TMZs exist from surface (SFC) to ALT 1500ft and are used to protect the FAT and reduce the number of Go-arounds due to unknown aircraft operating under the glide path with no height information4.NB: A transponder is a piece of equipment that can be found in most aircraft. Depending on the type of transponder, it can provide: squawk code readouts, pressure altitude readouts and the more technologically advanced can provide pilot selected information such as autopilot altitude, heading and speed selections8.

Information about the introduction and importance of the TMZs can be found at the Fly On Track website4: Stansted CTA-No Mode Charlie!

For the airport diagram see appendix 4.

- East Midlands AirportEast Midlands Airport is 7 nm South East of Derby in the village of Castle Donington1. The airport has one runway serving one passenger terminal and a variety of cargo terminals such as DHL and UPS. There is also a dedicated flying school called Donair based at the airfield and Ryanair use the airport for pilot training making the visual circuit often busy.Visual circuit – A circuit of the airfield in which the pilot operates by visual means within the vicinity of the aerodrome and its ATZ, Aerodrome Traffic Zone5.

East Midlands is surrounded by Class D airspace up to Flight Level 105 (FL105) to the east and ALT 5500ft to the west. Above this is the Daventry CTAA up to FL195 which is Class A airspace and a very busy part of the lower level airways system1,6.

For the airport diagram see appendix 5.

- Blackpool AirportBlackpool Airport is located in squire’s gate, 2.6 nm South South East of Blackpool. The airport has 2 licensed runways one of which has a CAT 1 ILS (Instrument Landing System)1. The airfield is situated outside of controlled airspace in Class G. The nature of the Class G airspace means it is an unknown environment and aircraft flying in this airspace are not obliged to be in contact with ATC.1

Because of its location and lack of controlled airspace, Blackpool Airport is usually used by small GAT (general air traffic) with many flying schools based at the airfield. The airport is also used by some low cost airlines such as Jet22.10

For the airport diagram see appendix 6.

For more information on the airfields listed, visit the NATS AIP1.

Flight Rules

IFR – Flight under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) can be conducted in both VMC (Visual Meteorological Conditions) and IMC (Instrument Meteorological Conditions). While under IFR aircraft usually navigate using a series of navigational aids. IFR allows the aircraft to continue flying on route through severe weather safely and efficiently. While flying IFR inside controlled airspace, aircraft will be separated by Air Traffic Control against other IFR traffic.2,6

VFR – Flight under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) is to be conducted in VMC (Visual Meteorological Conditions). In general, separation standards are not applied by ATC to or between VFR flights and therefore separation from other aircraft remains the responsibility of the pilot in command of a VFR flight. The exception to this applies in Class C Airspace – where ATC will separate VFR from IFR but not VFR from VFR.5,6

For more information regarding VFR flight visit the CAA VFR Flight Guide.5

Airspace Classification and their Rules

“Class A – IFR flights only are permitted; all flights are provided with air traffic control service and are separated from each other.”6

“Class D - IFR and VFR flights are permitted and all flights are provided with air traffic control service, IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and receive traffic information in respect of VFR flights, VFR flights receive traffic information in respect of all other flights.”6

“Class G - Uncontrolled. IFR and VFR flights are permitted and receive flight information service if requested.”6

- There are no airfields in the UK situated within Class C, E and F. There is currently no airspace delegated as Class B within the UK.1

For more information visit NATS AIS Enroute Information7 or see appendix 7.

General Airport Routing Procedures

Standard Arrival Route(s) - STAR(s)The busier airports in the UK have well established procedures in place called STARs (Standard (Terminal) Arrival Routes). The STAR is assigned by Air Traffic Control approximately 50-100 nautical miles away from the airport depending on the aircraft’s route and the current traffic situation at the arrival airport. Each STAR has an entry fix and is given a unique name to allow for identification by pilots and ATC. The unique STAR name is composed of three parameters. First, the name of the holding fix i.e. BNN, PIGOT, etc. Next, the numerical character representing the revision of the procedure starting at 1 and changing each time the procedure is adjusted, up to 9 before returning to 1. Finally the letter represents the route to be taken to the holding fix and the STAR’s entry point. They come together to form the name of the STAR i.e. BNN4A, PIGOT1J1.

