Epilegomenon

The Question of Linguistic Change

The goal of this book is the explanation of social variation in language, otherwisethe meaning and motivation of language change in its social aspect. It is directlyconcerned with the rational explication of linguistic variety as evidenced byspontaneous innovations in present-day American English. For the most part, Iexamine the ascription of social value to novel linguistic entities, as one of the areasin which the effects of spontaneous innovations are most notable. A special featureof the data is the plethora of examples drawn from media and colloquial language.

In fact, what I present here is an exploration of the ideological value of a wholelist of changes-in-progress in American English. To a certain extent, I am contin-uing the older tradition of books like Mencken (1957), Pyles (1952), andMarckwardt (1980), while also investigating an important area of contemporarysociolinguistics not illuminated by books like Wolfram (1974), McDavid (1980),Dillard (1992), Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (1998), or even Labov (1973).

The theoretical question posed here (following Andersen 1989) is informed bythe idea of linguistic change as a form of communication—the title of a study byLabov, who concluded that members of a speech community use innovations tosignal a variety of messages, such as “stronger meaning,” “group solidarity,”“greater intimacy,” or their opposites (1974: 253 ff.). Labov’s study clarifies someof the reasons why innovations are adopted and is significant for its key assumptionalone that any novel expression, apart from the content invested in it by grammarand pragmatics, has a specific value by virtue of being different from a traditionalexpression with the same grammatical and pragmatic content.

It is this “connotative content” (Hjelmslev 1960: 114 ff.) of novel linguisticexpressions that is the object here. But whereas, for instance, Labov’s study refersthe specific values carried by the innovations to such established categories ofconnotative content as those mentioned above, my investigation concentrates onuncovering the purport of innovations before their definite, collectively understoodconnotative content has been widely adopted; and before the stage of consolidationof their values has been reached.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017M. Shapiro, The Speaking Self: Language Lore and English Usage,Springer Texts in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51682-0

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The supposed dichotomy between language and society is non-existent in tworespects. For one thing, language is an entirely social phenomenon and cannot beseparated from its social functions. For another, when linguistic rules make refer-ence to social categories such as age, gender, or class, these categories are alsothemselves linguistic categories. They can and should be strictly distinguished fromsuch parameters as chronological age, biological sex, or socioeconomic status,which can be defined prior to—and without regard to—the investigation of anylanguage. What linguistic expressions index are culture-specific categories such as‘youthfulness’, ‘femininity’, or ‘upper class’, not as defined in universal, natural-istic terms, but as conventionally encoded and understood by speakers of the lan-guage in question at the given time. Far from being “sociological factors” or “socialfactors bear[ing] upon linguistic features” (Weinreich et al. 1968: 186), these are infact linguistic features. They are language-particular categories of content, indexedby linguistic elements of expression, that are selected for expression in discourse byspeakers in accordance with their communicative intentions and with the samedegree of freedom (and responsibility) as other categories of linguistic content.While it is a commonplace that language is totally embedded in society (linguisticfacts are social facts), what is important to understand is that through the soci-olinguistic categories of content indexed by linguistic expressions, the categories ofa society are embedded in its language “unevenly” (Weinreich et al.: 185)—that is,selectively.

Any theory of language that wishes to explain language use must come to gripswith the phenomenon of change and its causes. All linguistic variety, includingsocial and dialectal differentiation within a given language, is necessarily the pro-duct of historical changes, some of which are still in progress at a given point in thatlanguage’s development.

Representative of much modern theorizing about the causes of language change isCoseriu’s position (1958), according to which change in a language, as well as theabsence of change, is produced by its speakers as part of that exercise of their freewill which speaking constitutes. In speaking, they may be motivated by the diversecircumstances under which to speak is to deviate from the usage that is traditional intheir community. But such a motivation is not a cause in the sense in which linguists(like Bloomfield 1935) understand the word, for individual speakers are free to letthemselves be moved—or not moved—by the given circumstance(s). In Coseriu’sview, the only true “cause” of change are the speakers, who use their language, andin doing so observe or neglect their linguistic traditions as they see fit.

This way of looking at language is fairly realistic, not only because it assumesthat any change may be conditioned by a number of coexisting circumstances, butalso because it acknowledges the intentional character of speaking, whether itfollows or breaks with tradition, and hence, by implication, an element of intentionin both stability and change. In accordance with this latter aspect of Coseriu’stheory, the language historian’s task is not one of causal explanation but of rationalexplication.

What gives my approach its special stamp is a method whose main assumption isthat linguistic change has a directionality defined by a parallelism between form and

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meaning. A simple example: “knowledges”—‘knowledge’ used in what would beconsidered a deviant, if not outright ungrammatical, plural form. Why? Because itbears a contemporary ideological message that cannot easily be sustained instraightforward argument, the message, namely, that there are incompatible modesof thought that are equally valid. Thus “Western” science is only one (type of)knowledge to which such alternatives as Pawnee creation myths, “Wicca” witch-craft, etc., are just as valid—so many distinct “knowledges.”

In many of the essays in this book, there are series of examples like the one justgiven that are analyzed in terms of the parallelism between the relational value oflinguistic forms and the cultural (ideological) content they signify.

American English, like all national languages, abounds in variety. Differences inage, sex, education, and psychosocial habits are typically correlated with differencesin language use, so that there are always some discontinuities between the gram-mars of individual speakers. At the same time, similarities in speech and writingalso tend to be mirrored by similarities in personalia. One way to understand whatthese correlations mean is to adopt a historical perspective on both the differencesand the similarities of speech/writing. When analyzed with respect to their positionson a continuum, in terms of both the immediately preceding system from whichthey are departures and the new system of which they are manifestations, linguisticinnovations can provide clues to the meaning of social and cultural changes incontemporary American society.

General usage in America is understandably far from monolithic. Beside thevariety in language use associated with geographical and social dialects, there arenumerous linguistic variants that are part of American English in the round, so tospeak. Differences in pronunciation such as that of broad and flat /a/ in words likerather or aunt can cross dialectal lines and constitute indicators of speakers’ atti-tudes, i.e., as linguistic clues to their value systems. This kind of evidence can differfrom the features that are traditionally labeled as stylistic or social. When applied toindividuals that cannot otherwise easily be grouped socioeconomically, a micro-analysis of linguistic habits shifts the focus productively from describing sociolectsalong traditional lines to identifying nascent groups of speakers by the value sys-tems that account for their departures from received patterns.

There is a set of dialectally and socially unlocalized innovations in contemporaryAmerican English that are correlated with cultural changes. For instance, failure toapply the traditional laxing rule in forming the plural of house can be seen notmerely as the imposition of regularity on the paradigm but as a sign of the speaker’sevidently unconscious rejection of the received pattern and adherence to thespreading new one. When phonological and morphological variants such as thisoccur in clusters in the language of a growing group of speakers, they can provideevidence of new attitudes not only toward what constitutes acceptable general usagebut toward aspects of the “ideological” make-up of such groups.

Syntax and semantics represent relatively higher nodes of ascent along the lin-guistic hierarchy from constraint to freedom but are still areas of language structurethat provide evidence of variation that can be correlated with “ideological”differences.

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In the last thirty years, for instance, there has been a change in the government ofthe verb commit whereby the reflexive complement tends to be omitted. Thissyntactic innovation can be analyzed as an indicator of a change in the coremeaning of the verb from that of ‘bind/pledge oneself’ to something more equiv-ocal (‘non-binding/non-committal’). Speakers who habitually use the verb withoutthe reflexive may be said to have a different attitude—and therefore, a differentvalue system—from those speakers of American English who follow the oldernorm.

Semantics is the most fluid of linguistic subsystems and furnishes the richestevidence of the correlation between language use and value systems. An example isthat of pleonasm or redundancy. Locutions like equally as (for equally) or also… aswell abound in contemporary American speech (and even in writing). In some casespleonasms become part of general usage (past experience, advance warning, safehaven, etc.), but there are many others that arise spontaneously. An “ideological”analysis of pleonastic constructions—and of redundancy in general—will seek toexplore how such usage coheres with a particular attitudinal set toward the relationbetween form and content that crosses strictly linguistic boundaries to embracemodes of cognition correlated with beliefs and the predispositions toward actionthey account for.

“Wherever the human mind has worked collectively and unconsciously, it hasstriven for and attained unique form. The important point is that the evolution ofform has a drift in one direction, that it seeks poise, and that it rests, relativelyspeaking, when it has found this poise.” This is how Sapir (1949: 382) famouslycharacterizes the principle of final causation in language. Present possibilities withgreater or lesser powers of actualization exist at any given historical stage of alanguage. Innovations that come to be full-fledged social facts, i.e., changes, musthave something about their form that enables them to survive. The ensemble ofsuch innovations-become-changes is what constitutes the drift of a language.

References

Andersen, H. (1989). Understanding linguistic innovations. In L. E. Breivik & E. H. Jahr (Eds.),Language change: Contributions to the study of its causes (pp. 5–28). Berlin: Mouton deGruyter.

Bloomfield, L. (1935). Language. New York: Holt.Coseriu, E. (1958). Sincronía, diacronía e historia: el problema del cambio lingüístico.

Montevideo: Universidad. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias.Dillard, J. L. (1992). A history of American English. London: Longman.Hjelmslev, L. (1960). Prolegomena to a theory of language (F. Whitfield, Trans.). Madison:

University of Wisconsin Press.Labov, W. (1973). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Labov, W. (1974). Linguistic change as a form of communication. In A. Silverstein (Ed.), Human

communication: Theoretical explorations (pp. 221–256). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Marckwardt, A. H. (1980). American English (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford UP.

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McDavid, R. I. (1980). Dialects in culture: Essays in general dialectology. Tuscaloosa: Universityof Alabama Press.

Mencken, H. L. (1957). The American Language: An inquiry into the development of english inthe United States (4th ed.). New York: Knopf.

Pyles, T. (1952). Words and ways of American English. New York: Random House.Sapir, E. (1949). Selected writings in language, culture and personality. In D. G. Mandelbaum

(Ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.Weinreich, U., Labov, W., & Herzog, M. (1968). Empirical foundations for a theory of language

change. In W. Lehmann & Y. Malkiel (Eds.), Directions for historical linguistics (pp. 95–188).Austin: University of Texas Press.

Wolfram, W. A. (1974). The study of social dialects in American English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.

Wolfram, W. A., & Schilling-Estes, N. (1998). American English: Dialects and variation. Oxford:Blackwell.

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Master Glossary

abduce, v. < abduction, n. (originally in the writings of C.S. Peirce) the onlyfallible mode of reasoning, viz. the formation or adoption of a plausible butunproven explanation for an observed phenomenon; a working hypothesisderived from limited evidence and informed conjecture

abductive, adj. < abduction, n. vide supra

ablative, adj. of, relating to, or being a grammatical case indicating separation,direction away from, sometimes manner or agency, and the object of certainverbs (found in Latin and other Indo-European languages); the ablative case; aform in this case

ablaut, n. vowel change, characteristic of Indo-European languages, that accom-panies a change in grammatical function; for example, i, a, u in sing, sang, sung;also called gradation (German)

aborning, adv. while being born or produced; at the moment of birth; beforecoming to completion competence

absolute, adj. of a clause, construction, case, etc., not syntactically dependent onanother part of the sentence; of a word: used without a (customary) syntacticdependant; spec. (a) (of a transitive verb) used without an expressed object;(b) (of an adjective or possessive pronoun) used alone without a modified noun

abstracta, n. [pl] abstract words (Latin)

abut, v. to bring (two things) together

accoutrement, n. an identifying but usually extraneous characteristic; anonessential but usual accompaniment

accusative, adj. of, relating to, or being the grammatical case that is the directobject of a verb or the object of certain prepositions

acronym, n. a word formed from the initial letters of a name, such as WAC forWomen’s Army Corps, or by combining initial letters or parts of a series ofwords, such as radar for radio detecting and ranging

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actualization, n. < actualize, v. to make actual

adhere, v. to hold, follow, or maintain loyalty steadily and consistently (as to aperson, group, principle, or way)

ad hoc for the particular end or purpose at hand and without reference to widerapplication or employment (Latin)

ad libitum variable according to a performer’s pleasure (Latin)

admirative, adj. characterized by or full of admiration; admiring

adstructure, n. substructure; subsidiary or particular structure within a structuralwhole

adumbration, n. < adumbrate, v. to suggest, indicate, or disclose partially andwith a purposeful avoidance of precision

adversion, n. < advert, v. to turn one’s attention; to take notice, take heed, attend,pay attention

aetiological < aetiology, n. a science or doctrine of causation or of the demon-stration of causes; a branch of knowledge concerned with the causes of particularphenomena

affect, n. the conscious emotion that occurs in reaction to a thought or experience

affected, adj. < affectation, n. manner of speech or behavior not natural to one’sactual personality or capabilities; artificiality of behavior especially in display offeelings

affective, n. (a word or form) expressing emotion

affixation, n. < affix, v. < affix, n. a word element, such as a prefix or suffix, thatcan only occur attached to a base, stem, or root

afflatus, n. a strong creative impulse, especially as a result of divine inspiration

affricate, n. a complex speech sound consisting of a stop consonant followed by africative; for example, the initial sounds of child and joy

agency, n. the capacity, condition, or state of acting or of exerting power

agentive, adj. of or relating to a linguistic form or construction that indicates anagent or agency, as the suffix -er in singer

agrammatistically, adv. < agrammatistic, adj. < agrammatism, n. loss of theability to use correct grammar; a form of aphasia characterized by this

à la française ‘in the French style’ (French)

alas and alack idiomatic phrase used to express regret or sadness

aleatory, adj. dependent on chance, luck, or an uncertain outcome

424 Master Glossary

allegro, adj. in a quick, lively tempo (Italian)

alliterative, adj. < alliteration, n. the repetition of the same sounds or of the samekinds of sounds at the beginning of words or in stressed syllables

allomorph, n. any of the variant forms of a morpheme. For example, the phonetic[s] of cats, [z] of pigs, and [iz] horses are allomorphs of the English pluralmorpheme {s}

allophonic, adj. < allophone, n. a predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme, e.g.,the aspirated t of top, the unaspirated t of stop, and the tt (pronounced as a flap)of batter—all allophones of the English phoneme /t/

a lokh n kop [like] ‘a hole in the head’ (Yiddish)

alveolar, adj. of or relating to the alveolus, i.e., the socket of a tooth, or to the partof a jawbone which contains the tooth sockets; a speech sound, esp. a consonant:articulated by placing the tongue against or near to the alveolar ridge

alveolar flap a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with thetongue

alveoli, pl. n. < alveolus, n. a tooth socket in the jawbone

ambience, n. a surrounding or pervading atmosphere; environment, milieu

ameliorative, adj. < ameliorate, v. to make better; to better, improve

Americanism, n. a word, phrase, or idiom characteristic of English as it is spokenin the United States

amicus, n. friend (Latin), as in amicus curiae ‘friend of the court’

anacrusis, n. one or more unstressed syllables at the beginning of a line of verse,before the reckoning of the normal meter begins

anadiplosis, n. rhetorical repetition at the beginning of a phrase of the word orwords with which the previous phrase ended; e.g., He is a man of loyalty, loyaltyalways firm

anamnesis, n. the complete history recalled and recounted by a patient

anapestic, adj. < anapest, n. a metrical foot composed of two short syllablesfollowed by one long one, as in the word seventeen

anaphoric, adj. < anaphora, n. the deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at thebeginning of several successive verses, clauses, or paragraphs; for example; theuse of a linguistic unit, such as a pronoun, to refer back to another unit

anent, prep. in reference to, concerning

Anglophone, adj. English-speaking

anima ‘air, breath, life, soul, spirit’ (Latin)

Master Glossary 425

animadversion, n. < animadvert, v. to comment critically (on, upon), to uttercriticism (usually of an adverse kind); to express censure or blame

animus, n. ill will, antagonism, or hostility usually controlled but deep-seated

anodize, v. render anodyne, i.e., soothing to the mind or feelings

anosognosia, n. an inability or refusal to recognize a defect or disorder that isclinically evident

antanaclasis, n. the stylistic trope of repeating a single word, but with a differentmeaning each time

antepenultimate, adj. < antepenult, n. the third syllable from the end in a word,such as te in antepenult

anthropomorphize, v. to attribute a human form or personality to (as an animal orinanimate object)

antimetabole, n. the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposedgrammatical order (e.g., “I know what I like, and I like what I know”)

antonym, n. a word having a meaning opposite to that of another word

aperçu, n. a short outline or summary; a synopsis (< French)

aphaeretic, adj. < aphaeresis, n. the loss of one or more sounds from thebeginning of a word, as in till for until

aphasia, n. the loss or impairment of the power to use words as symbols of ideasthat results from a brain lesion that is clinically evident

aphesis, n. the loss of an initial, usually unstressed vowel, as in cute from acute

apocope, n. the loss of one or more sounds from the end of a word, as in ModernEnglish sing from Middle English singen

aporetic, adj. < aporia, n. a figure of speech in which the speaker expresses orpurports to be in doubt about a question; an insoluble contradiction or paradox ina text’s meanings

apothegmatic, adj. < apothegm, n. a terse, witty, instructive saying; a maxim

apotropaic, adj. < apotropaism, n. an act or ritual conducted to ward off evil ordanger

appellation, n. a name or title by which a person, thing, or clan is called andknown

apposite, adj. suitable; well-adapted; pertinent; relevant; apt

appositive, adj. < apposition, n. a construction in which a noun or noun phrase isplaced with another as an explanatory equivalent, both having the same syntactic

426 Master Glossary

relation to the other elements in the sentence; e.g., Copley and the painter in Thepainter Copley was born in Boston

apropos, prep. with respect to; concerning, regarding

aqueous, adj. of, relating to, or having the characteristics of water

archaic, adj. of, relating to, or characteristic of words and language that were oncein regular use but are now relatively rare and suggestive of an earlier style orperiod

archaism, n. an archaic word, phrase, idiom, or other expression

argosy, n. a rich source or supply

artfully, adv. < artful, adj. performed with, characterized by, or exhibiting art orskill

artifice, n. n ingenious expedient, a clever stratagem; (chiefly in negative sense) amanoeuvre or device intended to deceive, a trick

arytenoid, adj. relating to or being either of two small cartilages to which the vocalcords are attached and which are situated at the upper back part of the larynx

aspectual, adj. < aspect, n. a category of the verb designating primarily therelation of the action to the passage of time, especially in reference to com-pletion, duration, or repetition

aspirate, adj. pronounced with an immediately following h-sound in a syllable inwhich the h is not usually represented (as in English)

aspirated, adj. pronounced with the initial release of breath associated withEnglish h, as in hurry; followed with a puff of breath that is clearly audiblebefore the next sound begins, as in English pit or kit

aspiration, n. the pronunciation of a consonant with an aspirate, i.e., the speechsound represented by English h; the puff of air accompanying the release of astop consonant like p or t

assertory, adj. being or containing an assertion

assimilation, n. the process by which a sound is modified so that it becomessimilar or identical to an adjacent or nearby sound. For example, the prefix in-becomes im- in impossible by assimilation to the labial p of possible

assimilatory, adj. < assimilate, v. to be or become similar or alike

atavism, n. recurrence of or reversion to a past style, manner, outlook, approach, oractivity

athwart, prep. in opposition to; contrary to

attendance, n. < attend, v. fix the mind upon; give heed to

Master Glossary 427

attendant, adj. accompanying, connected with, or immediately following asconsequential

attenuate, v. to lessen the amount, force, or value of

au fond at bottom; fundamentally (French)

augmentative, adj. indicating large size and sometimes awkwardness orunattractiveness; used of affixes and of words formed with them (such as Italiancasone “big house”, from casa “house”, and Italian -one in words like casone)

aureole, n. a quality, condition, or circumstance that surrounds and glorifies agiven object

autochthonous, adj. indigenous, native, aboriginal

automorphism, n. an isomorphism of a set (such as a group) with itself

autonomous, adj. of a thing, esp. an abstract concept: self-contained, unrelated toanything else; able to be considered in isolation

autotelic, adj. having a self-contained goal or purpose

autres temps, autres mœurs other times, other customs (French)

auxiliary, n. a verb used to form the tenses, moods, voices, etc. of other verbs

axiological, adj. < axiology, n. the study of the nature of values and valuejudgments

Babel, n. a confusion of sounds, languages, or voices

back-formed, adj. < back-formation, n. a new word created by removing an affixfrom an already existing word, as vacuum clean from vacuum cleaner, or byremoving what is mistakenly thought to be an affix, as pea from the earlierEnglish plural pease

baneful, adj. creating destruction, woe, or ruin

barbarism, n. an instance of the use of words, forms, or expressions consideredincorrect or unacceptable

base, n. a morpheme or morphemes regarded as a form to which affixes or otherbases may be added

bathetic, adj. < bathos, n. insincere or grossly sentimental pathos; banality;triteness

Bauplan, n. building plan, blueprint (German)

beggar, v. to reduce to inadequacy; exceed the resources of

beg the question to take for granted the matter in dispute; to assume without proof(translation of Latin petitio principii)

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behaviorist, adj. <behaviorism, n. a school of psychology that confines itself tothe study of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior and excludes sub-jective phenomena, such as emotions or motives

bifurcation, n. separation or branching into two parts, areas, aspects, or connectedsegments

bilabial, adj. produced with both lips

bilateral, adj. relating to the right and left sides of the body or of a body structure

binomial, adj. having or characterized by two names

bipartite, adj. being in two parts

bipedal, adj. having two feet

biuniqueness, n. < biunique, adj. being a correspondence between two sets that isone-to-one in both directions

bizarrerie, n. something bizarre (French)

blandishment, n. speech, action, or device that flatters and tends to coax or cajole;allurement (often used in the plural)

blather, n. voluble, foolish, or nonsensical talk

bossa nova, n. a Brazilian dance characterized by the sprightly step pattern of thesamba and a subtle bounce

bound, adj. being a form, especially a morpheme, that cannot stand as an inde-pendent word, such as a prefix or suffix

broad vowel (here) the a vowel as pronounced like the a in father

buccal, adj. of or relating to the cheeks or the mouth cavity

burlesque, n. a literary or dramatic work that ridicules a subject either by pre-senting a solemn subject in an undignified style or an inconsequential subject ina dignified style

by the bye by the way; incidentally

cachinnation, n. < cachinnate, v. to laugh usually loudly or convulsively

cacoglossic, adj. < cacoglossia, n. a language full of mistakes and imperfections(nonce word)

cacophonic, adj. < cacophony, n. harsh or discordant sound; dissonance

cajolery, n. use of delusive enticements

calque (= loan translation), n. a form of borrowing from one language to anotherwhereby the semantic components of a given term are literally translated into

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their equivalents in the borrowing language, e.g., English superman for GermanÜbermensch

capacious, adj. not narrow or constricted; marked by ample scope

cartographer, n. map maker

case, n. a distinct form of a noun, pronoun, or modifier that is used to express oneor more particular syntactic relationships to other words in a sentence

castrato, n. a male singer castrated in boyhood so as to retain a soprano or altovoice

catachrestic, adj. <catachresis, n. the misapplication of a word or phrase; the useof a strained figure of speech, such as a mixed metaphor

censorious, adj. severely critical; faultfinding; carping

ceteris paribus with all other factors or things remaining the same (Latin)

chaconne, n. a slow, stately dance of the 18th century or the music for it

characterological, adj. < characterology, n. the study of character, especially itsdevelopment and its variations

chattel, n. an item of tangible movable or immovable property except real estate,freehold, and that movable property which is by its nature considered to beessential to such an estate

chef d’oeuvre masterpiece (French)

Cheshirely, adv. < Cheshire Cat a fictional cat, known for its distinctive grin,popularized by Lewis Carroll’s in his Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

chevelure, n. [a head of] hair (French)

chiasmus, n. the figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to eachother through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point; that is, theclauses display inverted parallelism

childish, adj. of, relating to, befitting, or resembling a child

Chomskyan, adj. < Chomsky, n. Noam Chomsky, American linguist, founder ofgenerative (transformational) grammar

chorale, n. a harmonized hymn, especially one for organ

Christological, adj. < Christology, n. the theological study of the person and deedsof Jesus; a doctrine or theory based on Jesus or Jesus’s teachings

Church Slavonic the medieval Slavic language used in the translation of the Bibleby Cyril and Methodius and in early literary manuscripts and still used as aliturgical language by several churches of Eastern Orthodoxy