STARs in the UK usually begin at the last fix in the aircraft’s flight plan route and follow a route towards the final fix or holding fix. The holding fix can be anything from a navigational aid such as a VOR (Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range), NDB (Non-Directional Beacon), a fix/intersection or over a

point determined by a set of coordinates8. From the holding fix the Air Traffic Controller may decide to either allow the aircraft to pass this fix and begin its initial approach or, if the traffic situation dictates, the controller may ask the pilot to enter into a holding pattern, or stack, in order to delay the aircraft. The holding pattern can be described as a ‘race-track’ type circuit overhead the holding fix. In busy traffic situations and/or exceptional circumstances, i.e. emergency’s, runway closures, severe weather etc. the controller can decide to put aircraft into the hold on top of each other when separated by 1000ft vertically, hence the name stack. The aircraft at the lowest level in the hold is usually taken off the holding fix first to start their initial approach, while dropping the other aircraft 1000ft. The next aircraft enters the top of the hold at the lowest available level. All holding patterns are designed to be both terrain safe and to allow separation against other routes such as Standard Instrument Departures, SIDs. Therefore, to ensure safety and to maintain separation standards, it is essential that the pilot flies the entry into the holding pattern and the remainder of the hold accurately from entry to exit.

Example – London Heathrow AirportThere are four holding patterns linked to STARs at London Heathrow. All four of the holding fixes are VORs (Very High Frequency, VHF, Omnidirectional Range).8

They are:Lambourne – LAM, North-East, based at Stapleford aerodrome in Essex, Bovingdon – BNN, North-West, based at the disused RAF Bovingdon in Hertfordshire,Biggin – BIG, South-East, based at Biggin Hill aerodrome in Kent,Ockham – OCK, South-West, based at Wisely airfield in Surrey.1

The most popular STARs used from the north and east are:LAM3A [LAMBOURNE THREE ALPHA] beginning at the fix LOGAN over the North Sea,BNN4A [BOVINGDON FOUR ALPHA] beginning at the Honiley, HON VOR, in Warwickshire,BNN1B [BOVINGDON ONE BRAVO] beginning at the fix NUGRA overhead Stoke-on-Trent.1

Routes:LAM3A – LOGAN-TRIPO-SABER-BRASO-LAMBNN4A – HON-TOBID-SOPIT-WCO-BNNBNN1B – NUGRA-TOBID-SOPIT-WCO-BNN1

For more information see appendix 10.

Approach Control Services

There are two types of Air Traffic Services that are provided by Approach Control facilities.3

- Approach Control Procedural- Approach Control Surveillance

Approach Control ProceduralProcedural control is an air traffic service provided based on pilot reports and estimates. Procedural control is provided without the use of surveillance equipment i.e. RADAR, (RAdio Detection And Ranging)8. Procedural Approach Control (Approach control) has a primary role of taking control of aircraft 30-50 nautical miles from the airfield and guiding them through the final stages of flight. Approach control uses waypoint estimates and procedures alongside increased separation minima (procedural separation) based on longitudinal separation (separation using distance, speed and time, usually a minimum of 10 minutes along a route) and deemed separations. Deemed separations are minima that have to be enforced for two aircraft to be separated on different routes while under procedural control.3

Most airports in the UK have detailed procedures for aircraft to follow to get the aircraft form the holding fix/final fix on the STAR to the Final Approach Fix (FAF) to begin the final approach to the selected runway. Under procedural control the air traffic controller has to apply procedural separation minima between aircraft which often leads to a low landing rate. This can be expected at airports without surveillance equipment. However if surveillance equipment fails unexpectedly at busy airfields, providing a procedural service will increase separation, from radar separation to procedural separation, increasing spacing between successive arrivals and ultimately causing long delays and often diversions3. Approach Control Procedural is often considered more challenging then Approach Control Surveillance and therefore at airfields with radar, approach controllers require the further training and qualification to be able to provide a procedural service should the surveillance systems fail10.

Approach Control SurveillanceApproach Radar Control is an air traffic service provided with the aid of surveillance equipment. The Approach Radar controller can work alongside the Approach controller; however in the UK the two roles are usually undertaken by the same controller. The Approach Radar controller generally applies minimum radar separation of 5 nm horizontally and 1000ft vertically, however these minima can and are often reduced provided local criteria are met and upheld3. At most UK airports with Approach Radar Control, aircraft are radar separated by a minimum of 3 nm and 1000ft, allowing reduced spacing between successive arrivals, thus increasing the landing rate relative to that achieved under Procedural control.3

For more information see appendix 11.

Under Radar control, aircraft will usually be given radar vectors. “Radar vectors provide navigational guidance to aircraft in the form of specific heading based on the use of surveillance equipment 3 pg11.”“Heading: The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is pointed, usually expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic or compass) ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation)”

3 pg5.Radar vectors will usually be provided until the aircraft is established on the final approach track (FAT). This can be the localiser for an ILS (Instrument Landing System), MLS (Microwave Landing System) or Localiser DME approach or the FAT for NDB/DME approaches etc. From this point the aircraft is usually cleared to descend on the selected procedure which guides him onto the landing runway3,1. The Approach Radar controller uses tactical headings, speed and level instructions to maintain separation standards while creating a safe and efficient stream of arrivals. Note: For more information on types of approaches see below.

Types of Approach

During the final stages of the approach to the arrival runway precision is of vital importance. There are therefore many different approaches available to the pilot. Each approach comes with a weather minimum, decision height/altitude and a missed approach procedure should it be needed1. Each type of approach can be categorised under two sub headings: Precision Approaches and Non-Precision Approaches3.

Precision Approaches ILS – Localiser and Glide path,MLS – Localiser and Glide path,Etc.

Precision approaches utilise both lateral and vertical navigation. If flown correctly the approach will also provide terrain clearance. These types of approach are the most precise and therefore do not require as

great a flight visibility to begin the approach therefore allowing them to be flown in poor weather conditions.3

For an example of a Precision Approach see appendix 8.

Non-Precision ApproachesNDB/DME – Non-Directional Beacon and Distance Measuring Equipment,LOC/DME – Localiser and Distance Measuring Equipment,VOR/DME – VHF Omnidirectional Range and Distance Measuring Equipment,SRA (Surveillance Radar Approach) – Surveillance equipment i.e. radar,Etc.8

Non-Precision approaches are less precise then Precision approaches utilising lateral navigation only. These approaches rely on pilot interpreted altitudes or altitude callouts based on distance from touchdown. The lack of precision leads to an increased visibility minimum for each approach meaning very few approaches can be made in poor visibility.3

For an example of a Non-Precision Approach see appendix 9.

The Airport Layout

Aircraft StandsAn aircraft stand is the specific area on the airfield that a single aircraft will park. The stand offered to the aircraft will depend on the stands available, the airline or cargo company operating the aircraft and the equipment and size of the stand. Some stands are located very close to the terminals and allow the passengers to walk to and from the aircraft either across the manoeuvring area or by airbridge. Other stands are remote and require passengers to be transported by shuttle bus to the terminal.

Busy airports, such as London Heathrow, have many stands allowing for the large amounts of traffic to be allocated a stand with minimal or no delay. However at the slightly smaller airfields with less stands, while handling busy traffic levels, delays can often ensue. This is why turnaround times are very important to the efficient running of the airport and ultimately its runway(s). As delays increase due to many reasons, such as aircraft requiring maintenance on stand, traffic can begin to back up and, at airports with little ground manoeuvring space, this can very quickly lead to delays to arrivals and even departures.

Rapid Exit TaxiwaysA Rapid Exit Taxiway is defined as a taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways and thereby minimising runway occupancy times8. Rapid Exit Taxiways are a very important tool used to maintain high runway efficiency. These taxiways allow aircraft to vacate the runway with speeds of up to 60 kts (nautical miles per hour) minimising runway occupancy time. Rapid Exit Taxiways are usually situated towards the upwind end of the runway. This is to allow the aircraft a longer distance to slow down sufficiently to use the taxiways safely and effectively8. During the early stages of the approach, whether during the approach brief or mentally, depending on airline SOPs (Standard Operation Procedures), the pilot flying will often plan where the aircraft will vacate the runway; therefore it is of utmost importance that the Rapid Exit Taxiways are also vacated quickly and remain clear during an aircraft’s landing roll, especially in low visibility conditions.