430 Master Glossary

cluster, n. two or more successive consonants in a word, as cl and st in the wordcluster

coda, n. the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the nucleus

cognate, n. (of languages) descended from the same original language; of the samelinguistic family; of words: coming naturally from the same root, or representingthe same original word, with differences due to subsequent separate phoneticdevelopment

collective, adj. (of a word or term) indicating a number of persons or thingsconsidered as constituting one group or aggregate

collocational, adj. < collocation, n. an arrangement or juxtaposition of words orother elements, especially those that commonly co-occur, as rancid butter, bo-som buddy, or dead serious

compactness, n. < compact, adj. a phonological distinctive feature value repre-sented acoustically in a relatively narrow, central region of the auditory spectrumand a higher concentration of energy (opposed to non-compact [vide infra])

compass, n. range or limit of perception, cognizance, knowledge, interest, concern,or treatment

complement, n. an added word or expression by which a predication is madecomplete (such as president in “they elected him president” and white in “shepainted the house white”)

compositum, n. a compound word

compounding, n. the process of creating a compound (word)

conative, adj.: < conation, n. the conscious drive to perform apparently volitionalacts with or without knowledge of the origin of the drive

concomitant, n. something that accompanies or is collaterally connected withanother

condign, adj. entirely in accordance with what is deserved or merited: neitherexceeding nor falling below one’s deserts

conduce, v. to lead or tend especially with reference to a desirable result

configure, v. to arrange in a certain form, figure, or shape

congener, n. a member of the same kind or class with another, or nearly allied toanother in character

congeries, n. a collection or mass of entities (as objects, forces, individuals, ideas)

conjoined, adj. being, coming, or brought together so as to meet, touch, or overlap

conjugate, adj. joined together, especially in a pair or pairs; coupled

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connotative, adj. < connotation, n. the signifying in addition; inclusion ofsomething in the meaning of a word besides what it primarily denotes

connote, v. to signify in addition to its exact explicit meaning

constate, v. to assert positively

constituent, n. any meaningful element of a linguistic form

constrict, v. to draw together or render narrower (as a mouth, channel, passage)

constructivist, adj. < constructivism, n. a nonobjective art movement originatingin Russia and concerned with formal organization of planes and expression ofvolume in terms of modern industrial materials (such as glass and plastic)

consummate, adj. of the highest degree; absolute, total; supreme; of a person: fullyaccomplished, supremely skilled

contamination, n. the process by which one word or phrase is altered because ofmistaken associations with another word or phrase; for example, the substitutionof irregardless for regardless by association with such words as irrespective

contiguity, n. < contiguous, adj. next or adjoining with nothing similar intervening

continuant, n. a consonant that may be continued or prolonged without alterationfor the duration of an emission of breath; an open consonant

contour, n. the distinctive rising and falling patterns of pitch, tone, or stress

contraindicated, adj. inadvisable

contravention, n. < contravene, v. to go or act contrary to

coordinate, adj. standing in the same rank or relation in a sentence

copula, n. a verb, such as a form of be or seem, that identifies the predicate of asentence with the subject

corporeal, adj. (Law) tangible; consisting of material objects

cortex, n. outer layer of neural tissue in humans and other mammals

countenance, v. extend approval or toleration to

counterfactual, adj., n. pertaining to, or expressing, what has not in fact happened,but might, could, or would, in different conditions; counterfactual conditional, aconditional statement of this sort, normally indicating its character by the use ofthe subjunctive mood in its protasis

countermand, v. to counteract; to frustrate; to counterbalance

count noun a noun that forms a plural and is used with a numeral, with words suchas many or few, or in English with the indefinite article a or an (as bean, stick,sheet, beer in “a dark beer”)

432 Master Glossary

coup de grâce a blow by which one condemned or mortally wounded is ‘put out ofhis misery’ or dispatched quickly; hence fig. a finishing stroke, one that settles orputs an end to something (French)

couplet, n. two successive lines of verse usually having some unity greater thanthat of mere contiguity (as that provided by rhythmic correspondence, rhyme, orthe complete inclusion of a grammatically or rhetorically independent utterance)

courtly, adj. marked by highbred polish, stateliness, and ceremony; characteristicof court usage or of courtiers

creole, n. a language that has evolved from a pidgin (vide infra) but serves as thenative language of a speech community

creolize, v. to make Creole; cause to adopt Creole qualities or customs; to cause tobecome a creolized language

cutaway, n. a man’s formal daytime coat, with front edges sloping diagonally fromthe waist and forming tails at the back

dactylic, adj. < dactyl, n. a metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable fol-lowed by two unaccented or of one long syllable followed by two short, as inflattery

dative, adj. (of a grammatical case) marking typically the indirect object of a verb

datum, n. something that is given either from being experientially encountered orfrom being admitted or assumed for specific purposes; a fact or principle grantedor presented; something upon which an inference or an argument is based orfrom which an intellectual system of any sort is constructed

declarative, adj. having the characteristics of or making a declaration

decorum, n. propriety and good taste, especially in conduct, manners, orappearance

deduction, n. the process of deducing or drawing a conclusion from a principlealready known or assumed; spec. in logic, inference by reasoning from generalsto particulars; opposed to induction

definiens, n. whatever serves to define (Latin)

déformation professionnelle conditioning by one’s job (French)

deictically, adv. < deictic, adj. directly pointing out, demonstrative

deixis, n. the function of a deictic word in specifying its referent in a given context

dejotation, n. the elision of a liquid or a glide following a consonant and precedingthe medial vowel of a syllable

Master Glossary 433

demoticization, n. < demiticize, v. < demotic, adj. of or relating to the people;popular, common; (n.) ordinary colloquial speech; the everyday language ofordinary people

denominal, adj. derived from a noun

denominate, v. to give a name or appellation to; to call by a name, to name

denotative, adj. of a word: Having the quality of designating, as distinguishedfrom connotative

dental, adj. articulated with the tip of the tongue near or against the upper frontteeth

deontic, adj. of, relating to, or concerning duties or obligations

de rigueur strictly or rigorously obligatory (French)

derivative, n. a derived word

derive, v. to trace the origin, descent, or derivation of

derived, adj. formed by derivation, i.e., in descriptive linguistics (1): the relation ofa word to its base as expressed usually in terms of presence of an affix (as inpeddler, base peddle, or teaches, base teach), vowel alternation (as in rode, baseride, or song, base singular), consonant alternation (as in spent, base spend, orGerman halb [hälp] “half”, base halb- [hälb]), difference of accent (as in convict[kənˈvikt], base convict [ˈkänˌvikt]), absence of one or more sounds (as inFrench gris [grē], masculine, “gray”, base grise [grēz], feminine), suppletion (asin better, base good), or zero difference (as in sheep, plural, base sheep, singular)(2): the relation of a word to its base when the two do not belong to the sameinflectional paradigm (as in peddler, base peddle, song, base sing, convict[kənˈvikt], base convict [ˈkänˌvikt])

deriving, adj. < derivation, n. the process by which words are formed fromexisting words or bases by adding affixes, as singer from sing or undo from do,by changing the shape of the word or base, as song from sing, or by adding anaffix and changing the pronunciation of the word or base, as electricity fromelectric

Der Untergang des Abendlandes “The Decline of the West” (German; title of abook by Oswald Spengler [1st ed., 1918])

descry, v. to spy out or come to see especially with watchful attention and carefulobservation of the distant, uncertain, or obscure

designee, n. one who is designated or delegated

desinential, adj. < desinence, n. grammatical ending

desuetude, n. discontinuance from use, practice, exercise, or functioning

desyllabication, n. < desyllabicate, v. to cause or undergo the loss of a syllable

434 Master Glossary

detritus, n. a product of disintegration or wearing away: fragment or fragmentarymaterial

deverbal, adj. derived from a verb

devoicing, n. < devoice, v. to pronounce (a normally voiced sound) withoutvibration of the vocal chords so as to make it wholly or partly voiceless

diachrony, n. < diachronic, adj. of or concerned with phenomena, such as lin-guistic features, as they change through time

diacritic, adj. serving to distinguish, distinctive

diagrammaticity, n. < diagrammatic, adj. < diagram, n. (in Peirce’s sign theory)an icon of relation

diagrammatization, n. < diagrammatize, v. < diagram, n. (in Peirce’s sign theory)an icon of relation

dialectal, adj. < dialect, n. a regional or social variety of a language distinguishedby pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech dif-fering from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture inwhich it exists

dialectism, n. a form or feature characteristic of or originating in a dialect

dialectology, n. the study of dialects; the body of data available for use in thesystematic study of a dialect or group of related dialects

dialogism, n. the principle that all utterances (and hence all communication)acquire meaning only in the context of a dialogue to which they contribute andin which the presence and contributions of other voices (or other discourses,languages, etc.) are inescapably implied, with the result that meaning andexpression cannot be reduced to a single system or subjected to a singleauthority; the embodiment of this principle in a form of expression, esp. a lit-erary text

diapason, n. the entire compass, scope, or range (as of an activity or otherphenomenon)

dichotomy, n. division into two parts, classes, or groups and especially into twogroups that are mutually exclusive or opposed by contradiction

differentia specifica a property which distinguishes it from others (Latin)

difformity, n. irregularity or diversity of form

digraph, n. a group of two successive letters whose phonetic value is a singlesound (as ea in bread, ng in thing) or whose value is not the sum of a valueborne by each in other occurrences (as ch in chin, where the value is [t]+ [sh])

diminutive, n. indicating small size and sometimes the quality or condition ofbeing loved, lovable, pitiable, or contemptible; used of affixes

Master Glossary 435

diminutized, v. < diminutive, adj. indicating small size and sometimes the qualityor condition of being loved, lovable, pitiable, or contemptible; used of affixes

diphthongal, adv. < diphthong, n. a complex speech sound or glide that beginswith one vowel and gradually changes to another vowel within the same syl-lable, as [oi] in boil or [ai] in fine

discontinuous, adj. not continuous; marked by breaks or gaps

disfluency, n. impairment of the ability to produce smooth, fluent speech; aninterruption in the smooth flow of speech, as by a pause or the repetition of awordor syllable

disinter, v. to bring out of concealment; bring from obscurity into view

dissyllabic/disyllabic, adj. consisting of two syllables

distinctive, adj. phonemically relevant and capable of conveying a difference inmeaning, as nasalization in the initial sound of mat versus bat

divagation, n. < divagate, v. to wander about or stray from one place or subject toanother

divinatory, adj. < divination, n. < divine, adj. being in the service or worship of adeity; sacred

doctrinal, adj. < doctrine, n. that which is taught or laid down as true concerning aparticular subject or department of knowledge, as religion, politics, science, etc.;a belief, theoretical opinion; a dogma, tenet

don, n. a head, tutor, or fellow in an English university

doublet, n. one of two words or forms that are identical in meaning or value

dross, n. something that is base, gross, or commonplace

echt, adj. real; genuine (German)

ecology, n. the interrelationship between any system and its environment; theproduct of this

effete, adj. totally devoid of an original positive drive or purposiveness

ejaculation, n. the hasty utterance of words expressing emotion

élan, n. vigor, spirit, or enthusiasm typically revealed by assurance of manner,brilliance of performance, or liveliness of imagination (< French)

elide, v. > elision, n. omission of an unstressed

elision, n. the act or an instance of dropping out or omitting something

ellipsis, n. the omission of a word or phrase necessary for a complete syntacticalconstruction but not necessary for understanding

436 Master Glossary

emblematic, adj. < emblem, n. a typical representative

en bloc as a body or whole (French)

encomia [pl.], n. compliments; words of praise

ensemble, n. a system of items that constitute an organic unity

épater le bourgeois to shock people who have attitudes or views perceived asconventional or complacent (French)

epenthetic, adj. < epenthesis, n. the occurrence of an intercalated consonant (suchas a homorganic stop after a nasal consonant) or vowel in a succession of speechsounds without a counterpart in etymon or in orthography (such as [t] in [ˈfents]fence or [ə] in [ˈathəˌlēt] athlete)

epicene, adj. having but one form to indicate either male or female sex (such asLatin bos “a bull, ox, or cow”)

epiphenomenon, n. a secondary phenomenon that results from and accompaniesanother

episodic, adj. of or limited in duration or significance to a particular episode

episodically, adv. < episodic, adj. occurring, appearing, or changing at usuallyirregular intervals

epistemological, adj. < epistemology, n. the study of the method and grounds ofknowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity; broadly, the theoryof knowledge

epithet, n. a characterizing word or phrase

epitomical, adj. < epitome, n. a typical representation or ideal expression

eponymous, adj. < eponym, n. one for whom or which something is named orsupposedly name

equipossible, adj. what can occur equally in a probability experiment

errare humanum est ‘to err is human’ (Latin)

ersatz, adj. a substitute or imitation; usually, an inferior article instead of the realthing (German)

et al. abbreviation for Latin et alia ‘and others’

ethical dative a use of the dative case signifying that the person denoted has aninterest in or is indirectly affected by the event

ethology, n. the scientific study of animal behavior especially under naturalconditions

etiolation, n. < etiolate, v. to lessen or undermine the strength, vigour, or effec-tiveness of (a quality, group, movement, etc.); to have a weakening effect upon

Master Glossary 437

etymologically, adv. < etymological, adj. < etymology, n. the origin and historicaldevelopment of a linguistic form as shown by determining its basic elements,earliest known use, and changes in form and meaning, tracing its transmissionfrom one language to another, identifying its cognates in other languages, andreconstructing its ancestral form where possible

etymon, n. a foreign word from which a particular loan word is derived

evince, v. show, display, contain

excogitate, v. to evolve, invent, or contrive in the mind

exemplar, n. one that serves as a model or example

exeunt ‘they go out’ (Latin); used as a stage direction to indicate that two or moreperformers leave the stage

exogenous, adj. produced from without; external to a group

ex parte from or on one side only, with the other side absent or unrepresented(Latin)

explanandum, n. the thing to be explained (Latin)

explanantia, n. pl. < explanans, n. the explaining element in an explanation; theexplanatory premisses (Latin)

extancy, n. < extant, adj. continuing to exist; that has escaped the ravages of time,still existing

ex tempore extemporaneously (Latin)

extirpate, v. to pull up or out by or as if by the roots or stem; pluck out; root out

façade, n. a superficial appearance or illusion of something

factitious, adj. produced artificially or by special effort (as for a particularsituation)

facultatively, adv. < facultative, adj. optional

faiblesse, n. weakness (French)

falsetto, n. a forced voice of a range or register above the natural

fatigued, adj. hackneyed; stale, as a joke, phrase, or sermon

fatuity, n. smug stupidity; utter foolishness; something that is utterly stupid or silly

fatuous, adj. marked by want of intelligence and rational consideration; esp.marked by futile ill-founded hope or desire, by witless complacent disregard ofreality, or by inane lack of consideration

faux, adj. resembling something else that is usually genuine and of better quality;not real (French)

438 Master Glossary

fee simple, n. a freehold estate of inheritance in land or hereditaments that may lastforever and may be inherited by all classes of both lineal and collateral heirs ofan individual owner or grantee

fee tail, n. an estate in fee granted to a person and his issue or a designated class ofhis issue that is subject to the possibility of reversion if there is no such issue orno alternative gift to a designated person in case there is no such issue, that issubject under modern statutes to being converted into a fee simple absolute bythe owner's barring the entail by executing a deed in his lifetime or to beingconverted to other types of estates more in harmony with present socialconditions

fellow, n. that which makes a pair with something else

Fennicist, n. specialist in Finnish and Finno-Ugric philology

figural, adj. pertaining to figures of speech and their action (= figuration)

figurational, adj. < figuration, n. < figure, v. to symbolize (as a figure of speech)

figuratively, adv. < figurative, adj. transferred in sense from literal or plain toabstract or hypothetical (as by the expression of one thing in terms of anotherwith which it can be regarded as analogous)

filler, n. a short word or phrase that is largely devoid of meaning and has mostly aphatic function

fillip, n. a spur or impetus; an embellishment that excites or stimulates

finesse, n. fineness or delicacy especially of workmanship, structure, texture, orflavor

Finno-Ugric , adj. of, relating to, characteristic of, or constituting the Finno-Ugriclanguages

flap, n. a sound articulated by a single, quick touch of the tongue against the teethor alveolar ridge, as [t] in water

flat vowel the vowel a as pronounced in bad or cat

flummoxer, n. < flummox, v. to throw into perplexity; embarrass greatly

folk etymology the popular perversion of the form of words in order to render itapparently significant

fons et origo source and origin (Latin)

foot, n. a unit of poetic meter consisting of stressed and unstressed syllables in anyof various set combinations

foreground, v. to place in or bring to the foreground; esp. to give prominence oremphasis to

forename, n. first (given) name

Master Glossary 439

forma mentis form of thought (Latin)

formulaic, adj. < formula, n. a set form of words for use in a ceremony or ritual

fortis, adj. ‘strong’ (Latin), opposed to lenis ‘soft’

frac, n. cutaway (French)

freehold, n. a tenure of real property by which an estate of inheritance in fee simpleor fee tail or for life is held

Frenchification, n. < Frenchify, v. to make French in qualities, traits, or typicalideas or practices; to make superficially or spuriously French in qualities oractions

Freudian slip a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief,thought, or emotion

fricative, adj., n. consonant, such as f or s in English, produced by the forcing ofbreath through a constricted passage

frisson, n. a moment of intense excitement; a shudder (French)

front, v. to cause (a sound) to be pronounced farther toward the front of the oralcavity

front, adj. designating vowels produced at or toward the front of the oral cavity,such as the vowels of green and get

fulsome, adj. exceeding the bounds of good taste

fundament, n. an underlying ground or theory; basic principle

gainsay, v. to deny, speak against, contradict

gambit, n. a remark or comment designed to launch a conversation or to make atelling point

gargantuan, adj. of tremendous size or volume

gavotte, n. music for a French peasant dance of Baroque origin in moderately quickduple meter

Geekish, n. the jargon of geeks (nonce word)

genealogy, n. an account or history of the descent of a person, family, or groupfrom an ancestor or ancestors or from older forms

generative, adj. [= transformational] pertaining to a grammatical theory thatgenerates the deep structures of a language and relates these to the surfacestructures by means of transformations

genitive, adj. of, relating to, or being the grammatical case expressing possession,measurement, or source

440 Master Glossary

gestalt, n. a structure or configuration of physical, biological, or psychologicalphenomena so integrated as to constitute a functional unit with properties notderivable from its parts in summation (German)

gesunkenes Kulturgut ‘buried cultural patrimony’ (German)

girlize, v. ‘render as by, or to resemble, a girl’ (nonce word)

glide, n. the transitional sound produced by passing from the articulatory positionof one speech sound to that of another, specifically a sound that has the qualityof one of the high vowels, and that functions as a consonant before or aftervowels, as the initial sounds of yell and well and the final sounds of coy and cow

gloss, n. a comment, explanation, interpretation

glottal, adj. < glottis, n. the opening between the vocal cords at the upper part ofthe larynx

go-between, n. one who promotes a love affair especially by carrying messages andarranging meetings; one who negotiates a marriage

govern, v. to require (a word) to be in a certain case or mood

government, n. the influence of a word over the morphological inflection ofanother word in a phrase or sentence

gradience, n. the property of being continuously variable between two(esp. apparently disjunct) values, categories, etc.; an instance of this property, acontinuum

grading, adj. < grade, v. to determine the grades or degrees of

grandiloquent, adj. marked by a lofty, extravagantly colorful, pompous, orbombastic style, manner, or quality especially in language

grapheme, n. the class of letters and other visual symbols that represent a phonemeor cluster of phonemes

gratias otiosae sunt odiosae ‘otiose thanks are odious’ (Latin)

grave versus acute a phonological distinctive feature of vowels and obstruents

gravid, adj. made larger or increased beyond a due, expected, or reasonableproportion

hackneyed, adj. used so frequently and indiscriminately as to have lost its fresh-ness and interest; made trite and commonplace; stale

haecceity, n. what makes something to be an ultimate reality different from anyother

handmaiden, n. something whose essential function is to serve and assist

head, adj. < head, n. occurring at the head (beginning) of a construction

Master Glossary 441

hegemony, n. preponderant influence or authority

“Heiße Magister, heiße Doktor gar” (Goethe, Faust, Pt. 1, “Night”) ‘I’m calledMaster [of Arts], and Doctor [of Philosophy] too’ (German)

hereditament, n. heritable property: lands, tenements, any property corporeal orincorporeal, real, personal, or mixed, that may descend to an heir

hermeneutic, adj. < hermeneutics, n. the study of the methodological principles ofinterpretation and explanation

heterogeneity, n. the quality or state of being heterogeneous

heterolingual, adj. of or relating to the use of different languages within oneutterance or discourse

heteronomous, adj. subject to an external law

hieratic, adj. of or associated with sacred persons or offices; sacerdotal

high, adj. of or relating to vowels produced with part of the tongue close to thepalate, as in the vowel of tree

Hippocratic, adj. < Hippocrates, n. Greek physician who laid the foundations ofscientific medicine by freeing medical study from the constraints of philo-sophical speculation and superstition

hirsute, adj. of or pertaining to hair; of the nature of or consisting of hair

hominid, n. any of a family (Hominidae) of erect bipedal primate mammals thatincludes recent humans together with extinct ancestral and related forms and insome recent classifications the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orangutan

homo abducans ‘abducing man [nonce phrase]’ (Latin)

homo figurans ‘figurational man’ (Latin)

homo habilis ‘handy/skillful man’

homologous, adj. < homology, n. a similarity

homo loquens ‘talking man’ (Latin)

homophony, n. < homophonic, adj. having the same sound

homorganic, adj. sharing one or more of the articulating vocal organs; articulatedwith the same basic closure or constriction but differentiated by one or moremodifications

homo sapiens ‘wise or knowing man’ (Latin)

honorific, adj. of a title, form of address, or linguistic form given or used as a markof respect

horror silentii ‘fear of silence’ (Latin)

442 Master Glossary

horror vacui ‘fear of empty spaces’ (Latin)

hushing, adj. pertaining to a lower-pitch sibilant sound similar to a sustained sh

Husserl, Edmund German-Jewish phenomenologist (1859–1938)

hypercorrection, n. an alteration of a speech habit on the basis of a false analogy(as when between you and I is used by one who is substituting it is I for it is meor when [ˈfiŋə(r)] is used for finger by one who is attempting to be rid ofpronunciations like [ˈsiŋgə(r)] for singer)

hypermetrical, adj. having one or more (stressed) syllables beyond those normal tothe meter

hyperplasia, n. an abnormal increase in the number of cells in an organ or a tissuewith consequent enlargement

hypertrophic, adj. < hypertrophy, n. an inordinate or pathological enlargement

hyperurbanism, n. a pronunciation or grammatical form or usage produced by aspeaker of one dialect according to an analogical rule formed by comparison ofthe speaker’s own usage with that of another, more prestigious, dialect and oftenapplied in an inappropriate context, especially in an effort to avoid soundingcountrified, rural, or provincial; hypercorrection

hypocorism, n. a name of endearment; a pet name

hypocoristic, adj. endearing; belong to affective vocabulary

hypostasis, n. a reified abstraction

hypotaxis, n. the dependent or subordinate relationship of clauses with connectives

iambic, adj. < iamb, n. a metrical foot consisting of an unstressed syllable fol-lowed by a stressed syllable or a short syllable followed by a long syllable, as indelay

icon, n. (in Peirce’s sign theory) an image; a representation, specifically, a signrelated to its object by similarity

iconism, n. = iconicity, n. < iconic, adj. < icon, n. the conceived similarity oranalogy between the form of a sign (linguistic or otherwise) and its meaning

idée fixe a fixed idea; an obsession (French)

idem, pron. the same

idiolectal, adj. < idiolect, n. the speech of an individual, considered as a linguisticpattern unique among speakers of his or her language or dialect

idiomaticity, n. < idiomatic, adj. < idiom, n. an expression established in the usageof a language that is peculiar to itself either in grammatical construction (as no, itwasn't me) or in having a meaning that cannot be derived as a whole from theconjoined meanings of its elements (as Monday week for “the Monday a week

Master Glossary 443

after next Monday”; many a for “many taken distributively”; had better for“might better”; how are you? for “what is the state of your health or feelings?”)