The Use of New Technology

The Point Merge SystemThe Point Merge System is a new concept developed and trialled in mainland Europe. Using the new point merge system in the UK will completely change the way in which controllers stack and stream aircraft on arrival at their Initial Approach Fix (IAF)12. The point merge system works by giving the stream of aircraft an exact route to follow from their IAF. While following this route they will come to a cone-shaped area known as the point merge area. While the aircraft is within this area controllers will make time based calculations to decide when to turn the aircraft towards the Final Approach Fix (FAF), the top of the cone. The calculations allow for the exact spacing between aircraft to be achieved on the final stages of the approach whilst speed instructions are used to maintain separation. When the optimum spacing between aircraft for safety and efficiency is found the landing rate will increase significantly increasing runway efficiency.11

ERAT, Environmentally Responsible Air Transport, have developed a concept utilising the point merge system and environmentally friendly techniques to propose a new system for air traffic management at London Heathrow Airport (EGLL/LHR)12. The proposal outlines the new techniques to be used by controllers and pilots while taking into consideration other factors such as Radio Telephony (RT) capacity. Utilising the point merge system will allow aircraft to remain higher for longer during the initial approach while extending the track mileage which will reduce the need for holding. 11

For further reading see ERAT LHR Point Merge Concept11

ERAT have also developed a simulation of the proposed point merge system at London Heathrow Airport and compared it to the current techniques in use (baseline).12

More information can be found on the Eurocontrol website.13

RNAV (GNSS) ApproachesArea Navigation (RNAV) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Approaches are pilot interpreted non-precision approaches.3 They are similar to other non-precision approaches however use satellite navigation, similar to the Global Positioning System (GPS), to position the aircraft over waypoints throughout the final stages of the approach.

RNAV (GNSS) Approaches are in use at airports across the UK with one of the latest trials being on Blackpool Airport’s (EGNH/BLK) runway 28. Blackpool’s RNAV Approaches consist of three initial approach fixes (IAF), TOVEL to the North East, BARSU to the East and ROBLU to the South East of the airfield. During a normal approach the pilot will request the RNAV Approach for runway 28, if this is possible, the approach radar controller will usually give the aircraft vectors before giving him a ‘direct to’ one of the IAF. When inbound the controller will then clear the aircraft for the procedure allowing the pilot to descend towards the runway.10,1

For EGNH Runway 28 RNAV Approach see appendix 12

At London Heathrow airport (EGLL/LHR) RNAV approaches are usually given on request. The reduction in vectors needed and the decreased likelihood of an aircraft establishing on the Final Approach Track (FAT) for the wrong runway can increase the efficiency and also safety with the RNAV Approach. Also the fact that an RNAV Approach is pilot interpreted reduces the reliance on air traffic control and therefore reduces Radio Telephony (RT) time (the time taken up by transmissions over the controller’s frequency)3. The RNAV Approach, although not fitted at many airfields in the UK, looks to be very

popular with both pilots and controllers at the trail airfields and a development of the current procedures could, in the future, significantly increase landing rates while dramatically reducing RT time3.1

Impacts of Weather on Airfield Efficiency

Low Visibility Procedures (LVPs)The purpose of LVPs is to allow airports to continue operation, albeit reduced somewhat, in low visibility conditions. The conditions at which LVPs come into force vary from airfield to airfield generally however airfields will enforce LVPs when cloud is overcast at less than 200ft above aerodrome level (aal) reported as fog and/or reported visibility drops below 1300 metres.10

During LVPs the separation between aircraft is markedly increased often to 10 nm through the final approach stages. The increased safety margin is to allow aircraft to receive landing clearance before reaching 4nm measured by DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) spoken as “4DME” from the runway threshold however it decreases the landing rate of aircraft dramatically, reducing the efficiency of the runway. Also at many airfields the runway holding points are moved away from the runway. This is to provide protection for the aircraft on approach if using autoland on CATIII (Category Three) ILS. ILS protection is provided because in low visibility conditions the pilots rely almost entirely on the ILS. If ILS protection is not provided, aircraft in front of the Localiser and/or glide path array can intercept the ILS signal thus preventing the arriving aircraft from receiving the information accurately3. However increasing the distance between the runway holding points and the runway increases the time taken for the transit from landing roll to the vacation of the runway and the length of time between take off/line up clearance given and the aircraft climbing away from the runway again decreasing the landing rate and therefore efficiency of the runway.