idiomatization, n. < idiomatize, v. make into an idiom

idiosyncratic, adj. < idiosyncrasy, n. a structural or behavioral characteristicpeculiar to an individual or group; a physiological or temperamental peculiarity

illocutionary, adj. pertaining to a linguistic act performed by a speaker in pro-ducing an utterance, as suggesting, warning, promising, or requesting

illud tempus a mythical or paradisiacal time before time existed (Latin)

illusionist, n. a ventriloquist or sleight-of-hand performer or magician

immanent, adj. existing or operating within; inherent

imperative, n. of, relating to, or being the grammatical mood that expresses the willto influence the behavior of another (as in a command, entreaty, or exhortation)

imperfective, adj. of, related to, or being the aspect that expresses the actiondenoted by the verb without regard to its beginning or completion

impetigo, n. a contagious bacterial skin infection, usually of children, that ischaracterized by the eruption of superficial pustules and the formation of thickyellow crusts, commonly on the face (Latin)

implicature, n. the act or an instance of (intentionally) implying a meaning whichcan be inferred from an utterance in conjunction with its conversational orsemantic context, but is neither explicitly expressed nor logically entailed by thestatement itself; a meaning that is implied contextually, but is neither entailedlogically nor stated explicitly

inanition, n. the condition or quality of being empty

incipiency, n. > incipient, adj. beginning; commencing; coming into, or in an earlystage of, existence; in an initial stage

incision, n. the effect of cutting into something; a division produced by cutting

inculcate, v. to teach and impress by frequent repetitions or admonitions

indecorous, adj. not proper; conflicting with accepted standards of propriety orgood taste or good breeding

indexical, adj. < index, n. a sign that is related to its object (meaning) by conti-guity; something (such as a manner of speaking or acting or a distinctivephysical feature) in another person or thing that leads an observer to surmise aparticular fact or draw a particular conclusion

indicative, adj. that points out, states, or declares; applied to that mood of a verb ofwhich the essential function is to state a relation of objective fact between the

444 Master Glossary

subject and predicate (as opposed to a relation merely conceived, thought of, orwished, by the speaker)

indirection, n. Indirect movement or action; a devious or circuitous course to someend; round-about means or method

individualism, n. an individual characteristic; a quirk

individuation, n. < individuate, v. to give an individual character to; to distinguishfrom others of the same kind; to individualize; to single out, to specify

induction, n. the process of inferring a general law or principle from the obser-vation of particular instances

ineluctable, adj. unavoidable, inescapable

infantilistic, adj. < infantilism, n. a condition of being abnormally childlike; aretention of childish physical, mental, or emotional qualities in adult life

inflected, adj. modified by inflection [vide infra]

inflectional, adj. < inflection, n. an alteration of the form of a word by the additionof an affix, as in English dogs from dog, or by changing the form of a base, as inEnglish spoke from speak, that indicates grammatical features such as number,person, mood, or tense

in potentia ‘in potentiality’; potentially (Latin)

insinuate, v. to impart or communicate with artful indirect wording or obliquereference and without direct or forthright expression

insouciantly, adv. < insouciant, adj. marked by blithe unconcern; nonchalant

instantiation, n. < instantiate, v. to represent (an abstraction or universal) by aconcrete instance

in statu nascendi ‘in the state of being born’; in the nascent state; in the course ofbeing formed or developed (Latin)

instrumental, adj. of, relating to, or being a case in grammar expressing means oragency

intentionality, n. the quality or state of being intentional; specifically, the char-acteristic of being conscious of intending an object

inter alia ‘among other things’ (Latin)

intercalation, n. < intercalate, v. to insert between or among existing elements

interdental, adj. formed with the tip of the tongue protruded between the upperand lower front teeth

interlard, v. to insert between; mix, mingle; esp. to introduce something that isforeign or irrelevant into

Master Glossary 445

interlingual, adj. of, relating to, or involving two or more languages

interpolation, n. < interpolate, v. to insert between other things or parts

interpretant, n. a sign or set of signs that interprets another sign; the response orreaction to a sign

interrogative, adj. having the form or the force of a question

intervocalically, adv. < intervocalic, adj. occurring between vowels

intonational, adj. < intonation, n. the use of changing pitch to convey syntacticinformation

intransitive, adj. designating a verb or verb construction that does not require orcannot take a direct object, as snow or sleep

intransitivity, n. < intransitive, adj. designating a verb or verb construction thatdoes not require or cannot take a direct object

introversive, adj. < introversion, n. the act of directing one’s attention toward orgetting gratification from one’s own interests, thoughts, and feelings

ipso facto ‘by the fact itself’; by that very fact (Latin)

ironize, v. to use irony: speak or behave ironically

irrefragably, adv. < irrefragable, adj. impossible to refute or controvert;indisputable

irreversible, adj. not capable of or lending itself to being reversed

isogloss, n. geographic boundary line delimiting the area in which a given lin-guistic feature occurs

isomorphism, n. a one-to-one correspondence between the form of two items orcontexts; strict parallelism of form

James, n. William James (1842–1910), American psychologist and philosopher

jejune, adj. devoid of interest or significance; dull, flat, inane, vapid

jocular, adj. said or done in joke; of, containing, or of the character of a joke

juncture, n. the manner of transition between two consecutive speech sounds orbetween a speech sound and a pause

knight-errant, n. a wandering knight; esp. one traveling at random in search ofadventures in which to exhibit military skill, prowess, and generosity

krepier, v. ‘to die’ (Yiddish)

lacuna, n. a missing part; gap, hole

lambaste, v. to assault violently; beat, pound, whip

446 Master Glossary

lapidary, adj. having the elegance and precision associated with inscriptions onstone

lapsus linguae slip of the tongue (Latin)

larynx, n. voice box, vocal cords

lascivious, adj. tending to arouse sexual desire

Latinate, adj. of, derived from, or suggestive of Latin

lax, adj. of a speech sound: produced with the muscles involved in a relativelyrelaxed state (the English vowels [i] and [u ̇] in contrast with the vowels [ē] and[ü] are lax)

laxing, n. < lax, adj. Latin lenis ‘soft’, opposed to fortis ‘strong’ (vide infra undertense vs. lax)

leitmotif, n. something resembling a musical leitmotiv (as a word or phrase, anemotion, an idea) that is repeated again and again; a dominant recurring theme

lenis, adj. ‘soft’ (Latin), opposed to fortis ‘strong’

lenited, adj. < lenite, v. cause lenition (vide infra)

lenition, n. laxing; production of a lax sound

lentigo, n. a small, flat, pigmented spot on the skin (Latin)

lento, adj. in a slow tempo (Italian)

letzten Endes ‘in the end’, in the final analysis (German)

lexeme, n. a meaningful speech form that is an item of the vocabulary of alanguage

lexicalized, adj. < lexicalization, n. the treatment of a formerly freely composed,grammatically regular, and semantically transparent phrase or inflected form as aformally or semantically idiomatic expression

lexically, adv. < lexical, adj. of or relating to words, word formatives, or thevocabulary of a language as distinguished from its grammar and construction

lexicon, n., pl. lexica the words of a language considered as a group

lexis, n. vocabulary, word-stock

license, n. excessive liberty; abuse of freedom; disregard of law or propriety; aninstance of this

limn, v. to describe or portray in symbols (as words or notes)

lingua franca a medium of communication between peoples of different languages(Italian ‘Frankish tongue’)

Master Glossary 447

liquid, adj., n. a consonant articulated without friction and capable of being pro-longed like a vowel, such as English l and r

literalist, n. one that advocates or practices literalism, viz. adherence to the explicitsubstance of an idea or expression

locative, adj., n. belonging to or being a grammatical case that denotes place or theplace where or wherein

locus, n. a center or source, as of activities or power

lower, v. to be dark, gloomy, and threatening

macaronic, adj. characterized by a mixture of two or more languages

maladroitness, n. < maladroit, adj. revealing a lack of perception, judgment, orfinesse

malapropism, n. ludicrous misuse of a word, especially by confusion with one ofsimilar sound

malefactor, n. one who commits an offense against the law; one who does illtoward another

malgré lui in spite of himself (French)

manus manum lavat one hand washes the other (Latin)

marked, adj. < markedness, n. the evaluative superstructure of all semiotic(‘sign-theoretic’) oppositions, as well as the theory of such a superstructure,characterized in terms of the values ‘marked’ (conceptually restricted) and‘unmarked’ (conceptually unrestricted); of or relating to that member of a pair ofsounds, words, or forms that explicitly denotes a particular subset of themeanings denoted by the other member of the pair. For example, of the twowords lion and lioness, lion is unmarked for gender (it can denote either a maleor female) whereas lioness is marked, since it denotes only females

marriage portion, n. dowry

mass noun a noun characteristically denoting in many languages a homogeneoussubstance or a concept without subdivisions (as sand, butter, beer, accuracydistinguished from a grain of sand, a pat of butter, a glass of beer, a degree ofaccuracy), having in this usage in English only the singular form, and precededin indefinite constructions by some rather than a or an

media, adj., pl. mediae ‘intermediate in degree of aspiration’ (Latin)

medial, adj. being a sound, syllable, or letter occurring between the initial and finalpositions in a word or morpheme morpheme, n., a meaningful linguistic unitconsisting of a word, such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, thatcannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts

mélange, n. mixture (French)

448 Master Glossary

meliorative, adj. < meliorate, v. to make better or more tolerable

metagrammatical, adj. < metagrammar, n. a formal grammar that describes a setof possible grammars

metalanguage, n. a language or vocabulary used to describe or analyze language

metalinguistic, adj. of or relating to a metalanguage

metanalysis, n. the reinterpretation of the form of a word resulting in the creationof a new word; esp. the changing of the boundaries between words or mor-phological units

metaphonological, adj. transcending phonology

metaphoric, adj. < metaphor, n. a figure of speech in which a name or descriptiveword or phrase is transferred to an object or action different from, but analogousto, that to which it is literally applicable; an instance of this, a metaphoricalexpression

metaphorize, v. make or turn into a metaphor

metathetic, adj. < metathesis, n. transposition within a word of letters, sounds, orsyllables, as in the change from Old English brid to modern English bird or inthe confusion of modren for modern

metonymic, adj, < metonymy, n. (a figure of speech characterized by) the action ofsubstituting for a word or phrase denoting an object, action, institution, etc., aword or phrase denoting a property or something associated with it; an instanceof this

metonymization, n. < metonymize, v. make into or become a metonymy

metrical, adj. < meter, n. systematically arranged and measured rhythm in verse

metricist, n. a specialist in the study of metrics (versification)

milieu, n., pl. milieux the physical or social setting in which something occurs ordevelops (French)

mimetic, adj. using imitative means of representation

mimic, v. to copy or imitate very closely especially in external characteristics

mimicry, n. the action, practice, or art of copying or closely imitating; esp. imita-tion of the speech or mannerisms of another in order to entertain or ridicule

mirabile dictu ‘wonderful to relate’ (Latin)

mír práxu eë ‘may peace be on her remains’ (Russian); cf. םולשההילע (alehaha-shalom) ‘may peace be upon her’ (Hebrew); olevasholem (Yiddish)

Master Glossary 449

mode/mood, n. the grammatical category embodying the distinction of form in averb to express whether the action or state it denotes is conceived as fact or insome other manner (as command, possibility, or wish)

mollify, v. to soothe in temper or disposition

momenta medica ‘medical moments’ (Latin)

monolingual, adj. knowing or able to speak only one language

monophthongal, adj. < monophthong, n. a single vowel articulated withoutchange in quality throughout the course of a syllable, as the vowel of Englishbed

morae, pl., n. < mora, n. the minimal unit of quantitative measure in temporalprosodic systems equivalent in the time value to an average short syllable; such aunit used in linguistic analysis especially with reference to vowel quantity

morphea scleroderma a disorder characterized by thickening and induration(‘hardening’) of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (Latin)

morphemic, adj. < morpheme a meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word,such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, that cannot be dividedinto smaller meaningful parts

morphological, adj. < morphology, n. the system or the study of (linguistic) form;a study and description of word-formation in a language including inflection,derivation, and compounding; the system of word-forming elements and pro-cesses in a language

morphophonemic, adj. < morphophonemics, n. the changes in pronunciationundergone by allomorphs of morphemes as they are modified by neighboringsounds, as the plural allomorphs in cat-s, dog-s, box-es, or as they are modifiedfor grammatical reasons in the course of inflection or derivation, as house versusto house and housing

motive, adj. of or relating to motion or the causing of motion

mot juste ‘exactly the right word’ (French)

multifarious, adj. having great diversity or variety

multiply, adv. in a multiple manner; in several or many ways

mutatis mutandis with the necessary changes; with due alteration of details (Latin)

name day the day of the saint whose name one bears

narratorial, adj. pertaining to a narrator or the structure of a narrative

nasal, adj., n. articulated by lowering the soft palate so that air resonates in thenasal cavities and passes out the nose, as in the pronunciation of the consonantsm, n, and ng or the nasalized vowel of French bon; a nasal consonant

450 Master Glossary

nasalization, n. < nasalize, v. to make nasal or produce nasal sounds

NB, abbrev. nota bene ‘note well’ (Latin)

nec plus ultra the highest point, as of excellence or achievement; the ultimate(Latin)

necropolis, n. a cemetery, especially a large and elaborate one belonging to anancient city

neologism, n. < neology, n. the use of a new word or expression or of an estab-lished word in a new or different sense; the use of new expressions that are notsanctioned by conventional standard usage; the introduction of such expressionsinto a language

neophyte, n. a young or inexperienced practitioner or student

neostructuralism, n. a new linguistic theory based on Peirce’s whole philosophy(esp. his sign theory) and supersedes traditional structuralism

ne plus ultra the highest point capable of being reached or attained; the summit ofachievement (Latin)

neutralization, n.< neutralize, v. to suspend an opposition, such that only one ofthe two terms of the opposition represents both terms

nexus, n. connection, interconnection, tie, link

ninepins, n. a bowling game in which nine wooden pins are the target

noisome, adj. offensive to the smell or other senses

nominal, adj. pertaining to nouns and adjectives

nominalism, n. the doctrine that things denominated by the same term sharenothing except that fact; the view that such terms are mere names without anycorresponding reality

nominalization, n. < nominalize, v. to convert (another part of speech) into a noun,as in changing the adjective lowly into the lowly or the verb legalize intolegalization

nomina propria proper nouns (Latin)

nomina sunt odiosa names are odious (Latin)

nominative, adj. of, relating to, or being the case of the subject of a finite verb (asI in I wrote the letter) and of words identified with the subject of a copula, suchas a predicate nominative

nonce, n. the one, particular, or present occasion, purpose, or use

nonce word a word created ‘for the nonce/occasion’

Master Glossary 451

non-compact, adj. a phonological distinctive feature value represented acousti-cally in a relatively non-central region of the auditory spectrum and a lowerconcentration of energy (opposed to compact [vide supra])

nonpareil, adj. having no equal; peerless (French)

nota bene ‘note well’ (Latin)

notionally, adv. < notional, adj. of a thing, a relation, etc., not substantially oractually existent; existing only in thought

nucleus, n. the part of a syllable having the greatest sonority

nullity, n. the state of being null or nothing; want of efficacy or force; nothingness

objective, adj. relating to, characteristic of, or being the case which follows a verbused transitively or a preposition; being the case that denotes the relation ofobject

oblique, adj. any grammatical case but the nominative or vocative (called direct)

obsolescent, adj. going out of use; falling into disuse especially as unable tocompete with something more recent

obstruent, n. a sound that is produced with complete blockage or at least partialconstriction of the airflow through the nose or mouth; a true consonant

occlusion, n. closure at some point in the vocal tract that blocks the flow of air inthe production of an oral or nasal stop

octave, n. a poem or stanza containing eight lines

odious, adj. < odium, n. the state or fact of being subjected to widespread or deephatred and severe condemnation and often loathing or contempt usually as aresult of a despicable act or blameworthy situation

oeuvre, n. a substantial body of work constituting the lifework of a writer, an artist,or a composer (French)

offglide, n. a glide produced by the movement of the vocal organs from thearticulatory position of a speech sound to a position of inactivity or to thearticulatory position of an immediately following speech sound

onomastic, adj. of, relating to, or explaining a name or names

onomastically, adv. < onomastic, adj. < onomastics, n. the science or study of theorigin and forms of proper names of persons or places

onomatopoeia, n. formation of words in imitation of natural sounds: the naming ofa thing or action by a more or less exact reproduction of the sound associatedwith it (as buzz, hiss, bobwhite); the imitative or echoic principle in language

onset, n. the part of a syllable that precedes the nucleus

452 Master Glossary

ontological, adj. < ontology, n. the science or study of being; that branch ofmetaphysics concerned with the nature or essence of being or existence

opacity, n. < opaque, adj. hard to understand, solve, or explain; not simple, clear,or lucid

open, adj. pronounced with a relatively wide opening of the mouth and the tongueheld low in it

orthoepic, adj. < orthoepy, n. the study of the pronunciation of words; the cus-tomary pronunciation of words

orthographically, adv. < orthographic, adj. < orthography, n. a method of rep-resenting the sounds of a language by written or printed symbols

otiose, adj. lacking use or effect; superfluous

pace, prep. with the permission of; with deference to; used to express polite orironically polite disagreement (Latin)

palatal, adj. produced with the front of the tongue near or against the hard palate,as the [y] in English young; produced with the blade of the tongue near the hardpalate, as the [ch] in English chin

palatalization, n. < palatalize, v. to modify the utterance of (a nonpalatal sound)by simultaneously bringing the front of the tongue to or near the hard palate[vide infra]

palate, n. the roof of the mouth in vertebrates having a complete or partial sepa-ration of the oral and nasal

palette, n. the range of qualities inherent in nongraphic art forms such as music andliterature

Pale of Settlement geographic area in Czarist Russia where Jews were allowed tolive (translation of R чepтa oceдлocти)

palliate, v. to reduce the violence of (a disease); cause to lessen or abate; easewithout curing

pamplemousse, n. grapefruit (French)

panchronic, adj. designating or relating to a linguistic structure or theory that maybe applied to all languages at all stages of their development

paradigm, n. a set or list of all the inflectional forms of a word or of one of itsgrammatical categories

paradigmatic, adj. pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that cansubstitute for each other in a given context, as the relationship of sun in The sunis shining to other nouns, as moon, star, or light, that could substitute for it inthat sentence, or of is shining to was shining, shone, will shine, etc., as well as tois rising, is setting, etc.

Master Glossary 453

paragogic, adj, < paragoge, n. the addition of a letter or syllable to a word, eitherin the course of a word's historical development, or (in certain languages, such asHebrew) to add emphasis or modify the meaning

paralinguistic, adj. < paralinguistics, n. the study of optional vocal effects (suchas tone of voice) that accompany or modify speech and may communicatemeaning

parallelism, n. resemblance, correspondence, similarity between two entities orgroups

parataxis, n. the juxtaposition of clauses or phrases without the use of coordinatingor subordinating conjunctions

parodic, adj. < parody, n. a form or situation showing imitation that is faithful to adegree but that is weak, ridiculous, or distorted

paroemic, adj. of the nature of a proverb; proverbial

paroemics, n. the stock of, and study of, proverbs in a given language

paronomastic, adj. < paronomasia, n. a play upon words in which the same wordis used in different senses or words similar in sound are set in opposition so as togive antithetical force

passivization, n. < passivize, v. turn an active verb into its passive counterpart

patency, n. < patent, adj. open to view; readily visible or intelligible

patently, adv. < patent, adj. readily visible or intelligible; obvious

pater, n. father (usu. jocular)

patois, n. a variety of language specific to a particular area, nationality, etc., whichis considered to differ from the standard or orthodox version

patrial, n. the word for the name of a country or place and used to denote a nativeor inhabitant of it

patrimony, n. an inheritance from the past

patronymic, n. a name derived from that of a father or male ancestor, esp. byaddition of an affix indicating such descent; a family name

Peircean, adj. < Peirce, n. Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), American logi-cian and scientist; founder of the modern theory of signs and of pragmatism

pejorative, adj. having a tendency to make or become worse; depreciatory,disparaging

penchant, n. a definite liking; a strong inclination

pendant a supplement or consequence (French)

pentasyllable, n. a word consisting of five syllables

454 Master Glossary

penultimate, adj. next to last

perambulate, v. to cover ground at a leisurely pace

perdure, v. to continue to exist

peregrination, n. he action or an act of travelling or going from place to place

perfective, adj. of, related to, or being the aspect that expresses the completion orthe result of the action denoted by the verb

performative, adj. designating or relating to an utterance that effects an action bybeing spoken or by means of which the speaker performs a particular act

perfunctoriness, n. < perfunctory, adj. characterized by routine or superficiality;done merely as a duty

peripeteia, n., pl. a sudden change of events or reversal of circumstances, espe-cially in a literary work

persona, n. the social front, facade, or mark an individual assumes to depict to theworld at large the role in life that he is playing

perspicuous, adj. capable of being clearly and readily understood; plain to theunderstanding

petrification, n. < petrify, v. to make lifeless or inactive

phatic, adj. of, relating to, or being speech used to share feelings or to establish amood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas

phenomenalism, n. a mode of thought which considers things from a phenomenalviewpoint, or as phenomena only; the metaphysical theory or belief that (actualor possible) phenomena are the only objects of knowledge, or the only realities

phonation, n. the act or process of producing speech sounds

phonemically, adv. < phonemic, adj. < phoneme, n. the smallest phonetic unit ina language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning, as the m of matand the b of bat in English

phonetic, adj. < phonetics, n. the study and systematic classification of the soundsmade in spoken utterance as they are produced by the organs of speech and asthey register on the ear and on instruments

phonetic, adj. of, relating to, or being features of pronunciation that are notphonemically distinctive in a language, as aspiration of consonants or vowellength in English; pertaining to phonetics, i.e., the study of speech sounds fromthe acoustic or articulatory point of view

phonic, adj. of, relating to, or having the nature of sound, especially speech sounds

Master Glossary 455

phonological, adj. < phonology, n. the study of speech sounds in language or alanguage with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rulesgoverning pronunciation

phonostylistic, adj. < phonostylistics, n. the study of the stylistic implications ofphonetic variation, or, more generally, of different kinds of sounds

phonotactic, adj. < phonotactics, n. the branch of linguistics concerned with therules governing the possible phoneme sequences in a language or languages;these rules as they occur in a particular language

phraseological, adj. < phraseology, n. the selection or arrangement of words andphrases in the expression of ideas; manner or style of expression; the particularlanguage, terminology, or diction which characterizes a writer, work, subject,language, place, etc

phraseologism, n. typical modes of expression that assemble words in order tosignify something that is not limited to the sum of the meanings of the singlewords that compose them

physiognomic< physiognomy, n. the mental, moral, philosophical, or politicalaspect of something as an indication of its character; characteristic aspect

pidgin, n. a form of speech that usually has a simplified grammar and a limitedoften mixed vocabulary and is used principally for intergroup communication

pitch, n. a prominence or emphasis given to a word, syllable, or mora by itsdifference in pitch from its immediate surroundings

platitudinous, adj, < platitude, n. a thought or remark that is flat, dull, trite, orweak : a dull, stale, or insipid truism

plebes, n. the general populace; ordinary people

plenitude, n. a more than ample amount or number; great sufficiency; abundance

pleonastic, adj. < pleonasm, n. the use of more words in a sentence or clause thanare necessary to express the meaning; redundancy of expression either as a faultof style, or as a rhetorical figure used for emphasis or clarity. Also: an instance ofthis; a superfluously worded expression or phrase

pleophonic, adj. (In the East Slavic languages) a type of vowel duplicationwhereby the sequences -oro-, -olo-, and -ere- have developed from earlier-ra-, -la-, -le-, and -re- occurring between consonants; the process of develop-ment of this phenomenon

plosive, adj. of, relating to, or being a speech sound produced by complete closureof the oral passage and subsequent release accompanied by a burst of air, as inthe sound [p] in pit or [d] in dog

plurale tantum ‘occurring only in the plural’ (Latin)

456 Master Glossary

pluriverbation, n. the transformation of one word into a phrase

Pninesque, adj. resembling the eponymous character in Vladimir Nabokov’s(best) novel, Pnin

politesse, n formal and cultivated politeness; decorousness (< French)

polyphonic, adj. < polyphony, n. a style of musical composition employing two ormore simultaneous but relatively independent melodic lines

polyptoton the stylistic scheme in which words derived from the same root arerepeated (e.g. “strong” and “strength”)

polysyllable, n. a word containing more than one syllable

pons asinorum ‘bridge of fools [asses]’ (Latin); the fifth proposition of the firstbook of Euclid’s Elements, which states that the angles at the base of an isoscelestriangle are equal

portionless, adj. having no dowry or inheritance

portmanteau, n. a word that is composed of parts of two words (such as chortlefrom chuckle and snort), all of one word and part of another (such as bookmobilefrom book and automobile), or two entire words and that is characterizedinvariably in the latter case and frequently in the two former cases by singleoccurrence of one or more sounds or letters that appear in both the componentwords (such as motel from motor hotel, camporee from camp and jamboree,aniseed from anise seed) (French)

postbiotic, adj. pertaining to the period following the appearance of life

postposition, n. a word or element placed postpositionally, as a preposition placedafter its object

post-tonic, adj. occurring after the stressed syllable

post-vocalic, adj. following a vowel

potpourri, n. a general mixture of often disparate or unrelated materials or subjectmatter (French)

pragmatistic, adj. < pragmatism, n. an American movement in philosophyfounded by Peirce and James and marked by the doctrines that the meaning ofconceptions is to be sought in their practical bearings, that the function ofthought is as a guide to action, and that the truth is preeminently to be tested bythe practical consequences of belief

prandial, adj. of or relating to a meal

praxis, n. the rhetorical or performative aspect of language; speech as an action

preciosity, n. extreme meticulousness or overrefinement, as in language, taste, orstyle

Master Glossary 457

predication, n. < predicate, v. to express an action, state, or quality by a gram-matical predicate

predicative, adj. of or belonging to the predicate of a sentence or clause

predilection, n. a preference or particular liking for something; a bias in favor ofsomething; a predisposition, a proclivity; also: the fact of having such a liking orpreference

prefix, n. an affix, such as dis- in disbelieve, attached to the front of a word toproduce a derivative word or an inflected form

prescriptivist, adj. < prescriptivism, n. the support or promotion of prescriptivegrammar

preterit, adj. of, relating to, or being the verb tense that describes a past action orstate

pretonic, adj. occurring before the stressed syllable

pristine, adj. unspoilt by human interference, untouched; pure

privative, adj. a word denoting the negation of a quality otherwise inherent

probity, n. uncompromising adherence to the highest principles and ideals;unimpeachable integrity

prolixity, n. < prolix, adj. unduly prolonged or drawn out; diffuse, repetitious,verbose

promiscuousness, n. < promiscuous, adj. indiscriminate, careless

propensity, n. a natural inclination; innate or inherent tendency

propitiation, n. < propitiate, v. to appease and make favorable

proprioception, n. the unconscious perception of movement and spatial orientationarising from stimuli within the body itself

prosodic, adj. < prosody, n. a suprasegmental phonological feature such as into-nation and stress; also: such features collectively; the patterns of stress andintonation in a language

prosopopoeia, n. personification

protensity, n. category of phonological distinctive features comprising the acousticopposition tense versus lax, defined by the longer (vs. reduced) duration of thesteady state portion of the sound, and its sharper defined resonance regions in thespectrum

prothesis, n. the addition of a letter or syllable, usually at the beginning of a word

provenience, n. origin

458 Master Glossary

psyche, n. the whole conscious and unconscious mind, esp. when viewed asdeciding or determining motivation, emotional response, and other psycholog-ical characteristics

punctilious, adj. marked by exact accordance with the details of codes orconventions

purlieu, n. a place where one may range at large; confines or bounds

purport, n. meaning conveyed, professed, or implied

purview, n. the range or limit of authority, competence, responsibility, concern, orintention

putative, adj. commonly accepted or supposed; reputed

QED < quod erat demonstrandum ‘which was to be demonstrated’ (Latin)

quadrisyllabic, adj. containing four syllables

quantité négligeable an insignificant or inconsequential factor; a matter of noaccount (French)

quasi-, adv. as if; as it were; in a manner; in some sense or degree

quasi-paronomastic, adj. < paronomasia, n. resembling paronomasia

quaternion, n. a set of four persons or items

quiddity, n. the real nature of a thing; the essence

quién sabe? ‘who knows?’ (Spanish)

quotative, adj. for the purposes of quotation

quotidian, adj. commonplace, ordinary

raison d’être reason for being (French)

ramified, adj. < ramify, v. to separate into divisions or ramifications

realism, n. the doctrine that matter as the object of perception has real existence(natural realism) and is neither reducible to universal mind or spirit nordependent on a perceiving agent

received, adj. generally adopted, accepted, or approved as true, authoritative, orstandard

recherché, adj. rare, choice, exotic (French)

rection, n. grammatical government [vide supra]

recumbent, adj. having a horizontal position; lying down

redivivus ‘revived’; come back to life (Latin)

Master Glossary 459

reduced, adj. < reduction, n. any of various changes in the acoustic quality ofvowels, related to changes in stress, sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, orposition in the word, which makes the reduced vowels shorter as well

reference, n. the action or fact of applying words, names, ideas, etc., to an entity;the relation between a word or expression and that which it denotes; the entity orentities denoted by a word or expression, a referent (freq. contrasted with sense)

referential, adj. containing, denoting, or constituting a reference or meaning

reflex, n. a form or feature that reflects or represents an earlier, often reconstructed,form or feature having undergone phonetic or other change

reflexive, adj. of, relating to, or constituting an action (as in “the witness perjuredhimself” or “I bethought myself”) that is directed back upon the agent or thegrammatical subject

register, n. the range of an instrument or a voice

reify, v. regard (as an abstraction, a mental construction) as a thing: convertmentally into something concrete or objective

réplique, n. a reply, a response (French)

repose, v. to depend or be based on

requiescat in pace ‘rest in peace’ (Latin)

resp., abbrev. respectively

revivification, n. < revivify, v. to impart new life to; cause to revive

rigor mortis rigidity of muscles after death depending in time of onset and durationupon variable factors in the body and in the environment (Latin)

riposte, n. a retaliatory verbal sally; retort (French)

risible, adj. arousing, exciting, or provoking laughter

risus sardonicus ‘sardonic smile’ (Latin), a highly characteristic, abnormal, sus-tained spasm of the facial muscles that appears to produce grinning, most oftenas a sign of tetanus

roomicule, n. a little room (nonce word)

root, n. the element that carries the main component of meaning in a word andprovides the basis from which a word is derived by adding affixes or inflectionalendings or by phonetic change

Russophone, adj. Russian-speaking

rustic, n. one who is rude, coarse, or dull

sandhi, n. modification of the sound of a word or morpheme when juxtaposed withanother, especially in fluent speech, as the modification of the pronunciation of

460 Master Glossary

don’t in don’t you from its pronunciation in isolation or in a phrase like don’t we(Sanskrit)

sans, prep. ‘without’ (French)

sc., adv. scilicet (Latin); used to introduce more detailed information, or to specifya referent: that is to say, to be specific; namely, to wit

scant, v. to give scant attention to; to treat slightingly or inadequately; to neglect,do less than justice to

schwa, n. a mid-central neutral vowel, typically occurring in unstressed syllables,as the final vowel of English sofa; the symbol (ə) used to represent an unstressedneutral vowel and, in some systems of phonetic transcription, a stressedmid-central vowel, as in but

seemliness, n. < seemly, adj. conforming to accepted standards of good form ortaste

segmentally, adv. < segmental, adj. < segment, n. a unit forming part of a con-tinuum of speech or (less commonly) text; an isolable unit in a phonological orsyntactic system: of or relating to (linear) segments of the speech chain

self-fashioning, n. the process of constructing one’s identity and public personaaccording to a set of socially acceptable standards

self-referential, adj. referring to oneself

self-reflexive, adj. disposed to or characterized by self-reflection

semantic, adj. < semantics, n. the study dealing with the relations between signsand what they refer to, the relations between the signs of a system, and humanbehavior in reaction to signs including unconscious attitudes, influences of socialinstitutions, and epistemological and linguistic assumptions

semeiosis, n. = semiosis, n. the process of signification, sign action

semeiotic, n. (Peirce’s) sign theory, any system of signs

semiotically, adv. < semiotic, adj. < semiotic, n. of or pertaining to signs

sensu stricto in the strict sense, strictly speaking (Latin)

sentient, adj. capable of sensation and of at least rudimentary consciousness

sequela, n. a secondary result; consequence (Latin)

sesquipedalianism, n. < sesquipedalian, adj. given to or characterized by the useof long words

set, n. a particular psychological state, usually that of anticipation or preparedness;mental inclination, tendency, or habit

sibilant, n. a sibilant speech sound, such as English s, sh, z, or zh

Master Glossary 461

sic, adv. so; thus (Latin); usually written parenthetically to denote that a word,phrase, passage, etc., that may appear strange or incorrect has been writtenintentionally or has been quoted verbatim

sic transeunt onera mundi ‘thus do the burdens of the world pass [from it]’ (Latin)

sic transit gloria mundi ‘thus passes the glory of the world’ (Latin); a catchphraseexpressing the impermanence of things

sidebar, n. something incidental

sign, n.: sign, adj.: semiotic, adj. pertaining to elements of or any system of signs,defined as anything capable of signifying an object (meaning)

sign-theoretic, adj. pertaining to sign (semiotic) theory

simplex, n. a word or other linguistic unit that has no grammatical morphemes andis not part of a compound

simulacrum, n. something having merely the form or appearance of a certain thing,without possessing its substance or proper qualities

sine qua non somebody or something indispensable (Latin)

singulare tantum ‘having only a singular form’ (Latin)

singulative, adj. < (idem) n. a grammatical form or construction that expresses asingular entity or indicates that an individual is singled out from a group,especially as opposed to a collective noun, as snowflake as opposed to snow

skittles, n. a British form of ninepins, in which a wooden disk or ball is thrown toknock down the pins

slough, n. a depression or hollow, usually filled with deep mud or mire; a state ofdeep despair or moral degradation

slovenliness, n. < slovenly, adj. negligent of neatness and order especially in dressor person

sociolectal, adj. < sociolect, n. a variety of a language that is used by a particularsocial group

soft palate the movable fold, consisting of muscular fibers enclosed in a mucousmembrane, that is suspended from the rear of the hard palate and closes off thenasal cavity from the oral cavity during swallowing or sucking

solecistically, adv. < solecistic, adj. < solecism, n. a nonstandard usage orgrammatical construction; an impropriety, mistake, or incongruity

sonorant, n. a usually voiced speech sound characterized by relatively free air flowthrough the vocal tract and capable of being syllabic, as a vowel, liquid, or nasal

sonority, n. the degree to which a speech sound is like a vowel

462 Master Glossary

speciously, adv. < specious, adj. calculated to make a favourable impression onthe mind, but in reality devoid of the qualities apparently possessed

spirant, n. a consonant which admits of a continued emission of some amount ofbreath, so that the sound is capable of being prolonged

spondaic, adj. < spondee, n. a metrical foot consisting of two long or stressedsyllables; a foot with a hypermetrical stress

Spoonerism, n. a transposition of sounds of two or more words, especially aludicrous one, such as Let me sew you to your sheet for Let me show you to yourseat

Sprachgefühl, n. ‘a feeling for language’; an ear for the idiomatically correct orappropriate (German)

sprezzatura, n. ease of manner, studied carelessness; the appearance of acting orbeing done without effort; spec. of literary style or performance (Italian)

stative, adj. belonging to or designating a class of verbs that express a state orcondition

stem, n. the part of an inflected word that remains unchanged except by phoneticchanges or variations throughout a given inflection, is sometimes identical withthe root, but is often derived from it with some formative suffix

stem-final, adj. occurring at the end of a stem

stop, n. one of a set of speech sounds that is a plosive or a nasal

stress, n. the relative force with which a sound or syllable is spoken; the emphasisplaced on the sound or syllable spoken most forcefully in a word or phrase;placement of an accent on a vowel, either primary (louder and longer) or sec-ondary (less loud and shorter)

stridency, n. < strident, adj. of the articulation of a consonantal sound: charac-terized by friction that is comparatively turbulent. Also as n., a consonantarticulated in this way

strident versus mellow a phonological distinctive feature of obstruents

strong, adj. of or relating to those verbs in the Germanic languages that form theirpast tense by a change in stem vowel, and their past participles by a change instem vowel and sometimes by adding the suffix -(e)n, as sing, sang, sung or tear,tore, torn

structuralist, n. < structuralism, n. any theory or mode of analysis in whichlanguage is considered as a system or structure comprising elements at variousphonological, grammatical, and semantic levels, the interrelation of these ele-ments rather than the elements themselves producing meaning

Master Glossary 463

subcutaneously, adv. < subcutaneous, adj. (here, figuratively) beneath the sur-face, subtle, relatively imperceptible

subjective, adj. being or relating to a grammatical subject

subjunctive, adj., n. of, relating to, or constituting a verb form or set of verb formsthat represents an attitude toward or concern with a denoted act or state not asfact but as something entertained in thought as contingent or possible or viewedemotionally (as with doubt, desire, will)

sub rosa privately, secretly, in strict confidence; unspoken, tacit (Latin)

subserve, v. to serve as an instrument or means in carrying on (as an activity) orout (as a plan) or in furthering the ends of (as a person)

substantive, n. noun

substrate, n. something that is laid or spread under or that underlies and supportsor forms a base for something else; an underlying structure, layer, or part

substratum, n. an indigenous language that contributes features to the language ofan invading people who impose their language on the indigenous population

subsume, v. to bring (an idea, principle, etc.) under another; to instance or include(a case, term, etc.) under a rule, category, etc

succeed, v. to follow

suffix, n. a grammatical element added to the end of a word or stem, serving toform a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending, such as -ness ingentleness, -ing in walking, or -s in sits

suffixal, adj. contains a suffix

suffixation, v. the process by which a suffix (grammatical element)is added to theend of a word or stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as aninflectional ending, such as -ness in gentleness, -ing in walking, or -s in sits

superordination, n. higher rank, status, or value

supersession, n. < supersede, v. supplant and make inferior by better or moreefficiently serving a function

supervenient, adj. coming after (and in connection with or as a consequence of) anexisting situation, condition, etc.; subsequent; occurring as a change or addition

supervening, adj. < supervene, v. to come after so as to take the place of; tosupersede

suprasegmental, adj. of or relating to significant features of pitch, stress, andjuncture accompanying or superadded to vowels and consonants when the latterare assembled in succession in the construction of a speaker-to-hearercommunication

464 Master Glossary

syllabic, n. a vocal sound capable by itself of forming a syllable, or constituting theessential element of a syllable

syllogism, n. an argument expressed or claimed to be expressible in the form oftwo propositions called the premisses, containing a common or middle term,with a third proposition called the conclusion, resulting necessarily from theother two

symbol, n. (in C.S. Peirce’s sign theory) a sign whose relation to its object(meaning) is established by a rule; otherwise, something that stands for, repre-sents, or denotes something else (not by exact resemblance, but by vague sug-gestion, or by some accidental or conventional relation); esp. a material objectrepresenting or taken to represent something immaterial or abstract, as a being,idea, quality, or condition; a representative or typical figure, sign, or token

symbolism, n. a system of symbols or representations

syncategorematic, adj. pertaining to a unit or category which cannot be used byitself but only together with another unit or units, such as an adverb, preposition,or conjunction

syncretic, adj. < syncretism, n. the merging of two or more inflectional categories

synchrony, n. < synchronic, adj. of or relating to the study of phenomena, such aslinguistic features, or of events of a particular time, without reference to theirhistorical context

syncopate, v. to cut short or contract (a word) by omitting one or more syllables orletters in the middle; to shorten (a word) by syncope

syncope, n. the shortening of a word by omission of a sound, letter, or syllablefrom the middle of the word

syndetic, adj. serving to connect, as a conjunction

syndeton, n. a form of syntactic coordination of the elements of a sentence with thehelp of a coordinating conjunction

syntagm, n. a sequence of linguistic units in a syntagmatic relationship to oneanother

syntagmatic, adj. pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that occursequentially in the chain of speech or writing, as the relationship between the sunand is shining or the and sun in the sentence The sun is shining

tacit, adj. silent, unspecified

takeoff, n. an imitation especially in the way of caricature

tantamount, adj. equivalent in value, significance, or effect

tant pis ‘so much the worse’ (French)

Master Glossary 465

tautological, adj, < tautology, n. needless or meaningless repetition in closesuccession of an idea, statement, or word

taxonomy, n. a classification of something; a particular system of classification

teleologically, adv. < teleological, adj. < teleology, n. the doctrine or study of endsor final causes, esp. as related to the evidences of design or purpose in nature;also transf. such design as exhibited in natural objects or phenomena

telic, adj. directed or tending toward a goal or purpose; purposeful

telos, n. goal (Greek)

tense, n. any one of the different forms or modifications (or word-groups) in theconjugation of a verb which indicate the different times (past, present, or future)at which the action or state denoted by it is viewed as happening or existing, andalso (by extension) the different nature of such action or state, as continuing(imperfect) or completed (perfect); also abstr. that quality of a verb whichdepends on the expression of such differences

tense, adj. < tense versus lax (acoustically) longer versus reduced duration of thesteady state portion of the sound, and its sharper defined resonance regions of thespectrum; (genetically) a deliberate versus rapid execution of the required ges-ture resulting in a lastingly stationary articulation

tenuis, adj., pl. tenues ‘thin, slight, aspirate’ (Latin)

tenure, n. the action or fact of holding anything material or non-material

terminus ad quem ‘a goal or finishing point’; a final limiting point in time (Latin)

terminus a quo starting point of a line of action or of a journey; point of origin(Latin)

ternary, adj. composed of three or arranged in threes; pertaining to a poetic meterconsisting of units (feet) with three syllables

tertium non datur ‘no third term obtains’ (Latin)

thirdness, n. a fundamental category in Peircean philosophy consisting of theconnecting bond between firstness and secondness and expressive of law, gen-erality, purpose, and habit

tic, n. a frequent usually unconscious quirk of behavior or speech

ticastic, adj. pertaining to or resembling a tic

timbral < timbre, n. the combination of qualities of a sound that distinguishes itfrom other sounds of the same pitch and volume

tone-deafness, n. < tone-deaf, adj. unable to distinguish differences in musicalpitch; (here) unable to perceive nuances or subtleties

toponym, n. a place name

466 Master Glossary

tout court simply; briefly (French)

to wit, adv. that is to say

traduttore, traditore ‘translator, traitor’ (Italian)

transitivity, n. < transitive, adj. expressing an action carried from the subject to theobject; requiring a direct object to complete meaning

transliteration, n. < transliterate, v. to represent or spell (words, letters, or char-acters of one language) in the letters or characters of another language oralphabet

trebuchet, n. a medieval catapult for hurling heavy stones (French)

triadic, adj. < triad, n. a union or group of three especially of three closely relatedpersons, beings, or things

*triblet, n. a nonce word mimicking triplet [the asterisk denotes a hypotheticalform]

trigeminal neuralgia also called tic douloureux [French], a chronic pain conditionthat affects the trigeminal or 5th cranial nerve; a form of neuropathic pain (painassociated with nerve injury or nerve lesion)

trinomial, adj. consisting of three terms

tri-relative, adj. comprised by three relations

trochaic, adj. < trochee, n. a prosodic foot of two syllables of which the first islong and the second short (as in Latin ante) or the first stressed and the secondunstressed (as in English motion)

trope, n. a figure of speech which consists in the use of a word or phrase in a senseother than that which is proper to it. Hence (more generally): a figure of speech;(an instance of) figurative or metaphorical language

troping, n. (the use of) figurative or metaphorical language; spec. (in later use):interpretation or representation of something figuratively; use (of a figure ofspeech, an image, etc.) as a recurrent motif

tropism, n. (with reference to people) a natural or innate instinct, tendency, orimpulse; (now more generally) a preference, an inclination

tropologically, adv. < tropological, adj. < tropology, n. the use of tropes in speechor writing

truism, n. an undoubted or self-evident truth; esp. one too obvious or unimportantfor mention

truncation, n. < truncate, v. to abbreviate by or as if by cutting off

Master Glossary 467

typologically, adv. < typological, adj. < typology, n. comparative study of lan-guages or aspects of languages as to their structures rather than their historicalrelations

Ugric, adj. of, relating to, or characteristic of the languages of the Ugrians (anethnological group including the Magyars [Hungarians] and related peoples ofwestern Siberia

ultima, n. the last syllable

ultimate, adj. < ultima, n. the final syllable

umbrage, n. displeasure, resentment, annoyance

unassailable, adj. not open to adverse criticism

unbidden, adj. not asked or invited; not commanded or directed

univerbal, adj. < univerbation, n. the creation of one word from two or more

univerbative, adj. < univerbation [vide supra]

unmarked, adj. vide supra under markedness

unmarking, n. the change from a marked to an unmarked value

unreflectively, adv. < unreflective, adj. not reflective; unthinking, heedless

unreflexively, adv. < unreflexive, adj. spontaneous; unpremeditated

unrounded, adj. pronounced with the lips in a flattened or neutral position

unsuffixed, adj. without a suffix

unvoice, v. to pronounce (a normally voiced sound) without vibration of the vocalchords so as to make it wholly or partly voiceless

uptalk, n. speech in which each clause, sentence, etc., ends like a question with arising inflection

Ur-, prefix ‘original’, prototypical (German)

usurpation, n. < usurp, v. to employ wrongfully

ut pictura poesis as is painting so is poetry (Latin)

valorization, n. < valorize, v. to give or assign a value to

velar, adj. articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate,as (g) in good and (k) in king

velarize, v. to articulate (a sound) by retracting the back of the tongue toward thesoft palate

velum, n. the soft palate

veracious, adj. marked by truth

468 Master Glossary

verbatim, adv. in exactly the same words; word for word (Latin)

Vermontian, adj. of or pertaining to Vermont (nonce word)

versification, n. the making of verses; the act, art, or practice of metrical compo-sition; metrical structure; a particular metrical structure or style

vexed, adj. (< vex, v.) much discussed or disputed

vibrato, n. a tremulous effect imparted to instrumental tone for added warmth andexpressiveness by slight and rapid variations in pitch

vilipend, v. to view or treat with contempt; despise

virgule, n. slash, i.e., a short, usually slanting stroke or mark used to indicatealternation

vis-à-vis, prep. in relation to; over against (French)

viva voce by word of mouth; orally (Latin)

vive la différence (jocular) expression denoting approval of the difference betweenthe sexes (French)

viz., abbrev. vidēlicet (Latin) that is to say; namely; to wit: used to introduce anamplification, or more precise or explicit explanation, of a previous statement orword

vocable, n. a word considered only as a sequence of sounds or letters rather than asa unit of meaning

vocative, n. of, relating to, or being a grammatical case marking the one addressed

voice, n. a property of verbs or a set of verb inflections indicating the relationbetween the subject and the action expressed by the verb: “Birds build nests”uses the active voice; “nests built by birds” uses the passive voice

voiced, adj. uttered with vocal cord vibration

voicing, n. the action or process of producing a speech or breath sound withvibration of the vocal cords; the change of a sound from voiceless to voiced

voilà ‘there [you are]’ (French)

vulgarism, n. a word, phrase, or manner of expression used chiefly by uneducatedpeople

wayward, adj. characterized by extreme willfulness and by determination to followone's own capricious, wanton, or depraved inclinations to the point of beingungovernable

wile, n. a trick or stratagem intended to ensnare or deceive; a sly artifice

Master Glossary 469

winged, adj. of or relating to words or phrases which, first uttered or written in aspecific literary context, have since passed into common usage to express ageneral idea

withal, adv. for all that; nevertheless

Wunderkind, n. a child prodigy (German)

yod, n. the voiced glide or spirant sound /y/ that is the first sound of the Englishword yes

yore, n. time past and especially long since past

zero, adj. having no formal content

470 Master Glossary

Index

SymbolsÉlan, 244, 245Épater Le Bourgeois, 275Épater le bourgeois, 275Über (prefix), 57*Dead Broke (Phrase), 190*Schoolguy, 239*Stupravity, 148, 156*tj-, 378\“King’s/Queen’s English, The\” (Received

Pronunciation or RP), 27, 76, 105, 345\“She is as light as a breath of wind,…\”

(Constantine Shapiro), 228\“Valley girls\” (Southern Californian girls),

126\”Elegy\” (Pushkin), 398\”K***\” (Pushkin), 391, 392\”Limits of Mankind\” [\”Grenzen der

Menschheit\”] (Goethe), 399\”Saison beendet das Orchester,…\”

(Constantine Shapiro), 390\”The poet wishes you happiness,…\”

(Constantine Shapiro), 412\”To a Japanologist Friend…\” (Constantine

Shapiro), 394, 395\”To the right and left are mountains,…\”

(Constantine Shapiro), 399\”Welcome and Farewell\” [\”Willkommen und

Abschied\”] (Goethe), 412\”Willkommen und Abschied\” [\”Welcome

and Farewell\”] (Goethe), 412\”Youth, The\” (Pushkin), 393

AAbbreviation, 18, 19, 98, 137, 138, 334, 435Abduce, Abductive, Abduction

Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334Female Nasalization:, 11habit with meaning/skill, 383Latin phrases., 211Latin phrases, 211neostructuralism,, 351Neostructuralism, 348neostructuralism, 351