The exact details of LVPs vary depending on many factors, such as ILS category, the positions of the localiser and glide path arrays and the reported visibility value. This information will be detailed in the airfield specific MATS part 2 (Manual of Air Traffic Services part 2) available to the unit’s controllers and agreed with the airfield operators and approved by the CAA.3

WindAt airports in the UK the runway in use is usually dictated by the reported surface wind, i.e. at an airfield such as East Midlands with a runway with a heading of 271 degrees (Runway 27) and at the opposite end heading 091 degrees (Runway 09) when the wind is blowing 270 degrees at 10 kts runway 27 will be chosen as aircraft perform better when taking off and landing into wind. Airfields also have a preferential runway which is usually used provided that the tailwind component for aircraft utilising that runway is less than 5 kts, at most airfields this is the most westerly facing runway.3,1

Strong wind can be a hazard for aircraft especially at the critical stages of flight. Crosswind conditions, when the wind is blowing in a direction almost perpendicular to the runway, can make for challenging landings. During crosswind landings the pilot is extremely cautious and more missed approaches (go-arounds) can be expected as aircraft are blown off their approach by strong winds. Windshear, the rapid change in wind direction and/or speed often caused by buildings or high geographical areas, can be very dangerous to aircraft in the final stages of flight8. Because of these dangers the likelihood of go-arounds is very high in strong winds. Therefore every go-around means one less aircraft has landed and the go-around aircraft has to fit back into the stream, causing delays and decreasing the runway efficiency.

Factors Inhibiting Airfield Efficiency

AirspaceThe class of airspace is very important to airfield efficiency and popularity. Airfields outside of controlled airspace, Classes G and F (no airports in the UK are situated in Class F) i.e. Blackpool, have a lot to contend with. Being outside of controlled airspace, controllers can only provide aircraft with a Flight Information Service (FIS)9 in the form of a Basic Service, Traffic Service, Deconfliction Service or Procedural Service depending on the equipment available to the controller and by pilot request.9

Due to the rules of uncontrolled airspace, it is referred to by both pilots and controllers as an unknown environment. This is because aircraft flying outside of controlled airspace do not require a clearance nor do they have to be in contact with a controller6. Because the FIS provided are somewhat lower in safety than an Air Traffic Control Service some airlines are reluctant to utilise these airfields and in some cases the CAA limit the number of movements the airfield can accept over a period of time.2,3

Airspace and Radar Manoeuvring Area (RMA) Layout and DesignAirspace and RMA design are very important when handling large amounts of traffic. However the design of airspace and RMAs at airfields with lower traffic levels are often a result of maximising traffic levels elsewhere, rather than at that airport.(3)

East Midlands Airport lies within controlled airspace and has a large amount of airspace delegated as East Midlands CTA/CTRD

1. East Midlands does not have an RMA as such,however it is restricted somewhat by standing agreements between East Midlands, Scottish (Prestwick) Control and London (Swanwick) Terminal Control, both controlling the airspace above and to the West of East Midlands Airport(3). Because of these agreements, airfield movements are somewhat restricted. The airspace restrictions leave the East Midlands Approach controllers with a very narrow South to North lane for vectoring from the south for runway 27. Also to the East is the Lincolnshire Area of Intense Air Activity (AIAA)1 with many military air bases, meaning airspace expansion to the East unlikely. This makes increasing traffic levels, without significant airspace change, impossible and therefore caps the expansion of the airfield.

For a diagram of airspace over East Midlands Airport see appendix 13.