Ablative, 44, 45Ablaut Pattern, 325Ablaut pattern, 326Aborning, 406Absolute, absolutely

adjectives, 157Absolute, Absolutely

Enjoy!, 193Enjoy!, 194irrefragable, irrefragably versus, 192, 193

Abstracta, abstract words, 150, 151Abut, 157, 158Accents

dialects versus,, 74dialects versus, 373Dialects Versus, 373, 374foreign, 73Foreign, 73, 74regional, 230stress versus, 13

Note: Asterisk (*) denotes a hypothetical (or reconstructed) form

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017M. Shapiro, The Speaking Self: Language Lore and English Usage,Springer Texts in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51682-0

471

Accoutrement, 363, 369Accusative case, 398Acronym, 421Actualization, 354, 355, 357Address, forms of

Dr. versus Professor, 175social norms, 359

Adhere, adhesionaccents, 374

Adhere, AdhesionLanguage Change, 374language change, 383

Ad hoc, 161, 163Adjective(s), adjectival

compound adjectives, 285Adjective(S), Adjectival

Derivation, 92derivation, 93extruded, 294government, 311pleonastic, 293, 294stress,, 4stress:, 4Stress, 2stress, 4

Adjudicate (pronunciation), 63Admirative, 183, 185Adstructure, 243Adulation (pronunciation), 75Adumbrate, Adumbration

Enjoy! (Phrase), 193Adumbrate, adumbration

Enjoy! (phrase), 194learnèd words, 202non-native/native speech, 274

Adversion, 177, 179Advert

competence, linguistic, 246Grammar, 358grammar, 359, 383, 385

Advertisingadverbial position of nomina propria, 300,

301alliteration, 218compound adjectives, 93derivational pattern, 285different than (phrase), 280economy of effort, 334portmanteau, 148Portmanteau, 156transitive verbs, 300transitivization, 300vocative, 198

Advocate, 287, 288

Aesop’s fables, 401Aetiology, Aetiological, 235Affect, affected, affective, affectation

affective vocabulary, 164, 166dative case, 306

Affect, Affected, Affective, Affectationfossilized speech, 268language change, 252Style, 363style, 366

Affix, AffixationAdjective Derivation, 92

Affix, affixationadjective derivation, 93Archaic, Archaisms, 318archaic, archaisms, 318back-formations, 147Begrudging(Ly) Versus Grudging(Ly), 167Childish Errors, 379False Analogies, 106Learnèd Plurals, 323pluriverbation, 295qualified and contrasted words, 177rection, 292

affix, affixationrection, 292Russian patronymics, 200Russian Patronymics, 200, 201secondary stress,, 83Secondary Stress, 82Virtuous Defined, 115virtuous defined, 116word as structural unit, 86

Afflatus, 33, 35Affricate

Beijing (Pronunciation), 63Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159Frenchification of Spanish words, 160

A hard place (phrase), 135, 136A kopeck preserves a ruble (proverb), 410Alveolar

German Barbarisms, 56German barbarisms, 57Latino Speakers, 90Latino speakers, 92

Alveolar FlapLatino Speakers, 90

Alveolar flapLatino speakers, 92Secondary Stress, 82Stylistics of, 53

Alveolar flap, 70 See also flapAmbience, 404Ameliorative, 276, 277

472 Index

American(s) [pronunciation], 68American English, 76. See also English

language; younger speakers“Valley girls,”, 126Accents, Foreign, 373accents, regional, 230African Americans,, 69, 76African Americans, 77, 335Back-Formations, 194back-formations, 195basically, 273Drift, 171drift, 171emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231extemporaneous speech, 241, 242female speech, 73German, 57, 303Great Vowel Shift, 16hyperurbanisms, 253Idioms, 156idioms, 156individualism, 46, 316intrusive r, 27Latino speakers, 8Latino Speakers, 90like (Use of Word), 148like (use of word), 150, 200, 206, 247linguistic change, 418, 419Linguistic Hypertrophy, 194, 195names, 140, 164numerals, 229paralinguistic (mis)behavior, 218, 219phonostylistics, 220phrases, 251, 265prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296Southern, 30, 46, 69, 77, 95, 103, 175, 240,

373speech acts, 238Stuttering (Stammering), 331verbal tics, 260Vowel Syncope, 112vowel syncope, 113Zero (Use of Word), 338

American Heritage Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage, Theadjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 4

American Heritage Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage, theBarbarisms, 7catachresis defined, 207different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,

280error defined, 329grammar (etymology), 118

homo habilis, 383phatic defined, 208Reading Pronunciation, 44shambles defined, 213Sturm und Drang (pronunciation), 57virtuous defined,, 116virtuous defined, 116Vowel Alternation, 14Willy Nilly, 141willy nilly, 142

Americanism(s), 141, 142, 183, 322Amicus, 302Anacrusis

exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase),405

Anadiplosis, 336, 337Anaesthetics of language

fillers, 335, 336Anaesthetics of Language

like (Use of Word), 148like (use of word), 150, 335proverbs, 244

Analogy, 336, 337Anamnesis, 130Anapest, Anapestic

at the end of the day (phrase), 206Anapest, anapestic

at the end of the day (phrase), 207on the ground (phrase), 218prosody and emphasis, 71Russian poetry, 283Spondaic, 10

Anaphora, anaphorichypertrophy, 224innovations in language, 222, 226

Anaphora, Anaphoricinnovations in language, 227Russian poetry, 283

Andrea (pronunciation), 21Androgyny, 205Anent

Adjective Derivation, 92adjective derivation, 93Idiomaticity, 238Well Versus Good, 169well versus good, 170

Anglicization, 7, 8, 20Anglophone(s)

Anglophone Chinese, 140Anglophone(S)

Graeco-Roman Patrimony, 183Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184past passive participle, 292, 293rection, 291, 292

Index 473

Show (Use of Word), 134Anglo-Saxon, 138, 140, 143, 144, 202Anima, animus

persona, 415Anima, Animus

uptalk, 254uptalk, 255

Animadversion, 192Anodize, 243Anonymity (Namelessness), 239Anonymity (namelessness), 240Anosognosia, 88, 89Antanaclasis, 203, 204Antepenult, Antepenultimate

Analogy as Explanans, 336Antepenult, antepenultimate

analogy as explanans, 337loan words, 55Russian patronymics, 200, 201syllable, 4

Anthropomorphize, 401Antimetabole, 203, 204Antonym, 157Anttila, Raimo

Analogy as Explanans, 336analogy as explanans, 337Frisson of Etymological Discovery, 195k, 32word origins knowledge, 196, 338

Aperçu, 156Aphaeresis, Aphaeretic, 6Aphasia, 276, 277Aphesis, 68Apocope

glottal catch/glottal stop,, 18voiceless vowels, 68

Aporia, aporetic, 208Apothegm, apothegmatic

learnèd words, 202rhyme., 390rhyme, 390theory of language, 340

Apotropaic, apotropaismapotropaic smile, 17, 73, 317

Apotropaic, ApotropaismAssertory Force, 316assertory force, 317Cultural Cachinnation, 345cultural cachinnation, 346female speech, 12, 16, 73Infantilization, 127infantilization, 128Lengthening Clause-Final Unstressed

Syllables, 102

like (Use of Word), 148like (use of word), 150Propitiation, 256propitiation, 256so (use of word), 209straight talk, 247straight talk, 248uptalk, 255

Apparently (pronunciation), 110Appellation

Dr. versus Professor, 175Foreign Nomina Propria, 94foreign nomina propria, 95

Apposite, appositivedifferent(ly) from versus different(ly) than,

280well versus good, 169, 170

Approximate function of language, 148, 151Apropos, 169, 170, 401, 404Aqueous, 246, 247Arabic, 229Arafat, Yasser (pronunciation), 20Archaic, Archaisms

Diachrony in Synchrony, 318Archaic, archaisms

diachrony in synchrony, 319frisson of,, 398Russian poetry, 394, 396, 398

Argosy, 140Argot(s)

discourse-introductory so, 286incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 125

Argot(S)Professional Argots, 329professional argots, 374

Around/round (use of word), 68Artfully, 262, 263Article, indefinite, 214, 270Artifice, 180Arytenoid, 99, 100Ascription, 374, 375Asian (pronunciation), 37Ask (pronunciation), 69, 335Aspect, Aspectual

Singulative Deverbal Nouns, 160Aspect, aspectual

singulative deverbal nouns, 161Aspirate, Aspirated, Aspiration

Lenition, not Voicing, 29Aspirate, aspirated, aspiration

normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Tennuis/Tenues and Media/Mediae, 98tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100

Assertory, Assertion

474 Index

absolutely as emphatic, 204Assertory, assertion

absolutely as emphatic, 205blunting, 317emotive, 317feminization of male Speech, 205

Assimilate, assimilatory, assimilation, 89.See also loan words (foreign borrowings)

Assimilate, Assimilatory, AssimilationPhonetic Ellipses, 96phonetic ellipses, 97, 98phonetic variation, 46, 47Vowel Harmony, 90

Associative Meaning Fields, 117Associative meaning fields, 118, 119Atavism

female speech, 73German Barbarisms, 56German barbarisms, 57phraseological, 250propitiation, 256

-ate, 15, 362Athwart, 181Atrocity Versus Tragedy, 157Attendance, 310Attendant, 263Attenuate, 187At the end of the day (phrase), 207, 213, 407Au fond, 61, 333Augmentative, 164Augustine (saint), 321Aureole

Discontinuous Grammar, 121discontinuous grammar, 122, 123names,, 137names, 138semantic, 123, 125, 140

Austen, Jane, 162Authentic/inauthentic, 56Authoritative Speech, 77Authoritative speech, 78Auto-, 263Autochthonous, 244Automorphism, 354–356Autonomous, 375Autotelic, 260Autres temps, autres mœurs

auxiliary, 306Autres Temps, Autres Mœurs

extemporaneous speech, 241extemporaneous speech, 242Language Change, 374language change, 375

Axiology, axiological

emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231Axiology, Axiological

Good Work Versus Good Job, 126prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296, 297

BBack (use of word), 224, 289Back-Formed, Back-Formations

American English Linguistic Hypertrophy,194

Back-formed, back-formationsAmerican English linguistic hypertrophy,

195nonce words, 147, 284of compound verbs, 147ungrammatical versus grammatical, 298

Bad guy (phrase), 119, 120, 171Bahrain (pronunciation), 25Bail versus bail out, 299Balsaam’s Ass, 146Banality, 231, 232Baneful, 234, 255Barbarisms, 7, 8, 92, 324, 325Base

adjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 5Adjectival Stress on Wrong Sylláble, 2adjective derivation, 93Archaic, Archaisms, 318archaic, archaisms, 319False Analogies, 106German Barbarisms, 56German barbarisms, 57Learnèd Plurals, 323learnèd plurals, 324morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37pluriverbation, 295qualified and contrasted words, 177rection, 291, 292Russian Patronymics, 200Russian patronymics, 200, 201Secondary Stress, 82secondary stress, 83virtuous defined, 116word as structural unit, 86

Basically (use of word), 248, 264Basically (Use of Word), 273, 316Bat an eyelash/eyelid (idiom), 156Batch and badge (pronunciation), 31Bate, Jonathan, 290Bathos, Bathetic, 135Bathos, bathetic, 136Bauplan, 52, 111Beardsley, Eleanor, 98

Index 475

Beg(s) the question, 278Beggar

competence, linguistic, 246supersession of literal meaning, 181Supersession of Literal Meaning, 181

Begrudging(Ly) Versus Grudging(Ly), 167Beg the question, 208, 278Behavior/(Mis)Behavior, Paralinguistic, 218Behavior/(mis)behavior, paralinguistic, 219,

242, 243Behaviorist, 328, 329Beijing (Pronunciation), 63Bend versus *bended, 380Between a rock and a hard place (phrase), 135,

136Between the Devil and the deep blue sea

(phrase), 136Between you and I/me (phrase), 265, 273, 352Bible

Balaam’s Ass, 146hierarchical value, 235King James version, 116, 235, 319Matthew (New Testament), 319Numbers (Hebrew Bible), 146Proverbs (Hebrew Bible), 116, 337Pslams (Hebrew Bible), 235

Bidder and bitter (pronunciation), 54Bifurcation, 175Bilabial, 376–378Bilateral, 331Binomial

objective versus subjective case, 289Paronomastic Interference in Language

Change, 41paronomastic interference in language

change, 42thirdness, 333well versus good, 170

Biological sexgrammatical gender versus, 146, 147

Biological Sexgrammatical gender versus, 265, 266, 311,

401speech production, 72

Bipartite, 249, 250Bipedal, 323, 382Birmingham (pronunciation), 60Biuniqueness, 363, 367Bizarrerie(s), 92Blanchard, Olivier, 322Blandishment, 404Blather, 109, 258

slovenliness, 258Blatter, Sepp (pronunciation), 54

Blends, 157, 156Blockbuster-capable, blockbuster-dependent

(use of word), 285Bloomfield, Leonard, 418Body language, 219Boethius, 157Bon sens, sens commun, 184, 185Bookification, Bookishness, 209Bookification, bookishness, 209Boots/with Boots (Use of Word/Phrase), 218Bossa Nova (Pronunciation), 54Bound, 62, 63Bridegroom (folk etymology), 176British English

*Triblet of Trisyllables, 1adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4, 5American English drift, 171American versus,, 61American versus., 60American versus, 19, 20American Versus, 35, 37basically (use of word), 273extemporaneous speech, 241Great Vowel Shift, 16Idioms, 156idioms, 156persona (etymology), 415prosopopoeia, pronominal, 297Stammering (Stuttering), 331Vowel Syncope, 112vowel syncope, 113

Broad Vowel, 32Broad vowel, 32Brooks, David, 290, 294Buccal, female speech, 72Buffett, Warren, 213Bulgakov, Mikhail, 152Bulgarian, 217Burlesque, 271, 389, 390Bush, George W, 38, 40, 41, 359Businessman (pronunciation), 60Butt versus butt cheeks, buttocks, rear-end, 229Byrd, Deborah, 43by the Bye, 189By the bye, 190

CCache (pronunciation), 320Cachinnation (Laughter)

Cacoglossia, Cacoglossic, 240Cachinnation (laughter)

cacoglossia, cacoglossic, 241, 257cacophonic, 371cajolery, 401, 404

476 Index

linguistic harmony, 370, 372, 374propitiation, 256

CalquesGraeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185not a problem (Phrase), 217not a problem (phrase), 217paralinguistic,, 125paralinguistic, 126

Cambridge (English) Pronouncing Dictionary,25, 58

Capacious, 96, 97Carroll, Lewis, 148Cartographer, 158Castrato, 72Catachresis, catachrestic

alliterative proverbs, 132Catachresis, Catachrestic

Alliterative Proverbs, 132defined, 207errors, 131extemporaneous speech, 241, 242idiomatic contamination, 232in a shambles (phrase), 213, 214metaphors (use of word), 234metaphors (use of word), 234, 235Self-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138self-delusion, vocabulary of, 139ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265

CatachresticAnglo-Saxon Versus Latinate:, 143Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144semantic contamination,, 134

Catch, Glottal, 17Catch, glottal, 18Category (pronunciation), 278Cave/caving versus cave/caving in, 299Censorious, 253, 254Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, The

catachresis defined, 207Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, the

Vowel Alternation, 14Cervantes, Miguel de, Don Quixote, 162Ceteris Paribus, 69Ceteris paribus, 70, 233Chaconne, 7Chahal, Gurbaksh, 317Challenge versus problem, 138Change, language

Chaparral (pronunciation), 160Characterology, characterological

bad guy (phrase), 119, 120Characterology, Characterological

non-standard speech, 263non-standard speech, 263

Charybdis and Scylla myth, 136Chattel (Use of Word), 161Chattel (use of word), 163Chavez, Hugo (pronunciation), 159Chef d’oevre, 396Cheshire-Ly, Cheshire Cat, 9Chevelure, 33, 35Chiasmus, 203Chicanery (pronunciation), 58Childish Errors, 379Childish errors, 380Children (plural form), 131Chinese

Anglophonic Chinese, 141writing system, 129

Chivalry (pronunciation), 160Chomsky, Noam (Chomskyan), 348, 350, 428Chorale, 328, 329Christian (word unity), 85Christology, Christological, 115, 116Church Slavonic, 211, 227, 228, 236Cicero, 38, 190Cioran, S. D, 325Clamber (pronunciation), 87Clausula, 410, 412Clichés

indirection, 237tropological, 120, 121

Clinton, Hillary, 63, 190Clueless (film), 126Cluster(s)

aphaeresis, 6Cluster(S)

Consonant Clusters, 86consonant clusters, 87phonetic variation, 46, 47

Codadejotation,, 65glottal catch/glottal stop, 18Tw-, 376tw-, 378

CognateEtymology, 172etymology, 174Sounds and Sense, 186sounds and sense, 188Twerk (Etymology), 182twerk (etymology), 183

Cohabitate, 195Cohen, Patricia, 290Coles, Mark, 24Colleague (Pronunciation), 102Collective, Collective Nouns

Errors, 362

Index 477

Collective, collective nounserrors, 363grammar and praxis tension, 311ungrammatical versus grammatical, 299

Collocation, collocational, 52Colloquialisms

ain’t versus isn’t (use of word), 248Estrangement, 321formal speech versus, 54, 204

Combat (pronunciation), 110Commentate/commentator, 195Commentator versus the commentator, 222Commit versus commit

myself/oneself/themselves, etc.,, 299Communicative context, 89, 90Compact, Compactness

Ablaut Pattern, 325Compact, compactness

ablaut pattern, 326Social Security (Pronunciation), 49Social Security (pronunciation), 51

Companies who versus companies which, 222Compass, 378, 379Compassion defined, 154Competence, linguistic

competent defined, 119speech adjustments, 246

Competence, Linguisticspeech adjustments, 246

Complementdifferent(ly) from versus different(ly) than,

280Enjoy!, 193, 194Grammar, 358grammar, 359head for versus head to, 282Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353rection, 291, 292

Composed versus self-composed, 294Compositum, 51, 52Compound, compounding words

compound adjectives, 285Compound, Compounding Words

Social Security (Pronunciation), 49Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52

Conative, conationcommunicative context, 88

Conative, ConationInterjections, 80interjections, 82Metalinguistic Function,, 327metalinguistic function;, 327Metalinguistic Function, 381

metalinguistic function, 381vocative case;, 88Vocative Case, 88, 198vocative case, 198

Conceptualization, 378, 379Concomitant

cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346Going Forward Versus in the Future, 171going forward versus in the future, 172tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100well versus good, 170

Concord, 310Condign, 244Conduce, 181Confer on versus confer to, 359Configure

style, 363, 366Conflation, 144, 145Confucius, 157, 177Congener, 90, 92Congeries, 413Congratulate, congratulations (pronunciation),

30, 32Conjoined, 238Conjugate, conjugation

discontinuous grammar., 123discontinuous grammar, 122, 123feminization of male speech, 206

Connote, connotative, connotationGraeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185

Connote, Connotative, Connotationnon-standard speech, 263non-standard speech, 263style, 363, 366Twerk (Etymology), 182twerk (etymology), 183Untranslatability/Translatability, 189untranslatability/translatability, 190

ConsciousnessDifferential, 337differential, 338Grammar, 384grammar, 384

Conservatory defined, 196Consonant Clusters, 86Consonant clusters, 87Constate, 248Constituent

Foreign Nomina Propria, 94foreign nomina propria, 95names, 137, 138neither and nor (use of word), 269Secondary Stress, 82secondary stress, 83

478 Index

word as structural unit, 86Constrict, Constricted, 186Constrict, constricted, 187Constructivist art, 412, 413Consummate

Faux English, 102pronunciation of, 58Pronunciation of, 102

Contaminationidiomatic, 232rection, 291, 292semantic, 134

Contiguity, 189, 363Continental (use of word), 124, 425Continuant, 96, 97Continue on (phrase), 305Continuity, 439Contour, 316, 317Contraction(s), 274Contraindicated, 229Contrasted and Qualified Words, 176Contrasted and qualified words, 177Contravention, 265, 266Controversy (pronunciation), 66Conversation-ready (use of word), 285Cooccurence patterns, 71Coordinate, 351–353Copenhagen (pronunciation), 33Copula

Errors, 362errors, 363Language Change, 374language change, 375Subjunctive and Tense-Number

Syncretism, 346subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,

348Corporeal, 161, 162Correctness, 328, 329Correct versus right, 143Correlation, 98, 100Coseriu, Eugenio, 418Countenance, 264, 265Counterfactual, 346, 348Countermand

Speech, 372Count Noun

Drift and the Iconic, 356Count noun

drift and the iconic, 357ungrammatical versus grammatical, 298,

299Coup de Grâce, 100Coup de grâce, 101

Couplet, 189, 190Couric, Katie, 215, 216Courtly, 404Coverdale, Myles, 152Creaky voice (vocal fry), 336Creole, Creolize

Cacoglossia, 240Creole, creolize

cacoglossia, 241phonetic variation,, 47phonetic variation, 46

Croatianlenition, not voicing, 31marked, 51phrases, 217voiced, 40

Crow and the Fox, The (Krylov), 404Crow and the Fox, The (Krylov

Krylov, Ivan, 403Cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346Curtis, Will, 20Cutaway (frac), 398, 400Cut him a break versus give him a break, 232

DDéformation professionnelle

discontinuous grammar, 122, 123discourse-introductory so, 286heterolingual interpolations, 211, 212jargon, 374

Déjà vu (pronunciation), 9Déjà Vu (Pronunciation), 9Dactyl, dactylic

Ronko(n)koma, 412Dactyl, Dactylic

Sounds and Sense, 53Damascus, Damascene (pronunciation), 94Dante, Alighjeri

pronunciation;, 20vocabulary,, 391

Data point, 295Dative, dative case, 90, 306, 307Datum

free variation, 80Free Variation, 80style, 363, 366, 367

Dead last (phrase), 190Declarative, 254–256Decline of the West, the (der Untergang Des

Abendlandes)(Spengler), 9Decorum, 243Deduction, 177, 179Defense (stress pattern), 233Definiens, 363, 368

Index 479

Deford, Frank, 212Deictic, deictically

hypercorrection, 308innovations in language, 228past time, 289, 291

Deictic, DeicticallyTh (Pronunciation), 107th (pronunciation), 109

Deixis, 290Dejotation

February (Pronunciation), 64February (pronunciation), 65Temperature (Pronunciation), 64temperature (pronunciation), 65

Dematic, 183, 184Demos, 246, 247Demotic, demoticization

affective vocabulary, 164Denominal, denominate

adjective derivation, 93neostructuralism, 351

Denotative, denotationmetaphors (use of word), 234, 235style, 363

Dental formationalveolar flap, 57fricatives, 22, 23

Dental FormationLatino Speakers, 90Latino speakers, 92Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74palatalization across word boundaries, 75Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52Th (Pronunciation), 107th (pronunciation), 109Tw-, 376tw-, 377word as structural unit, 86

Deontic, 328De rigueur

back (use of word), 290behavior/(mis)behavior, 242contextual hypertrophy, 223indefinite article, 214

de RigueurLanguage Change, 374language change, 375postpositions, 299Vocative Case, 198vocative case, 198

Derive, Derived, Deriving, Derivative,Derivational, Derivation*Triblet of Trisyllables, 1

Derive, derived, deriving, derivative,derivational, derivationadjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4adjective derivation, 93advertising, 285, 303associative meaning fields, 118, 119compound adjectives, 285derivational suffix, 37Emotive Force, 145emotive force, 146False Analogies, 106incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129media/mediae, 303metalinguistic function, 327Metalinguistic Function, 327morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37pluriverbation, 295Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52Systemzwang, 344virtuous defined, 116word as structural unit, 86

Descry, 188Designee, 175Desinence, desinential

childish errors., 380Desinence, Desinential

Childish Errors, 379hyperurbanisms), 150Hyperurbanisms, 150learnèd plurals, 323, 324normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Th (Pronunciation), 107th (pronunciation), 109

Desuetude, Words in, 170Desuetude versus disuse, 170Desyllabication of /n/ in Consonant Clusters,

110Desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

111, 112Detritus, 410, 412Dettmer, Jamie, 290Deverbal, deverbative

adjective derivation, 93alliterative proverbs,, 132

Deverbal, DeverbativeAlliterative Proverbs, 132past passive participle, 293singulative deverbal nouns, 161

Devoicing, 40dialectal., 40normative/nonnormative speech, 40

Diachrony, 354–356

480 Index

Diachronyarchaic, archaisms, 317, 318Diacriticphonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98Diagram, Diagrammatic, Diagrammaticity,

Diagrammatize, DiagrammatizationAuthoritative Speech, 77

Diagram, diagrammatic, diagrammaticity,diagrammatize, diagrammatizationauthoritative speech, 78between unit and context, 65Drift and the Iconic, 356drift and the iconic, 358Enjoy!, 193Enjoy!, 194errs (pronunciation), 79Errs (Pronunciation), 79folk etymology, 176in Language, 354in language, 355, 356intrusive r,, 27neostructuralism., 351neostructuralism, 351phonetic variation, 46, 47pleonasm(s), 305sound and meaning, 168subject-predicate number, 310

Dialects, dialectal, dialectology, dialectismsaccents., 73accents versus,, 74accents versus, 373, 374American English, 2, 37, 70, 76, 94, 95British English), 68British English,, 37British English, 2, 76cluster(s), 46devoicing, 40faux English, 103foreign nomina propria, 95greasy (pronunciation), 30intrusive r, 27

Dialects, Dialectal, Dialectology, DialectismsIsoglosses, 37Italian, 63loan words,, 55morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37non-standard speech, 263phonetic variation, 46, 47prestige, 21Prestige, 105regional,, 77regional, 43, 330, 416Shibboleths, 334shibboleths, 335Yiddish, 38

Dialogism, 370, 371Diapason, 331Dichotomy, 172Different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,,

280Differentia specifica, 121–124, 323Difformity, 356, 357Digital revolution, 58Digraph

Englessness, 76englessness, 77Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94oral tradition/transmission, 94th (pronunciation), 109

Dillard, J. L., 417Diminutive, diminutized

affective vocabulary, 164tw-, 376–378

Diphthong, diphthongal, 15, 19, 33, 66, 92authentic/inauthentic knowledge, 21déjà vu (pronunciation), 9Iran, Iranian (pronunciation), 47Latino speakers, 90, 92reading pronunciation, 45

Diphthong, DiphthongalVowel Alternation, 14vowel alternation, 15

Discontinuous lexicastyle, 363, 366truisms of linguistics, 122–124, 187, 454,

465Discourse, discourse marker, 149, 273, 332Disfluent, Disfluency, 148Disfluent, disfluency, 236, 315

American English,, 332American English, 149, 150, 236, 315, 316,

330, 335, 338anaesthetics of language, 335Anaesthetics of Language, 335assertory force, 317British English, 332Horror Silentii, 315like (use of word), 149, 150Repetition, 330

Disinter, 410Dissyllabic

Americans English speakers of French, 101faux English, 103foreign names, 63foreign nomina propria, 95Multiple Versus Many, 164productive/unproductive stress, 233prosody and emphasis, 71Unstressed Vowels, 103

Index 481

unstressed vowels, 104Distinctive, 98–100, 186, 188Disuse versus desuetude, 170Divagation, 245Divinatory, divination, 235Do (verb), 124Doctor-tested (use of word), 57, 285, 303Doctrinal, 350, 351Don, 246, 247Donnison, John, 241Don Quixote (Cervantes), 162Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 142, 152Doublet

Adjectival Stress on Wrong Sylláble, 2adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4isoglosses, 38Lambast, 28orthographic,, 29Pronunciation and Prestige, 105Unstressed Vowels, 103

Doubling, 11Doyle, Arthur Conan, 123, 124, 179Dr. versus Professor, 175Drawing (pronunciation), 27Drift

American English, 171Triumph of the Iconic, 356triumph of the iconic, 358, 368

Dross, 247, 248Dutch, 268Dyslalia, 236

EEarly bird gets/gathers the worm, the, 137Ebola (pronunciation), 104Echt

calques,, 126calques, 125Calques, 125echt-German way, 58Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334

Ecology, Linguistic, 133Ecology, linguistic, 134, 339, 340Effete, 245, 246Ejaculation, 275, 276Elegiac distichs (dactylic hexameters), 393Elide, elision

aphaeresis, 6Elide, Elision

Dejotation, 64dejotation, 65German barbarisms, 56, 57Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74

Phonetic Ellipses, 96phonetic ellipses, 97, 98Russian patronymics, 200, 201Self-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138self-delusion, vocabulary of, 139Vowel Syncope, 112

Ellipsis, ellipses, ellepticelliptic code, 97, 113

Ellipsis, Ellipses, EllepticPhonetic, 96phonetic, 97vowel syncope, 112, 113

Eloquence, 236Emblematic, 183, 184Emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231Emotive, Emotive Force

Assertion, 316Emotive, emotive force

communicative context;, 88sense of form,, 146Sense of Form, 145

Emphasis, emphaticabsolutely., 205

Emphasis, Emphaticabsolutely, 204length of word,, 199Length of Word, 199Prosody, 71types of, 261types of, 261

Enamor defined, 276Encomia, 73, 74Englessness, 76, 77English language. See also American English\;

British EnglishEnjoy!, 125, 126

English Language. See also American English\;British EnglishEnjoy!, 193, 194incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 125lenition, not voicing, 31

English Languagebasically (use of word), 273

English languageconceptualization., 379eloquence, 236Germanic substratum, 57marked, 51proverbs,, 133proverbs, 132, 133Russian Hypocoristics in English, 166Russian hypocoristics in English, 166thanks, acknowledgment of, 259

Ensemble, 373

482 Index

Epenthesis, EpentheticDesyllabication of /n/ in Consonant

Clusters, 110Epenthesis, epenthetic

desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,111

emphasis, 261German barbarisms, 56, 57intrusive r,, 27language of thought, 407, 410neither and nor (use of word), 269

Epicene, 196Epiphenomenon, epiphenomenona

metathesis, 69Epiphenomenon, Epiphenomenona

Metathesis, 69Nonce Words, 319

Episodic, EpisodicallyConsonant Clusters, 86

Episodic, episodicallyconsonant clusters, 87fossilized speech, 268Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185grammar, 359

Epistemic, epistemological, epistemology, 421habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384

Epistemic, Epistemological, EpistemologyUntranslatability/Translatability, 189untranslatability/translatability, 190

Epithet, 404Epitome, epitomical, 184, 185Eponymous, 169, 170Equinox (pronunciation), 44Equipossible, equipossiblity, 217-er, 48, 49, 174Err(S) (Pronunciation), 79Err(s) (pronunciation), 79err(S) (Pronunciation), 105Errare Humanum Est, 212Errare humanum est, 213Error(S)

Childish, 379Error(s)

childish, 380Defined, 320defined, 321, 329motivated/unmotivated, 130, 131, 223, 241motivated/unmotivated, 273, 277, 278, 360,

362Ersatz

Cacoglossia, 257cacoglossia, 257Ersatz English, 267Faux English, 102

ese, 125Et al

foreign nomina propria, 95et al

Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159Frenchification of Spanish words, 160

Etiolation, 346, 348Etymology, etymological, etymologically

associative meaning fields, 118, 119discontinuous grammar, 122, 123

Etymology, Etymological, EtymologicallyFrisson, 195frisson, 196Intrusive r, 26intrusive r, 27knowledge, 151Knowledge, 151, 172, 173on behalf of,, 145on behalf of, 144paronomastic interference in language

change, 42persona, 415re-cognition., 151Re-Cognition, 151Sounds and Sense, 186sounds and sense, 187

Etymonassociative meaning fields, 118, 119language of thought, 406, 407paronomastic interference in language

change, 42Evildoer (phrase), 171Evince, 98, 99Exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase), 156,

157Exactly Right, That’s Exactly Right (Phrase),

157, 405Excogitate, 189, 190Exemplar, 190Exeunt, 33, 35Exogenous Production, 230Exogenous production, 230Ex Parte

phatic and fatuity, 208Ex parte

Shapiro (surname), 117Explanans, explanantia, explanandum

at the end of the day (phrase), 407Explanans, Explanantia, Explanandum

Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353neostructuralism, 351

Index 483

Explanans, Explanantia, Explanandum (cont.)normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Phonetic Ellipses, 96phonetic ellipses, 97, 98pleonasm(s), 304straight talk, 247straight talk, 248Tw-, 376tw-, 377

Extant, ExtancyChildish Errors, 379

Extant, extancychildish errors, 380Consonant Clusters, 86consonant clusters, 87feminine pronouns, 265Feminine pronouns, 266foreign nomina propria, 95Latin phrases, 211Latin phrases, 211Systemzwang, 344

Extempore, extemporaneous speech, 241, 242Ex Tempore, 358Ex tempore, 359Extirpate, 256Extragrammically, 148, 149Extremely, very highly, 181

FFaçade, 375Fables and gender, 401, 404Factitious

Latin Phrases, 211Latin phrases, 211Secondary Stress, 82secondary stress, 83slovenliness, 258

Facultative, facultatively, 107Facultative, Facultatively, 258Faiblesse, 132, 133False Analogies, 106Falsetto, 72Family/cabinet are vs. family/cabinet is., 223Fatuity, fatuous

baneful, banality, 231Fatuity, Fatuous

Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159Frenchification of Spanish words, 160kick the can down the road (phrase), 249kick the can down the road (phrase), 250let me be clear (phrase), 216let me be clear (phrase), 216phatic, 263that said (phrase), 263

that said (phrase), 263Faux

Englessness, 76englessness, 77Ersatz English, 268Faux Authenticity, 25faux authenticity, 26faux English, 103Ignorance and Insistence of the Letter, 25Macaronic language, 271

February (Pronunciation), 64February (pronunciation), 65Fee Simple, 161Fee simple, 162Fee Tail, 161Fee tail, 162Feinstein, John, 288Fellow, rhyme, 413, 414Female speech

air quotes, 316Female Speech

Cachinnation (Laughter), 345Girlized Intonation, 16homogeneous social groups, 72, 73Japanese, 394lengthening clause-final unstressed

syllables, 102Nasalization, 11nasalization, 12propitiation, 256register, 72timbre, 72, 78vocal fry, 335, 336Yiddishized patois, 125younger speakers, 16, 73, 102

Feminine Pronouns, 265Feminine pronouns, 266Feminization of Male Speech, 205Feminization of male speech, 206Fennicist, 195, 196Fewer versus less, 168, 358Figura, figural, figuration, figurative,

figurational, figurativelylearnèd words, 202like (use of word), 149, 150linguistic harmony, 371, 372

Figura, Figural, Figuration, Figurative,Figurational, FigurativelySpeech, 372style, 363, 369Supersession of Literal Meaning, 181supersession of literal meaning, 181

Filibuster defined, 173Filler(S)

484 Index

Anaesthetics of Language, 335Filler(s)

anaesthetics of language, 336assertory force, 317like (use of word), 149, 150Repetition, 330

Fillip, 134Final Straw/the Last Straw, the, 137Finals versus the final, 197Finesse, 243Finnish

Finnish-American, 196Finno-Ugric, 196speech acts, 238

Fixed phrases, 137Fixed Phrases, 151, 204, 232, 333Flap, 54Flat Broke (Phrase), 190Flat vowel, 19Flat Vowel, 32, 252Flow

errors, 273ineptness, 236pauses between words, 219

Flummoxer, 246, 247Folk Etymology, 175Folks (Use of Word), 214Folks (use of word), 215Fons et origo (phrase), 247, 272Foot

kick the can down the road (phrase), 249,250

Spondaic Anapest,, 10Football (pronunciation), 18Foreground, 272Foreign Accents, 73Foreign accents, 73Foreign borrowings (loan words), 6, 25, 55,

252, 303Foreign names, disyllabic, 63Foreign nomina propria, 95Forename(s), 164, 251Forename(S), 251Formal speech, 54, 201Forma mentis

associative meaning fields, 118Forma Mentis

Atrocity Versus Tragedy, 157folks (use of word), 214folks (use of word), 215going forward versus in the future, 172Issues Versus Problems, 128Linguistic Harmony, 370

linguistic harmony, 372Running the Show (Phrase), 134

Form and Content, 203Form and content, 204Form Follows Function, 12Form follows function, 13Formulaic, 262Fortis

German barbarisms, 56, 57lenition, not voicing, 30, 31

Fossilized Speech, 268Fox and the Raven, The (Aesop), 401Frac (cutaway), 399Franklin, Benjamin, 287Freebooter defined, 174Free Dictionary, The, 306Freehold, 162Free Variation, 80Free variation, 80, 381French

Americans English Speakers of, 100Americans English speakers of, 101foreign accents, 73Franglish, 271grammatical gender, 401, 404Hypermetrical Stress, 109marked,, 51normative/nonnormative speech, 122paralinguistics, 424persona (etymology), 415phrases, 216voiced, 40

Frenchification, 95, 159, 160Freudian Slip, 320Fricative(s)

Dental Fricatives, 21dental fricatives, 22Frenchification of Spanish words,, 160

Fricative(S)Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159German barbarisms, 56, 57lenition, not voicing, 31medial, 63normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74palatalization across word boundaries, 75Sounds and Sense, 186sounds and sense, 187Th (Pronunciation), 107th (pronunciation), 109word as structural unit, 86

Friends (Pronunciation), 15Frisson

Index 485

Frisson (cont.)morphophonemics of nominal derivation,37of archaism, 398of etymological discovery, 196Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52

Front vowels, 43, 44, 90Fukushima (pronunciation), 28Fulsome, 253Fundament of Thought and Knowledge, 358Fundament of thought and knowledge, 359

GGainsay

Semantic Change, 188Timbre, 77timbre, 78

Gambitpostpositions, 299that’s a good question. (Phrase), 253that’s a good question. (phrase), 254

Game-Changer, Game-Changing Defined, 180Garbo, Greta, 374Garcia-Navarro, Lourdes, 320Gargantuan, 169, 170Gavotte, 220Gay(s) defined, 197Geekish, 210, 285Gender

grammar, 401, 404grammatical, 146, 147, 265, 266, 312, 401sex versus, 188

Genealogy, 363, 366Generative, 98, 99Genitive, 54Genius defined, 392Gentilhomme (pronunciation), 7, 8Gentleman versus man, 169German

American English, 57, 303barbarisms,, 57barbarisms, 56bridegroom (folk etymology), 176dative case, 306Dr. versus Professor, 175echt-German pronunciation, 58Emotive Force, 145infantalization, 128lenition, not voicing, 30marked, 51meld defined, 187normative/nonnormative speech, 122patrimony, 285phrases, 216, 302

systemzwang,, 345Systemzwang, 344tense, 52Teutonisms,, 57thanks, acknowledgment of, 259voiced, 40

Gestaltdejotation, 65Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353vowel reduction,, 63Vowel Reduction, 59vowel reduction, 60

Gesunkenes Kulturgut, 285Get (pronunciation), 335Gig, 136Gilboa, Eytan, 139Girlized Intonation, 16Girls/women versus guy(s), 267Give him a break versus cut him a break, 232Glass, Ira, 68, 98Glazunov (pronunciation), 8Glide

interjections., 82Interjections, 80Latino Speakers, 90Latino speakers, 92Tw-, 376tw-, 377, 378word as structural unit, 86

GlossFrenchification of Spanish Words, 159Frenchification of Spanish words, 160Speech, 372you are/you’re welcome, 258, 259

Glossary, master, 440–456, 458–468Glottal, Glottis

Glottal Catch/Glottal Stop, 17Glottal, glottis

glottal catch/glottal stop, 18tennuis/tenues and media/mediae., 100Tennuis/Tenues and Media/Mediae, 98tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99

Go-between (use of word), 163Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von

“Grenzen der Menschheit” (“Limits ofMankind”), 399

“Willkommen und Abschied” (“Welcomeand Farewell”), 412

Faust,, 123Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von

Faust, 174Faust, 175Holmes (fictional character) on,, 123

486 Index

Holmes (fictional character) on, 89Going Forward Versus in the Future, 171Going forward versus in the future, 172Goldberg, Molly, 126Goldbergs, The (radio and television program),

126Gonzalez, Sarah (pronunciation), 92Good show (phrase), 134Good versus well, 127, 135Good Versus Well, 169, 170, 375Goose, gosling (pronunciation), 22Gotcha (got you) [pronunciation], 75, 86Govern, Government

Errors, 362Govern, government

errors, 363grammar, 359rection, 292

Governor (Pronunciation), 112Go with him (phrase), 107Grading, gradience

affective vocabulary, 164begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,

280Graeco-Roman Patrimony, 183Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185Graffiti versus graffito, 277Grammar, grammatical

associative meaning fields,, 119Grammar, Grammatical

Associative Meaning Fields, 117biological sex versus grammatical gender,

146, 147, 266, 312, 438Consciousness,, 384consciousness, 384discontinuous grammar., 123Discontinuous Grammar, 121discontinuous grammar, 122errors, 241etymology, 118, 122fundament of thought and knowledge., 359Fundament of Thought and Knowledge,

358grandchildren versus grands., 334Hyperurbanisms, 150

grammar, grammaticalhyperurbanisms, 151Metagrammar/Metagrammatical, 328Praxis, 311praxis, 312Second Amendment, 302ungrammatical versus, 265, 266, 299

Grandiloquent

competence, linguistic, 246extemporaneous speech, 241, 242

Grapheme, 109Gratias Otiosae Sunt Odiosae, 210Grave versus acute, 87Gravid Proportion, 219, 220Greasy (pronunciation), 30Great vowel shift, 16Greek

Anaphora (Etymology), 282Calques, 183calques, 184Charybdis and Scylla myth, 136etyma, 118, 136forenames, 164Graeco-Roman patrimony, 337grammar (etymology), 118, 119grammatical gender, 401learnèd plurals, 324normative/nonnormative speech, 125pantheon (use of word), 234, 235phrases, 129, 184, 185th (pronunciation), 109

Grudging(ly) versus begrudging(ly), 167Guitar (pronunciation), 95Guy(s)

*schoolguy, 239Guy(S)

Bad Guy (Phrase), 119bad guy (phrase), 120girls/women, 267habit with meaning/skill, 383

HHabitat (pronunciation), 19Habit with Meaning/Skill, 382Habit with meaning/skill, 383Hackneyed, 262Haecceity

learnèd words, 202Hall, Robert A., Jr., 328Handful versus small handful, 293Handmaiden, 246, 247Harmony

Linguistic, 370linguistic, 372Vowel, 90

Harris, Richard, 43Hayyim of Volozhin, 394Head

head for versus head to, 282pleonasm(s), 305

Hearing Versus Seeing, 154Hearing versus seeing, 155

Index 487

Heaven (pronunciation), 113Hebrew

hierarchical value, 235profanity, 229

Hegemony, 169, 170Heiße Magister, Heiße Doktor Gar (I’m Called

Master [of Arts], and Doctor [ofPhilosophy] Too) [Phrase], 174

Heiße Magister, heiße Doktor gar (I’m calledMaster [of Arts], and Doctor [ofPhilosophy] too) [phrase], 175

Heraclitus, 371, 372Hereditament, 161Hermeneutic, hermeneutically

habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384Hermeneutic, Hermeneutically

Neostructuralism, 348neostructuralism, 350, 351style, 367theory of language, 338

Hetero-, 263Heterogeneity, 356, 357Heterolinguistic, heterolingual interpolations,

210, 212Heteronomous, 375, 376Hic Sunt Leones (Phrase), 158Hidden Homophony in Icon(Ic), 59Hieratic, hierarchical

function of, 235implicit hierarchy, 218leveling, 150, 282neutralization, 281Second Amendment, 302

Highdejotation, 65Voiceless Vowels, 67voiceless vowels, 68

Hippocrates, Hippocraticdiscontinuous grammar,, 122Discontinuous Grammar, 121discontinuous grammar, 122, 123Latin Phrases, 177Latin phrases, 178–180, 211

Hiroshima, 28Hirsute, 192Hissing, 51, 52Hitchings, Henry, 161Hold versus *holded, 380Holmes, Sherlock (fictional character), 123,

124Holmes, Sherlock (Fictional Character), 177,

179Homage (Pronunciation), 23Hominid, 382, 383

Hominidae, 323Homo Abducans, 177Homo abducans, 179Homo figurans, 323Homo Figurans, 323Homo Habilis, 382Homo habilis, 383Homologous

habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384Philological Method, 338

Homo loquens, 414Homophony, 59Homorganic

emphasis, 261language of thought, 410

Homo Sapiens, 323Homosexual(s) defined, 197Honan, Patrick, 218Honey I Shrunk the Kids (film), 326Honorifics, 277Horror Silentii, 315Horror vacui, 315Horsley, Scott, 89House/houses (pronunciation), 319Human Identity, 230Hungarian, 90Hushing, 51Husserl, Edmund, 10Hyperbole, 226Hypercorrection, 311Hypermetrical

emphasis, 261Spondaic Anapest, 10Stress, 109

Hyperplasia, 130Hypertrophic, Hypertrophy, Hypertrophies

anaphoric, 221Hypertrophic, hypertrophy, hypertrophies

anaphoric, 224Back-Formations, 194back-formations, 195begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167contextual, 224Dr. versus Professor, 175Emphasis and Length of Word, 199emphasis and length of word, 199fixed phrases,, 137Hyperurbanisms, 142hyperurbanisms, 143innovations in language, 222–224, 226, 233inter alia, 137morphemic, 224Multiple Versus Many, 155past time, 290, 291

488 Index

Philological Method, 338pleonasm(s), 305pleonastically extruded adjectives, 295pluriverbation, 295Prepositions After Verbs, 312prepositions after verbs, 313prior to versus before, 253Prosody and Emphasis, 71semantics, 129, 130straight talk, 247straight talk, 248Thirdness, 332thirdness, 333

Hyperurbanism(s)American English, 253grammatical,, 149grammatical, 150

hyperurbanism(s)hypertrophy,, 143

Hyperurbanism(S)Hypertrophy, 142innovations in language, 222–224, 226, 233metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352,

353Multiple Versus Many, 155objective versus subjective case, 289reality is (phrase), 298

Hypocoristic(S), HypocorismBad Guy (Phrase), 119

Hypocoristic(s), hypocorismbad guy (phrase), 120Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334Geekish, 209glottal catch/glottal stop, 18Infantilization of Girls, 137infantilization of girls, 138Russian Hypocoristics in English, 166Russian hypocoristics in English, 166

Hypostasis, 183, 185Hypotaxis

different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,280, 281

head for versus head to, 282

II’m Called Master [of Arts], and Doctor [of

Philosophy] Too (Heiße Magister, HeißeDoktor Gar) [Phrase], 174

I’m called Master [of Arts], and Doctor [ofPhilosophy] too (Heiße Magister, heißeDoktor gar) [phrase], 175

-ia, 37Iambic

exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase),405

exactly right (phrase), 405language of thought, 410paroemics, 410Prosodically, 71Russian poetry, 395

-ian—, 37Icon, Iconic, Iconicity, Iconically, Iconism

Consonant Clusters, 86Icon, iconic, iconicity, iconically, iconism

consonant clusters, 87dejotation, 65Diagrammatization, 354diagrammatization, 355, 356Drift, 356drift, 357, 358Emphasis and Length of Word, 199emphasis and length of word, 199Enjoy!, 194Errs (Pronunciation), 79errs (pronunciation), 80Folk Etymology, 175habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384Hidden Homophony in Icon(Ic), 59icon of phonological values, 87Iconic Impulse, 53iconic relationship, 65, 79, 324Interjections, 80interjections, 82intrusive r, 27Learnèd Plurals, 323learnèd plurals, 324male paralinguistics, 277, 278Multiple Versus Many, 164names, 137, 138Neostructuralism, 348neostructuralism, 349, 351Phonetic Ellipses, 96phonetic ellipses, 97, 98phonological sandhi rules, 62pleonasm(s), 305pronunciation, 361, 362semiotically iconic, 27Singulative Deverbal Nouns, 160singulative deverbal nouns, 161sound and meaning,, 168Sound and Meaning, 186sound and meaning, 187Timbre, 77timbre, 78Tw-, 376tw-, 377, 378Twerk (Etymology), 182

Index 489

twerk (etymology), 183Idée Fixe, 227Idée fixe, 228Idem

errs (pronunciation), 79, 80singulative deverbal nouns, 161

Ideology, 188, 189Idiolect, Idiolectual

Cacoglossia, 240Idiolect, idiolectual

cacoglossia, 241Discontinuous Grammar, 121discontinuous grammar, 122, 123folks (use of word), 214folks (use of word), 215Language Change, 374language change, 375lenition, not voicing, 31Normative/Nonnormative Speech, 38normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Sandhi Phonological Alternation, 61verbal tic, 260