EquipmentInstrument Approaches – The lack of Instrument Approaches at airports in the UK can significantly inhibit airfield efficiency and growth. For a visual approach to be carried out the pilot has to first have the field in sight and from then on keep the field in sight and maintain a safe distance away from cloud3. This means that aircraft flying visual approaches usually have to be both low and close in to the airfield to have the field in sight and to remain clear of cloud making for a very inefficient vectoring pattern.

Airfield LayoutAt many airfields in the UK airport layout is a big factor contributing to reduced efficiency on the airfields runway(s). Many airfields have single runways and these often have mid-runway entrance and exit taxiways. The lack of entry and exit points increases runway occupancy time for both arrivals and departures1. As arrivals land, provided they pass all of the runway exits, they will need to backtrack the runway and will vacate at the nearest taxiway, also when departures are ready they will often need to backtrack so far in order to have enough runway for their take off roll. Because of this spacing on the ILS is often limited to 10-12 nm depending on whether there is a pending departure or not. This greatly reduces runway efficiency due to large runway occupancy times10.

Conclusion

While writing this report I have researched ways in which efficiency can be increased at the larger airports in the UK: London Heathrow, London Gatwick, Manchester and London Stansted. I have learnt of ways in which the airports are trialing new technology and concepts to create the most efficient, and at the same time safe, environment for air traffic13.

I found that the airport layout is very important to the efficiency of both the runway and the airport itself. Rapid-exit taxiways are very important when increasing runway efficiency. While allowing the landing aircraft to vacate at high speeds, up to 60 kts, rapid-exit taxiways reduce runway occupancy time allowing a reduction in time between successive runway operations, thus increasing runway efficiency.

I then went on to research new technology specifically the new Point Merge system being trialed at London Heathrow Airport and in use across Europe and the new RNAV (GNSS) Approaches being trialed at selected UK airfields. 12,13,1,10

The Point Merge system was a brand new concept developed in mainland Europe. The system allows the controller to use his discretion during the final stages of approach whilst reducing controller workload during the initial approach stages. The Point Merge System has many advantages including pilot interpreted routes allowing the controller to focus on creating optimum spacing on final approach. When optimum spacing is created, runway efficiency dramatically increases due to less time being wasted as extra spacing between arrivals.13

RNAV (GNSS) Approaches provide pilots with an alternative approach and are good for decreasing controller workload. The RNAV Approaches are generally safer than conventional approaches as waypoints can also be used to identify landing runway reducing the number of runway incursions due to incorrect runway identification. This is also a pilot interpreted approach and therefore allows the controller to continue providing tactical vectors to other arriving aircraft whilst the aircraft is flying the RNAV Approach. This allows the controller to achieve optimum spacing on the final stages of the approach and maintain high runway efficiency.1,3

The other question I answered in this report was ‘What factors inhibit the efficiency of smaller UK airfields?’ To answer this question I decided to look mainly at the layout and design of controlled airspace at the selected airfields. I concluded that for the airfield efficiency to increase significantly at East Midlands airport, the design of the control area and control zone, Class D controlled airspace, would have to be redeveloped to allow for more effective tactical and efficient vectoring for aircraft on intermediate approach.10,1,6

I then discussed how Blackpool airport’s lack of controlled airspace limits the amount of traffic it receives at the airfield. In some instances this is due to the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) putting restrictions on allowed movements and also the significant reduction in safety between the Air Traffic Control Service provided inside of controlled airspace, in a known environment, and the Flight Information Service provided outside of controlled airspace, in an unknown environment.10,2

Finally I also discussed the impact of adverse weather on airport operations and efficiency. I found that efficiency can be greatly reduced in bad weather conditions especially when visibility and cloud base is low. However many other situations can lead to disruption, such as strong winds and windshear leading to multiple missed approach situations. In extreme circumstances precipitation such as snow and hail can cause the airfield to close while anti-icing and runway clearing takes place.1,3