Idioms, Idiomatic, Idiomaticity, IdiomatizationAmerican Versus British, 156

Idioms, idiomatic, idiomaticity, idiomatizationAmerican versus British, 156Contamination, 232fixity,, 190Fixity, 151freedom/constraint in use of, 238proverbs, 151Style, 363style, 366Usage, Correct/Incorrect, 190

Idiosyncratic, idiosyncrasyidiosyncratic derivation, 123, 425

Idiosyncratic, IdiosyncrasyIdiosyncratic Pronunciation, 24idiosyncratic pronunciation, 25linguistic insecurity., 33

If you like (phrase), 316Ignorance and Insistence of the Letter, 25Illocutionary, 237, 238Illud tempus, 235Illusionist, 399Immanent, 384, 385Imperative

back-formation of compound verbs, 284in a shambles (phrase), 213, 214pronunciation:, 362Vocative Case, 88

Imperfective learning, 212Imperfective Learning, 212Imperfect versus perfect verbs, 161, 284

Impetigo, 34Implicature

grammar and praxis tension, 312Style, 363style, 367

Inanition, 143, 144Inauthentic/authentic, 56In cahoots with (phrase), 304Incipient, Incipiency

affectation, 252Incipient, incipiency

style, 363, 366Incision, 367, 442Incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129Incredible/incredibly

emphasis and length of word, 199hypertrophy,, 199very highly, extremely versus, 181

Inculcate, 375In decline (phrase), 214Indecorous, 76, 77In defense of (phrase), 304Indefinite article, 214, 270Index, indexical

Graeco-Roman patrimony, 183–185Index, Indexical

male paralinguistics, 277male paralinguistics, 278Phonetic Ellipses, 96phonetic ellipses, 97, 98phonological sandhi rules., 62phonological sandhi rules, 366style., 366style, 363Voiceless Vowels, 67voiceless vowels, 68

Indicative, 346, 348Indirection, 237, 360In disaray (phrase), 214Individuate, individuation, individualism

American English, 46, 316phonetic variation, 46, 47semantic change, 190sound and meaning, 168style, 363

Denotative, denotation, 366Indo-European languages, 60, 85, 196, 198,

306Indonesian, 140Induction, 177–179Ineluctable, 163Infantilistic, Infantilization, Infantilism, 249Infantilistic, infantilization, infantilism

defined, 124, 125

490 Index

Female Names, 137female names, 138kick the can down the road (phrase), 249kick the can down the road (phrase), 250

Inflection, Inflectional, InflectedArchaic, Archaisms, 318

Inflection, inflectional, inflectedarchaic, archaisms, 319childish errors, 151Childish Errors, 379, 380Learnèd Plurals, 323learnèd plurals, 324metalinguistic function,, 328Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353rection, 291, 292Russian patronymics, 200, 201

Informal speech, 18Informant versus informer, 222In front of (phrase), 319Inherent(ly), 106In hospital (phrase), 304Inner Speech, 344Innovations in language, 219, 220, 222–224,

226Innovations in Language, 227Innovative (pronunciation), 66In potentia

levels of patterning in language, 52metalinguistic function;, 327

Insecurity/security, linguistic, 33Insinuate, 309In situ, 241, 242Inskeep, Steve, 232Insouciance, insouciantly, 322Instantiate, instantiation

affective vocabulary, 164politeness, 243style, 366subject-predicate number, 310

In statu nascendi, 327, 328Instrumental

on behalf of (phrase), 144, 145Russian poetry, 396, 398

Insurance (pronunciation), 95, 103Integrative, 62Intentionality, 363, 368Intercalate, Intercalation

Americans English Speakers of French, 100Intercalate, intercalation

Americans English speakers of French, 101language of thought, 410Latino speakers, 90, 92

straight talk, 247straight talk, 248vocative case, 198Vocative Case, 198

Interdental, 106, 109Interjections, 80, 82Interlard, 271, 272Interlingual, 117Interpersonal relations, 17, 73, 260Interpolation(s)

heterolingual, 210, 212style, 366, 367

Interpretantlearnèd words:, 202pronunciation, 338, 362subject-predicate number, 310thirdness, 333

Interrogative, 255Intervocalic, intervocalically

alveolar flap, 58Latino speakers, 90, 92lenition, not voicing, 30, 31normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41palatalization across word boundaries, 75,

77th (pronunciation), 109

Intervocalically, 37Intonation, intonational

absolutely as emphatic, 205assertory force,, 317assertory force, 317girlized intonation, 16uptalk, 255vocative case, 88

Intonation, IntonationalVocative Case, 88Yiddishized Enumerative Intonation, 68Yiddishized enumerative intonation, 69

Intonationyounger speakers, 23

Intransitive, intransitivitynomina propria in adverbial position, 300,

301past passive participle, 293transitive verbs, 300

Introversive, 260Intrusive r, 26, 27In wake of (phrase), 304Ipso facto, 231Iran, Iranian (pronunciation), 19, 21, 45, 47,

89, 252Iraq (pronunciation), 19, 21, 47, 119, 252Irony, Ironize, 245

Index 491

Irony, ironize, 246Irrefragable, irrefragably

absolute, absolutely versus, 192Irrefragable, Irrefragably

Absolute, Absolutely Versus, 192Conceptualization, 378conceptualization, 379defined,, 194etymology, 196idioms, 156Idioms, 156Multiple Versus Many, 155

Irreversible, 168, 170Isn’t Versus Ain’t (Phrase), 248Isogloss(Es), 37Isogloss(es), 38Isomorphism

Diagrammatization, 354diagrammatization, 355, 356issues versus problems, 128, 138phonetic variation, 46, 47verb/noun stress alternation,, 13Verb/Noun Stress Alternation, 12verb/noun stress alternation, 13

It’s Greek to me (phrase), 129It’s OK by me (phrase), 303Italian

conservatorio/conservatory defined, 196dialects, 63normative/nonnormative speech, 125

It is I versus It’s me, 375

JJakšić, Đura, 307Jakobsonian mode, 384James, Caryn, 289James, P. D., 289James, William, 177, 178Japanese

affective vocabulary, 164American English drift, 171Cachinnation (Laughter), 345extemporaneous speech, 241female speech, 394Japlish, 271Lenition, not Voicing,, 29lenition, not voicing, 30marked., 51politeness, 244Prosody, 27proverbs, 55, 132Proverbs, 191sex defined, 188

Jargon, 129, 374, 375

Jejune phrase, 405Jewish names, 138Jocular

language change, 374, 375Judge (pronunciation), 63

KKöchel, 58Kant, Immanuel (pronunciation), 20Kegel, 16Keillor, Garrison, 80, 229, 388Keleman, Michele, 89Kell, Reginald, 367, 368Kennedy, John F, 27Kenyon, Peter, 25Kick the Can Down the Road (Phrase), 249Kick the can down the road (phrase), 250Kid versus young kid (use of word/phrase), 293Kiev (Pronunciation), 94King’s Speech, The (film), 332King James Bible, 116, 235, 319Kipper, Judith, 296Kissinger, Henry, 76Knave defined, 318, 319Knickers versus knikerbockers, 334Knight-errant (use of word), 162Knive/knives (pronunciation), 319Knowledge

authentic/inauthentic, 21etymology, 151, 173, 174Fundament of, 358fundament of, 359, 360

Kocieniewski, David, 326Konstantinovich, Mikhaíl, 200, 201Krepier (use of word), 117Krylov, Ivan, 276, 401, 402, 404Kuznetsova, Svetlana, 55, 56Kyoto, 28

LL’Aquila, Italy (pronunciation), 67Labov, William, 417, 418Lacuna, 359La Fontaine, Jean de, 401, 402, 404Lallwörter, 128Lambast, Lambaste (Pronunciation), 28, 90Lamborghini (pronunciation), 20Language of thought, 227, 228, 344, 406, 407,

410, 412, 427–429Lapidary, 246, 247Lapidos, Janet, 203Lapsus Linguae

Errors, 320Lapsus linguae

492 Index

grammar, 359Larynx

cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100timbre, 78

Lascivious, 182Latin, 184

calques, 184, 185etyma, 118Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185, 337grammar (etymology), 118heterolingual interpolations, 211learnèd plurals, 324normative/nonnormative speech, 122paralinguistics, 428persona defined, 414, 415phrases, 178–180, 184, 185, 272

LatinateAnglo-Saxon Versus, 143Anglo-Saxon versus, 144learnèd words, 202prior to versus before, 253reading pronunciation, 44

Latinate, 202 See also LatinLatino speakers

congeners, 90, 92emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231

Laughter (cachinnation), 219Lax, laxing. See also tense versus lax

at the end of the day (phrase), 207Lax, Laxing

at the end of the day (phrase), 206Lax, laxing

at the end of the day (phrase), 207lenition, not voicing, 30, 31morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41palatalization across word boundaries, 75pronunciation, 361, 362sounds and sense, 187, 188

Lax, laxing, 207 See also tense versus laxLearnèd words

Latinate,, 202plurals, 323, 324

Learning, imperfect, 212, 213Le Corbeau et le Renard (La Fontaine), 55, 402Leicester (pronunciation), 113Leitmotif, 248Lenin, V. I. (pronunciation), 64, 160Lenis, 57Lenited, lenition

normative/nonnormative speech, 40not voicing), 31

Lenited, Lenitionnot Voicing, 29not voicing, 30

Lentigo (pronunciation), 34, 35Lento, lento tempo, 68Leonhart, Jonathan, 23Lermontov, Mikhail, 395, 397Lesbian(s) defined, 197Less versus fewer, 168Less Versus Fewer, 356Let me be clear (phrase), 216Let Me Be Clear (Phrase), 216Letter (etymology), 118Letzten Endes, 246, 247Levels of patterning in language, 52, 421Lexeme, 171Lexis, lexicon, lexica, lexical, lexicalized,

lexically, lexicalizationabsolutely as emphatic, 205archaic, archaisms, 317, 318competence, linguistic, 246

Lexis, Lexicon, Lexica, Lexical, Lexicalized,Lexically, Lexicalizationcompetence, linguistic, 246, 247competence, 450Conceptualization, 378conceptualization, 379Desuetude, Words in, 170discontinuous grammar, 122, 123emphasis, 261emphasis, 261Feminine pronouns, 265, 266Frisson of Etymological Discovery, 195frisson of etymological discovery, 196incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129infantilization, 127, 128inner speech, 344language of thought, 228learnèd plurals, 323, 324linguistic harmony, 371, 372memoirs (plural form), 131metaphors (use of word), 234, 235non-standard speech, 263Oral Tradition, 58oral tradition, 58philological method, 339profanity, 229professional argots, 330proverbs, 132, 133style, 363, 366well versus good, 170Yiddishized enumerative intonation., 68Yiddishized Enumerative Intonation, 68

Liasson, Mara, 132

Index 493

License, 92Like (use of word), 149, 150, 200, 206, 246,

316, 335Limn, 412Lingo, 125Lingua franca

cacoglossia, 240, 241, 257, 258Lingua Franca

Colloquialisms, 321Ersatz English, 268foreign accents, 73, 74imperfective learning, 212performative(s), 238

Linguistic changeadhere, 374, 375affected, 252described, 417–419

Linguistic ChangeParonomastic Interference, 41paronomastic interference, 42prestige,, 375prestige, 375telos, 47

Linguistic Ecology, 133Linguistic ecology, 133, 134Linking r, 27Liquid

dejotation, 65desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

110, 111interjections, 80, 82linguistic solopsism, 32normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41phonetic variation,, 47phonetic variation, 46s Before Liquids, 21th (pronunciation), 107, 109tw-, 377, 378vowel syncope, 112, 113

Literal, LiteralistEtymology of, 117

Literal, literalistetymology of, 118irony, 245, 246literalist approach, 217, 245, 246

Literally (Use of Word), 264Literally (use of word), 265Literate defined, 119Lived, long- or short-, 93Loan words (foreign borrowings), 6, 25, 55, 56,

252, 303Locative case

going forward versus in the future, 172past time, 289, 291

Locus, 254, 255Logic governing variations, 65Lomonosov, Mikhail, 394Lone versus alone (use of word), 68Long-lived, 93Long story short (phrase), 53Look (use of word), 250Look up to him (phrase), 107Lopez, Adolfo (pronunciation), 8Lorry versus truck, 171Loss of vowels, 67, 68Lower, 412

MMélange, 271, 272Mír práxu eë (mup npaxy ee), 58Macaronic Language, 271Macaronic language, 271Machination(s) [pronunciation], 42Magnanimous versus *magnimonious, 131Mainland (pronunciation), 62, 63Makovsky, David, 121Maladroitness, linguistic, 258Maladroitness, 258Malagré lui, 271, 272Malapropism, 9Malefactor, 170Male Speech, 205

feminization of, 205Male speech

homogeneous social groups, 72intonation, 16paralinguistics, 277paralinguistics, 278Register, 72timbre, 78Vowel Alternation, 14younger speakers, 16

Malgré lui, 271, 272Malkiel, Yakov, 169Manhattan (pronunciation), 33Mannerisms, 250Mantra (pronunciation), 20Manus manum lavat, 272Man versus gentleman, 170Many versus multiple, 155Marckwardt, Albert H., 417Margins, 65Marked, Markedness. See also Unmarked,

UnmarkingAblaut Pattern, 325

Marked, markedness. See also unmarked,unmarkingablaut pattern, 326

494 Index

Enjoy!, 193, 194Marked, markedness, 21

authentic/inauthentic knowledge., 21consonant clusters, 87, 88diagrammatization, 355drift and the iconic, 356, 357errs (pronunciation),, 79errs (pronunciation), 79Feminine pronouns, 265, 266intrusive r, 27learnèd plurals, 323, 324lengthening clause-final unstressed

syllables, 102lenition, not voicing, 31markedness value, 5metathesis, 69, 70morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37names, 137, 138normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41phonetic variation, 46, 47

Marked, MarkednessPin Versus Pen, 43pin versus pen, 43productive/unproductive stress, 232productive/unproductive stress, 233pronunciation., 20pronunciation, 19, 362protensity, 15Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52sound and meaning, 168sounds and sense, 187, 188subject-predicate number, 309, 310subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,

348supersession of marked by unmarked, 232Th (Pronunciation), 107th (pronunciation), 109unstressed vowels, 104verb/noun stress alternation, 13Vowel Alternation, 14vowel alternation, 16woman versus lady, 267word as structural unit, 85, 86

Marriage portion (phrase), 162Maryland (Pronunciation), 61Maryland (pronunciation), 62Mass noun(s), 312, 357Matthew (New Testament), 319Mature (pronunciation), 75McCarthy, Julie, 21McDavid, Ravin, 417Meaning

Evisceration of, 135

evisceration of, 136meaning fields, 118, 119sound and, 15, 168

Mechanicalist conception, 337Media/mediae

derivational pattern, 285learnèd plurals, 324

Media/MediaePortmanteau, 156supersession of American English, 171tennuis/tenues and,, 40tennuis/tenues and, 98, 99

Medial Position*Triblet of Trisyllables, 1

Medial positionaphaeresis, 6consonant clusters, 87, 88dejotation, 64, 65fricative, 63Linguistic Self-Awareness, 88linguistic self-awareness, 89s Before Liquids, 21s before liquids, 22Social Security (pronunciation), 51Tone-Deafness, 24

Medvedev, Dmitri (pronunciation), 8Meld defined, 187Meliorative, 243Memoirs (Plural Form), 131Mencken, H. L., 417Mercy defined, 153, 154Merger, Vowel, 15Merger, vowel, 16Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary

adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4enamor defined, 276err(s) (pronunciation), 79irrefragable defined and etymology, 193Multiple Versus Many, 164

Metagrammar, metagrammatical, 328Metalanguage, metalinguistic(s)

communicative context, 88conative,, 381conative, 327

Metalanguage, Metalinguistic(S)Conative, 327, 382free variation, 381norm/system/usage, 327Norm/System/Usage, 327performative(s), 238self-correction, 381Self-Correction, 381

MetanalysisAlliterative Proverbs, 132

Index 495

Metanalysis (cont.)alliterative proverbs, 133Explanans of Solecism, 351explanans of solecism, 352pluriverbation, 295

Metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, 353Metaphonological, metaphonology

intrusive r, 27sandhi, 27

Metaphor(s), metaphoric, metaphorizemetathetic, metathesis, 69, 70style, 363, 366use of word, 233, 234

Meter, 110Metonymic, metonymization, 366Metric(s), metrical, metricist

at the end of the day (phrase), 407discontinuous grammar, 122, 123kick the can down the road (phrase), 250

Metric(S), Metrical, MetricistSounds and Sense, 53

Milieu, 94Mimic, mimetic, mimicry

going forward versus in the future, 172Mimic, Mimetic, Mimicry

Statistical Norms of Speech Production,370

subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,348

Minimal pairs, 13Mirabile dictu, 387Miss (use of word), 413Mode(s), mood

metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352,353

subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,348

Moldiferate, 148Molière, 7, 35Mollify, 254Momenta medica, 34Monolingual, monolinguistic, 32Monophthong, monophthongal, 47

Iran, Iranian (pronunciation), 47reading pronunciation, 45

Morae, 27Morphea scleroderma, 34Morpheme(s), morphemic

adjective derivation, 93archaic, archaisms, 318

Morpheme(S), MorphemicBack-Formations, 147desuetude, words in, 170etymology, 174

false analogies, 106hypertrophy, 224Inner Speech, 344innovations in language, 219, 220, 222,

223, 226innovations in language, 227morpheme structure rules, 6morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37neither and nor (use of word), 269Qualified and Contrasted Words, 176Russian patronymics, 200, 201tw-, 377, 378word as structural unit, 86

Morphology, Morphological, Morphologically*Triblet of Trisyllables, 1

Morphology, morphological, morphologicallyadjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4, 5archaic, archaisms, 318, 319associative meaning fields, 118, 119Back-Formations, 194back-formations, 195Begrudging(Ly) Versus Grudging(Ly), 167childish errors, 380Epiphenomenona, 319Feminine pronouns, 265, 266hyperurbanisms, 151incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129metalinguistic function, 327misconstrual of words, 197names, 137, 138rection, 291, 292Russian poetry,, 396Russian poetry, 398secondary stress, 82, 83Social Security (pronunciation), 51subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,

348word as structural unit, 86

Morphophonemic(s)diagrammatization, 355

Morphophonemic(S)neither and nor (use of word), 269Nominal Derivation, 35nominal derivation, 37

Mortgage (pronunciation), 87Motivated/unmotivated errors, 130, 131Motivated/Unmotivated Errors, 242, 275, 278,

317, 356, 366Motive, 171, 172Mot juste, 307, 392Mozart, A. W., 16, 58, 392Mozart and Salieri (Pushkin), 16, 392Multifarious, 306

496 Index

Multiple Versus Many, 155Multiple versus many, 165Multiply, 87Murav’ëv, A. N., 396Musical Terminology, 136Musical terminology, 137Mutatis mutandis

authentic/inauthentic knowledge, 21morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37neostructuralism,, 351neostructuralism, 351rhyme, 389, 390

NNabokov, Vladimir, 391, 399Names, naming

affective vocabulary, 164female names, 137, 138first-name basis, 240name day., 390name day, 389

Names, Namingnamelessness (anonymity), 239namelessness (anonymity), 240onomastic, 140semantic aureole, 140verbal tic, 198

Narratorial, 366Nasal, nasalization

alveolar flap, 57, 70Nasal, Nasalization

Americans English Speakers of French, 100Americans English speakers of French, 101desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

110, 111emphasis, 261englessness,, 77englessness, 77female, 11, 12interjections,, 82interjections, 80Latino speakers, 90, 92normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41palatalization across word boundaries., 75palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98pin versus pen, 43Pin Versus Pen, 43post-vocalic position, 54, 326sounds and sense, 187, 188tw-, 377, 378vowels, 12, 112younger speakers, 12

Native/non-native speech, 322NB (nota bene). See nota bene (NB)Neapolitan pronunciation, 63Nec/ne plus ultra, 141, 142, 178, 179Necropolis, 120Neologism

begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334game-changer, game-changing, 180infantilization, 127, 128neostructuralism, 351well versus good, 170

Neophyte (grammar), 359Ne plus/nec ultra, 178Neutralize, neutralization

alveolar flap, 57hierarchical value, 235Latino speakers, 90, 92lenition, not voicing, 31morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41pin versus pen, 43

Neutralize, NeutralizationPin Versus Pen, 43prosopopoeia, pronominal, 297subject-predicate number, 310

News (pronunciation), 335Nexus, 410Nil (use of word), 339Ninepins, 16Nocera, Joe, 296Noisome, 250Nominal, nominalization, nominalism

drift and the iconic, 356, 357morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37neostructuralism, 351singulative deverbal nouns, 161

Nomina propriaadverbial position, 301authentic/inauthentic knowledge, 19

Nomina PropriaForeign, 94foreign, 95ignorance and insistence of the letter, 25reading pronunciation, 44, 45vowel syncope, 112

Nomina Sunt Odiosa, 18, 174Nomina sunt odiosa, 328, 387Nominative, nominative case, 55Nonce, Nonce Words

Back-Formations, 147

Index 497

Nonce, nonce wordscacoglossia, 240, 241Cacoglossia, 257do (verb), 124Dr. versus Professor, 175Latin phrases, 211Latin phrases, 211like (use of word), 149, 150Vermontian,, 398Vermontian, 124, 398

Non-CompactAblaut Pattern, 325

Non-compactablaut pattern, 326Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52

Non-native/native speechcacoglossia, 240, 241speaking like a native, 275

Non-Native/Native Speechspeaking like a native, 275

Nonnormative/normative speech, 41Nonnormative/Normative Speech, 273Nonpareil, 401Non-standard speech, 263Nope versus no, 274Norms, normative speech, 328

correctness, 328, 329Norms, Normative Speech

Departures from, 38departures from, 40errors, 273levels of patterning in language, 52metalinguistic function, 327Metalinguistic Function, 327Statistical, 370

Norwegian, 23Nota bene (NB)

foreign accents, 73foreign nomina propria, 95sounds and sense, 187, 188thirdness, 333

Not a problem (phrase), 217Notional, notionally

habit with meaning/skill, 383subject-predicate number, 310well versus good, 170

Nouns, 357mass nouns, 312, 357, 358singulative deverbal nouns, 161verb/noun stress alternation,, 13Verb/Noun Stress Alternation, 12

Nucleusdejotation, 65tw-, 377, 378

Nullity, 135, 136Numbers (Hebrew Bible), 146Number-Tense Syncretism, 346Number-tense syncretism, 348Numerals, 229

OObama, Barack

folks (use of word), 215forma mentis, 215, 216good versus well, 375grammar, 359, 360hypertrophies, 227, 293ideolect,, 30, 31monolingual speakers, 32nomina propria, 301normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41past time, 291pauses between words, 219phrases, 216, 301self-delusion, vocabulary of, 138verbal proprioception,, 78voiceless vowels, 68

Obama, Michelle, 76Objective case

hypercorrection, 308Latin phrases, 210, 211metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352,

353subjective case versus, 288

Oblique, oblique cases, 55, 398Obsolescent Vocabulary

Desuetude, Words in, 170fossilized speech, 268

Obstruent(s)at the end of the day (phrase), 207consonant clusters,, 88consonant clusters, 87dejotation, 65German barbarisms, 56, 57interjections, 80, 82lenition, not voicing, 30, 31morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Ronko(n)koma, 412Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52sounds and sense,, 188sounds and sense, 187tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 40tw-, 377, 378

Occlusion, 18Octave(s), 389, 390Odd duck versus strange duck (phrase), 212

498 Index

Odiousbaneful, banality, 231kick the can down the road (phrase), 250Nomina Sunt Odiosa, 18nomina sunt odiosa, 175, 328, 387thanks, thank you, 210

Onomastic, onomasticallyinfantilization of girls, 138Shapiro (surname), 117verbal tics, 260

Onomastic, Onomasticallyverbal tics, 260

Onomastic, onomastically names, 137, 138Onomatopoeia, 187, 188On par with (phrase), 304Onset

dejotation, 65tw-, 377, 378

on the Ground (Phrase), 218Ontology, ontological, ontologically

article in phraseologisms, 304diagrammatization, 355like (use of word), 149, 150of human activity,, 340speech, 372style, 363, 366