Appendices

1. EGLL/LHR Aerodrome Chart|NATS AIS

2. EGKK/LGW Aerodrome Chart|NATS AIS

3. EGCC/MAN Aerodrome Chart|NATS AIS

4. EGSS/STN Aerodrome Chart|NATS AIS

5. EGNX/EMA Aerodrome Chart|NATS AIS

6. EGNH/BLK Aerodrome Chart|NATS AIS

7. CAA ATS Airspace Classificationhttp://www.caa.co.uk/docs/64/200890108ATSAirspaceClassificationV3.pdf

8. Precision Approach ILS/DME/NDB(L) EGNX Runway 27 Chart|NATS AIS

9. Non-Precision Approach NDB(L)/DME EGNX Runway 27 Chart|NATS AIS

10. LAM3A EGLL STAR Chart|NATS AIP

11. East Midlands Airport Approach Radar room and radar display, courtesy of Mr P Stephens:http://www.koolflyer.co.uk/EMA%20VFR%20Pilot/ATC%20Photos/Radar%20Room.JPGhttp://www.koolflyer.co.uk/EMA%20VFR%20Pilot/ATC%20Photos/NEMA%20Airspace.jpg

12. Blackpool Airport Runway 28 RNAV (GNSS) Approach Chart|NATS AIS

13. East Midlands Airport EGNX CTR/CTA Chart|NATS AIS

References/Sources

- [1] National Air Traffic Services (NATS) Aeronautical Information Service (AIS) – IAIP: http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php%3Foption=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=6&Itemid=13.html

- [2] Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) document for movements March 2012: http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/201203/Table_03_Aircraft_Movements.pdf

- [3] CAA CAP 493 Manual of Air Traffic Services part 1, document can be found at: http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP493Part1adv.pdf

- [4] Fly On Track GA website: http://www.flyontrack.co.uk/content/radar.asp- [5] VFR Flight Guide: http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/64/VFR_Guide_2011.pdf- [6] CAA Airspace Classification: http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid=2392- [7] NATS Enroute Information: http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php

%3Foption=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=4&Itemid=11.html - [8] CAA Definitions and Abbreviations:

http://www.caa.co.za/resource%20center/AirTrafficServices/StandardsAndProceduresManual/Section%201%20Definitions%20and%20Abbrevations.pdf

- [9] CAA CAP 774 UK Flight Information Services, document can be found at: http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP774.pdf

- [10] Mr A Rutter, Air Traffic Controller, Blackpool Airport.- [11] ERAT LHR Point Merge Concepts: http://www.erat.aero/fileadmin/documents/ERAT_LHR_D10-

2_v_1.0_incl_signatures.pdf- [12] ERAT LHR Point Merge Website/Simulatios: http://erat.to70.nl/index.php?id=151- [13] Eurocontrol Point Merge System:

http://www.eurocontrol.int/eec/public/standard_page/proj_Point_Merge.html

Further Reading

- (1) NATS AIS – IAIP: http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php%3Foption=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=1&Itemid=2.html

- (2) NATS Glossary of terms: http://www.ead.eurocontrol.int/eadbasic/pamslight-B626FC8D2E0883D1C28D00D94D2C599F/7FE5QZZF3FXUS/EN/AIP/GEN/EG_GEN_2_2_en_2012-02-09.pdf

- (3) London Terminal Control Centre Manual of Air Traffic Services Part 2: http://www-methods.ch.cam.ac.uk/meth/nmr/newsite/MATS2.pdf

- (4) Civil Aviation Authority statistics publications: http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid=80&pagetype=88&pageid=3&sglid=3

- (5) VFR Flight Guide: http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/64/VFR_Guide_2011.pdf- (6) CAA Airspace Classification: http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid=2392- (7) NATS Enroute Information: http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php

%3Foption=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=4&Itemid=11.html - (8) CAA Definitions and Abbreviations:

http://www.caa.co.za/resource%20center/AirTrafficServices/StandardsAndProceduresManual/Section%201%20Definitions%20and%20Abbrevations.pdf

- (9) CAA CAP 774 UK Flight Information Services: http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP774.pdf- (11) ERAT LHR Point Merge Concepts: http://www.erat.aero/fileadmin/documents/ERAT_LHR_D10-

2_v_1.0_incl_signatures.pdf- (12) ERAT LHR Point Merge Website/Simulatios: http://erat.to70.nl/index.php?id=151- (13) Eurocontrol Point Merge System:

http://www.eurocontrol.int/eec/public/standard_page/proj_Point_Merge.html