Opacity, 258, 259Open, 111Oral tradition/transmission, 58Oral Tradition/Transmission, 58, 94Orthoepy, ortheopic

intrusive r, 27Orthoepy, Ortheopic

Metalinguistic Function, 381metalinguistic function, 381on behalf of (phrase), 144, 145oral tradition, 58Oral Tradition, 58

Orthography, orthographic, orthographical,orthographicallyadjective derivation, 93alveolar flap, 57

Orthography, Orthographic, Orthographical,OrthographicallyAmericans English Speakers of French, 100barbarisms, 380Beijing (Pronunciation), 63dejotation, 65desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

110, 111doublet, 29englessness, 77Frenchification of Spanish words, 160glottal catch/glottal stop, 18

infantilization of girls, 138intrusive r, 27linguistic solopsism, 32oral tradition/transmission, 94Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66Shapiro (surname), 117th (pronunciation), 109vowel syncope, 112, 113

Oslo (pronunciation), 22Ossetia,Ossetian, 45Otiose, Otiosity

let me be clear (phrase), 216Otiose, otiosity

let me be clear (phrase), 216thanks, thank you, 210that’s a good question. (phrase), 253that’s a good question. (phrase), 254

Out there, out here (phrase), 290, 291Out there, out here, 226Overdetermination

absolutely as emphatic, 205prosody and emphasis, 71

Oxford English Dictionary (OED) Onlineüber, 57*Triblet of Trisyllables, 1advocate, 287Bridegroom (Folk Etymology), 175chaparral (pronunciation), 160chivalry (pronunciation), 160colleague (pronunciation), 103compassion defined, 154correct defined, 143discourse-introductory so, 286Do (Verb), 124ebola (pronunciation), 104etymology, 42etymology defined, 174Game-Changer, Game-Changing Defined,

180genius defined, 392Lambast, 28Macaronic Language, 271machination,, 42machination, 42mercy defined, 153, 154on behalf of, 144person (etymology), 414persona (etymology), 415pitiful defined, 154pity, 152Pity, 152

Index 499

Oxford English Dictionary (OED) Online(cont.)Portmanteau Defined, 148portmanteau defined, 148prowess (pronunciation), 345router, 48sex defined, 188smite (use of word), 235stomping/stamping ground (folk

etymology), 176tweak defined, 377welcome defined, 259willy-nilly, 142

Oz, Amos, 213

PPàneg/yric, 55Pace

lenition, not voicing, 30normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41systemzwang, 345

Pakistan (pronunciation), 19, 21, 25, 33Palate, palatal, palatalize, palatalized,

palatalization. See also soundsword as structural unit, 86

Palate, palatal, palatalize, palatalized,palatalization, 32dejotation, 65linguistic solopsism, 32morphophonemics of nominal derivation,,

37palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic variation, 46, 47Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52

Pale of Settlement, 166Palette, 389, 390Palliate, 178, 179Pamplemousse, 242Panchronic, 355Pantheon (use of word), 234Pantheon (Use of Word), 234Paradigm, Paradigmatic

Ablaut Pattern, 325Paradigm, paradigmatic

ablaut pattern, 326archaic, archaisms, 318, 319theory of language, 340

Paragogic, 270Paralinguistic(S)

Air Quotes, 316Paralinguistic(s)

air quotes, 316behavior/(mis)behavior, 219behavior/(mis)behavior, 242, 243

body language, 219cachinnation (laughter), 346calques, 125Calques, 125, 126cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346male speech, 277, 278non-native/native speech, 275non-native/native speech, 275normative/nonnormative speech, 273persona, 414, 415phonostylistics, 220propitiation, 256

Parallelismsounds and sense, 187, 188style, 363, 366tw-, 377, 378verb/noun stress alternation, 13, 14

Paranomasiaform and content., 204form and content, 203kick the can down the road (phrase), 250

Parasitical, 149, 150Parataxis

different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,280

head for versus head to, 282Parisian, 37

pronunciation, 37, 85Word Unity, 84

Parmigian(o) [pronunciation], 63Parodic, 370Paroemia, Paroemic(S)

aesthetics of language, 244Paroemia, paroemic(s)

aesthetics of language, 245heterolingual interpolations, 211language of thought, 407language thought, 406, 407proverbs, 132, 133

Paronomasia, Paranomasticcompetence, linguistic, 246

Paronomasia, paranomasticcompetence, linguistic, 246Etymology, 172etymology, 173idioms, 156language of thought, 410Latin phrases, 211Latin phrases, 211levels of patterning in language,, 52Power of Proverbs, 191style, 363, 366

Parsimony, linguistic, 258Passive voice, passivization

500 Index

past passive participle, 292, 293Passive Voice, Passivization

please (use of word), 220please (use of word), 221

Past time, 291Patency, 269Patently, 373Pater, 381Patois

calques, 125, 126Ersatz English, 268girlized intonation, 16incomprehensible to speakers/writers,, 125phonetic variation, 46, 47Yiddish, 125

Patrial, 117Patrimony

fables, 401German, 285Graeco-Roman, 184, 185, 337Latin, 118

Patronymic(s), 140, 200, 201Patterns, patterning

language, 52Patterns, Patterning

Thought, 322thought, 322

Pauses Between Words, 219Pea/pease, 195Peirce, Charles Sanders (Peircean)

abduction, 179analogy as explanans, 337associative meaning fields, 118, 119consciousness and grammar,, 384Consciousness and Grammar, 384diagram as icon of relation, 176diagrammatization, 355different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,

280Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231error defined, 321habit with meaning/skill, 383Irony, 245irony, 245language of thought, 228learnèd words, 202linguistic harmony, 371Molière,, 35neostructuralism, 351Power of Proverbs, 191pronunciation, 361, 362theory of language, 340

thirdness, 333Pejorative, 164Penchant

exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase),405

multiple versus many, 155well versus good, 170

Pendantcatachresis defined, 207, 208Penitentiary (word unity), 85Pentagon (pronunciation), 60, 62Pentasyllable, 336, 337Penult, Penultimate

Adjectival Stress on Wrong Sylláble, 2Penult, penultimate

adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4barbarisms, 380errors, motivated/unmotivated, 278errors, motivated/unmotivated, 278loan words, 55oral tradition/transmission, 94, 95penultimate stress, 55Please exit through the rear door. (phrase),

406Pen Versus Pin, 43Pen versus pin, 335Perambulate, 244, 245Perdure, 380Peregrination, 269Perfective, 284Perfect storm (cliché), 120, 121Perfect versus imperfective verbs, 161, 284Performative(s), 238, 259Perfunctory, perfunctoriness, 169, 170, 262Peripeteia

discontinuous grammar, 122, 123Permit (pronunciation), 110Person (etymology), 414, 415Persona

defined, 414, 415language change, 374, 375person (etymology), 414, 415

Perspicuous, 366, 367Pestiferate, 148Petrification, 366Phatic

assertory force, 317communicative context, 88defined, 209fatuity, 209Geekish, 210horror silentii, 315interjections, 80, 82like (use of word), 149, 150repetition, 331

Index 501

Phatic (cont.)so (use of word), 209Stammering, 331that’s a good question. (phrase), 254verbal tics, 260Vocative Case, 198Vocative case, 198, 336

Phenomenalism, 349, 350Philological Method, 338Phonation, 335, 336Phoneme, phonemic, phonemically

alveolar flap, 57aphaeresis, 6phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98propitiation, 256Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52sounds and sense, 187, 188th (pronunciation), 109

Phonetic(s), phoneticallychildish errors, 380consonant clusters., 87consonant clusters, 88desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

111, 112Phonetic(S), Phonetically

Ellipsis, 96ellipsis, 97Ersatz English, 268Female Nasalization, 11Frenchification of Spanish words,, 159Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159habit with meaning/skill, 383Latino speakers, 90, 92lenition, not voicing, 30, 31linguistic solopsism,, 32male paralinguistics, 277, 278metalinguistic function, 381morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41oral tradition/transmission, 94Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94original language’s., 7original language’s, 8, 21–23phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98

Phonetic(s), PhoneticallyPhonetic Variation, 45phonetic variation, 46, 47Pronunciation and Prestige, 105Ronko(n)koma, 412sequential phonetic content, 41Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52sounds and sense, 187, 188tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100

th (pronunciation), 109unstressed vowels, 104vowel syncope, 112, 113

Phonic(s), 38Phonology, phonological, phonologically, 318

archaic, archaisms, 317, 318as semiotic,, 47consonant clusters, 87, 88dejotation, 65emphasis, 261

Phonology, Phonological, Phonologicallyfossilized speech, 268fossilized speech, 269icon of phonological values, 87interjections, 80, 82intrusive r., 27intrusive r, 27lenition, not voicing, 31normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98phonetic variation, 46, 47phonological opposition, 41pin versus pen, 43professional argots, 330tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100th (pronunciation), 109voiceless vowels, 68Vowel Harmony, 90vowel syncope, 112, 113

Phonostylistics, 17Phonostylistics, 219, 220Phrase(s), phraseological, phraseologism” \

“See also specific phrases, 304Phrase(s), phraseological, phraseologism

atavism, 250memories, 159term versus, 191

Physiognomic, PhysiognomyForeign Accents, 73

Physiognomic, physiognomyforeign accents, 74Power of Proverbs, 191

Pidgin-ese, 125cacoglossia, 240, 241, 257Cacoglossia, 257

Pin versus pen, 43Pin Versus Pen, 43, 335Pious defined, 153Pistachio (pronunciation), 21Pitch, 28Pitiful defined, 153Pity (Lexical Congeners), 152Pity (lexical congeners), 153

502 Index

Placeless existence, 227, 289, 291Platform (use of word), 412Platitudinous, 405Plato, 158, 204, 228, 340, 356, 413Play versus show, 181Please (Use of Word), 220Please (use of word), 221Please exit through the rear door. (phrase), 406Plebes, 77Plenitude, platitudinous, 274Pleonasm(s)

diagrammatized, 305innovations in language, 219, 220, 222,

223, 226Pleonasm(S)

innovations in language, 227patterns of thought, 322pluriverbation, 295prior to versus before, 253reality is (phrase), 298straight talk, 247straight talk, 248thirdness, 333

Pleonastic, pleonasticallyadjectives, 293, 294exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase),

405Pleophonic, 184Plosive

alveolar flap, 57, 70emphasis, 261englessness, 77Latino speakers, 90, 92palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98sounds and sense, 187tw-, 377, 378

Plurale TantumMemoirs (Plural Form), 131

Plurale tantummisconstrual of words, 197Term Versus Phrase, 191term versus phrase, 191ungrammatical versus grammatical, 298

Plurals, learnèd, 323Pluriverbation, 295Pninesque, 169Poetic, poetry. See also specific poets

accusative case, 398Poetic, poetry, 327

accusative case, 398, 399anapestic, 283anaphoric, 283archaisms,, 398

archaisms, 395, 398, 399chef d’oevre, 395

Poetic, PoetryCommunicative Context, 88critique, 384, 385iambic, 395instrumental, 398metalinguistic function, 327mirabile dictu, 384, 385morphology,, 398morphology, 398nomina sunt odiosa, 384, 385oblique cases, 398post-tonic, 398schwa, 398transliterated, 398vocative case, 398

Politesse, PolitenessLinguistic, 243

Politesse, politenessperformative, 238

Polyphonic, 372Polyptoton, 203, 204Polysyllable

foreign nomina propria, 95vowel reduction, 60, 61

Pomeranian (pronunciation), 89Pons Asinorum, 59Portionless (use of word), 162Portmanteau

advertising, 148Advertising, 156Defined,, 148defined, 148Enjoy!, 193, 194media/mediae, 156twerk (etymology), 182

PostpositionsAnglo-Saxon Versus Latinate, 143Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144head for versus head to, 282imperfective learning, 212, 213language change, 374, 375nomina propria in adverbial position, 299,

300Patterns of Thought, 322pleonasm(s), 305rection, 291, 292thanks for having me versus thanks for

having me on, 299, 305transitive verbs, 300

Post-tonicLatino speakers, 90, 92

Post-Tonic

Index 503

Post-Tonic (cont.)Quadrisyllabic Words Stress Variation, 65quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66Russian poetry, 396, 398Secondary Stress, 82secondary stress, 83

Post-vocalicalveolar flap, 57nasal, 54, 326

Potpourri, 271Pragmatics, pragmatistic, pragmatism,

pragmaticismanalogy as explanans, 337errors, motivated/unmotivated, 321innovations in language, 219, 220, 228Latin phrases., 210Latin phrases, 211

Pragmatics, Pragmatistic, Pragmatism,Pragmaticismmetaphors (use of word), 234metaphors (use of word), 234Second Amendment, 302subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,

348Prague School, 269Prandial, 239Praxis and grammar tension, 310, 312Preciosity, 320Predicate, predication, predicative

grammar, 359past passive participle, 293subject-predicate number, 309, 310

Predilection, 250Prefix, prefixed

adjective derivation, 93begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167childish errors, 380false analogies, 106qualified and contrasted words, 178word as structural unit, 86

PrepositionsAfter Verbs, 312after verbs, 313stress of adverbialized prepositional

phrases,, 107Stress of Adverbialized Prepositional

Phrases, 107Prescriptivist, prescriptivism

intrusive r, 27Prescriptivist, Prescriptivism

Norms and Correctness, 328Prestige

“King’s/Queen’s English, The” (ReceivedPronunciation or RP), 105

dialects, 21Dialects, 105eloquence, 236language change, 374, 375Multiple Versus Many, 155pronunciation, 2, 57, 105, 106, 252Standard American English (SAE), 105words, 55, 105

PreteritAblaut Pattern, 325ablaut pattern, 326childish errors, 380

Pretonicbarbarisms, 7Latino speakers, 90, 92

Print-ready (use of word), 285Prior to Versus Before, 252Prior to versus before, 253Pristine, 363, 366Privative, 181Probity, 375Problems

challenge versus, 138Issues Versus, 128issues versus, 138

Processes (pronunciation), 150Profanity, 229Professional argots, 330, 374Prolixity, 245Promiscuous, promiscuously, promiscuousness

fables,, 401irony, 245

Promiscuous, Promiscuously, Promiscuousnessirony, 245style, 363, 366subject-predicate number, 310ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265

Pronominal prosopopoeia, 296, 297Pronouns, feminine, 265, 266Pronunciation

“King’s/Queen’s English, The” (ReceivedPronunciation or RP), 27, 76, 345

doublet, 105idiosyncratic, 24, 25prestige, 56Prestige, 105, 252reading pronunciation, 44, 45unrounded pronunciation, 48variations, 19, 20, 361

Proof of the pudding (proverb), 132Propensity, 178, 180Propitiation, 256Proprioception, 78Prosodic, prosody, prosodically

504 Index

adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4analogy as explanans, 337at the end of the day (phrase), 207, 407emphasis, 71faux English, 103

Prosodic, Prosody, ProsodicallyHypermetrical Stress, 109Japanese, 28kick the can down the road (phrase), 250language of thought, 410Please exit through the rear door. (phrase),

406Ronko(n)koma, 412secondary stress, 82, 83Spondaic Anapest, 10stress of adverbialized prepositional

phrases, 107Prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296Protasis, 346, 348Protensity

lenition, not voicing, 30, 31markedness, 15normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41pronunciation, 362Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52sounds and sense, 187tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100th (pronunciation), 109vowel alternation, 15

Prothesis, 270Proud of it (phrase), 107Provenience

Enjoy!, 193, 194errors, motivated/unmotivated, 278non-standard speech, 263systemzwang, 345Unstressed Vowels, 103unstressed vowels, 104

Proverbs (Hebrew Bible), 116, 337Proverbs

Bauplan, 52English language, 133, 134, 192Idioms, 151Japanese, 55, 192Linguistic Ecology, 133linguistic ecology, 134Power of, 191Russian,, 192, 390Russian, 133, 177, 297, 410

Prowess (Pronunciation), 344Pslams (Hebrew Bible), 235Psyche, 275Psycholinguistics

paroemics, 410

Ronko(n)koma, 412Punctilious, 310Punning, 151, 207Purlieu(S)

Idioms, 156Multiple Versus Many, 155

Purportaddress, forms of, 251free variation, 80Free Variation, 80style, 363, 366well versus good, 170

Purviewconsonant clusters, 87, 88Latino speakers, 90, 92

Pushkin, Alexander“Elegy,”, 394, 395“K***, 392“Statue at Tsarskoe Selo,”, 393“Youth, The,”, 393Mozart and Salieri, 393Shapiro, Constantine on,, 393Shapiro, Constantine on:, 393Shapiro, Constantine on, 394

Putative, 190Pyles, Thomas, 417

QQED (Quod Erat Demonstrandum)

Conceptualization, 378QED (quod erat demonstrandum)

conceptualization, 379exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase),

405Frenchification of Spanish words, 159, 160iconic impule, 53Multiple Versus Many, 164

QuadrisyllabicJapanese Prosody, 27stress variation in words, 66

Qualifications defined, 197Qualified and Contrasted Words, 176Qualified and contrasted words, 177Quantité négligeable, 231Quasi-

Frenchification of Spanish words, 159well versus good, 170

Quasi-paronomasia, quasi-paronomastic, 207Quaternion, 34Quenqua, Douglas, 336Quién sabe?, 24, 25Quiddity

homo figurans, 323learnèd words, 202

Index 505

Quiddity (cont.)pleonasm(s), 305pronunciation, 361, 362

Quintilian, 204Quisling (pronunciation), 22, 23Quod erat demonstrandum, 320Quotative

feminization of male speech, 206like (use of word), 149, 150

Quotidiangoing forward versus in the future, 172Inner Speech, 344

RRéplique

heterolingual interpolations, 211namelessness (anonymity), 240not a problem (phrase), 216, 217

r, Intrusive, 26R, intrusive, 27R, linking, 27Radio speech. See also specific radio

announcersaphesis, 68errors, motivated/unmotivated, 130

Radio SpeechAlveolar Flap, 53

Radio speechaphesis, 68barbarisms, 7, 57cacoglossia, 257Cacoglossia, 257errors, motivated/unmotivated, 130grammatical errors, 241idioms, 232imperfective learning, 212numerals, 229pronunciation, 19, 58, 67, 89, 92, 229schwa, 98

Raison d’êtreat the end of the day (phrase), 407childish errors, 380diagrammatization, 355head for versus head to, 282pronunciation, 362sounds and sense, 187

Ramify, ramifiedadjective derivation, 93affective vocabulary, 164

Ravener, Julie, 105Raz, Guy, 294Reading pronunciation, 44, 45Realism, 348, 349

Rear-end versus butt, butt cheeks, buttocks,229

Received, 363, 366Received Pronunciation (RP or \“The

King’s/Queen’s English\”), 27, 76, 105, 345Reception, 183, 184Recherché, 201Rection, 291, 292Red-breasted, red-breast, 93Redivivus, Molière, 34Reduced, reduction

alveolar flap, 70quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66unstressed vowels, 104vowel reduction, 60, 61vowels, 60

Referent, referential, referencecommunicative context, 88interjections, 80, 82metalinguistic function, 327, 381so (use of word), 264style,, 366style, 363

Referent, Referential, Referenceverbal tics, 260verbal tics, 260woman versus lady, 267

Reflex, reflexivesEnjoy!, 193, 194metathesis, 69, 70unstressed vowels, 104

Regenerate (use of word), 362Regional accents, 230Regional dialects, 43, 77, 330, 416Register

female versus male speech, 73timbre, 78

Reifydrift and the iconic, 356, 357Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185

Relational value(s), 13Repetition

speech, 329thirdness, 225, 333

Repose, 99, 100Requiescat in pace, 106Restaurant (Etymology), 151Revivification, 366, 368Reynolds, David S, 326Rhyme, 389, 390Right

correct versus, 143etymology, 321

506 Index

Rigor mortis, 123, 178Riposte, 274, 275Risible, 169, 170Risus sardonicus, 122, 178Roberts, Cokie, 250Romney, Mitt, 301Ronkonkoma, 412Roomicule, 34Root

affective vocabulary, 164associative meaning fields, 118, 119childish errors, 380Conceptualization, 378conceptualization, 379false analogies, 106Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185learnèd plurals, 323, 324Macaronic language, 271pluriverbation, 295qualified and contrasted words, 177rection, 291, 292virtuous defined, 116vowel harmony, 90word as structural unit, 86

Round versus around (use of word), 68Router (pronunciation), 48RP (Received Pronunciation or \“The

King’s/Queen’s English\”), 27, 76, 105, 345Running the show (phrase), 134Russian

Accents, 373accusative case in poems, 398aesthetics of language, 244affective vocabulary, 164archaicisms in poetry, 395, 398archaisms in poems,, 398archaisms in poems., 396archaisms in poems, 395chef d’oevre poets, 395conceptualization, 379eloquence, 236Emotive Force, 145Error Defined, 320error defined, 321extemporaneous speech, 241Feminine pronouns, 265, 266forenames, 164fossilized speech, 268, 269Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184grammar (etymology), 118grammatical gender, 401, 414heterolingual interpolations, 211hypocoristics in English, 166Hypocoristics in English, 166

iambic poems, 395instrumental in poems, 398language of thought, 228literal (etymology), 118, 119morphology in poems, 396, 398Names, 139names, 140, 164oblique cases in poems, 398patronymics, 140, 200phrases, 216poetry,, 394poetry, 271post-tonic in poems, 398pronunciation of names, 55, 56Pronunciation of Names, 63, 159proverbs, 133, 177Proverbs, 191, 297, 410qualified and contrasted words, 177Russophone, 166, 167, 184, 338Sex Defined, 188speech acts, 238Statistical Norms of Speech, 370thanks, acknowledgment of, 259transliteration, 166, 398vocative case, 198vocative case in poems, 398voiced, 40vowel syncope, 112

Rustic, 95, 109

SSandhi

intrusive r, 27metaphonological function, 27phonological rules, 27, 62systemic function, 27, 62textual function, 62

Sans, 389Sapir, Edward, 195, 357, 378, 379, 420Saxophonist (pronunciation), 66Sc, scilicet, 92Scalar, 328Scandinavian, 268Scant

Atrocity Versus Tragedy,, 157verbal tics, 260

Schapiro, Jeff, 117Schilling-Estes, Natalie, 417Schwa

emphasis, 261errs (pronunciation), 79German barbarisms, 56, 57Manhattan (pronunciation), 33Multiple Versus Many, 164

Index 507

Schwa (cont.)pentagon (pronunciation), 62, 63phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98poetry, 398pronunciation, 362Quadrisyllabic Words Stress Variation, 65quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66Russian poetry,, 398Russian poetry, 396unstressed vowels, 104vowel alternation, 15vowel reduction;, 60vowel reduction, 60, 61

Scylla and Charybdis myth, 136Second Amendment, 302Security/insecurity, linguistic, 33Seeing Versus Hearing, 154Seeing versus hearing, 155Seemliness, 78Segment, segmental, segmentally

analogy as explanans,, 337analogy as explanans, 337assertory force, 317contraction(s), 274, 275secondary stress, 82, 83spondaic anapest, 11voiceless vowels, 68word as structural unit, 86

Self, theSelf-Awareness, 88self-awareness, 89self-composed versus composed, 294self-delusion, vocabulary of, 138, 139self-fashioning, 206self-referential, 381self-reflexive, 260, 272selfhood, 59

Self-correction, 381Sem(e)iosis, sem(e)iotic, sem(e)iotics, sem(e)

ioticallyadjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 4alveolar flap, 70calques, 125consonant clusters, 87, 88contraction(s), 274dejotation, 65diagrammatization, 355drift and the iconic, 356

Sem(E)Iosis, Sem(E)Iotic, Sem(E)Iotics, Sem(E)IoticallyEconomy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334Enjoy!, 194errs (pronunciation), 79

Errs (Pronunciation), 79female speech, 73habit with meaning/skill, 383Indirection, 360interjections, 80, 82interpretative mapping of semiotic value, 47intrusive r, 27learnèd words, 202Metathesis, 69metathesis, 69morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37neostructuralism, 351normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98phonetic variation., 47phonetic variation, 46phonology as, 47pleonasm(s), 305pronunciation, 362semiotic relation,, 100semiotically iconic, 27Social Security (pronunciation), 51sound and meaning, 168sounds and sense, 187subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,

348thirdness, 333timbre, 77, 78voiceless vowels, 68vowel reduction., 60vowel syncope, 112woman versus lady, 267word as structural unit, 86

Semantic(s)anamnesis, 130begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167change in, 188

Semantic(S)Change in, 188competence, linguistic, 246competence, linguistic, 246contamination, 134Contamination, 134Enjoy!, 194errors, 130, 131Etymology, 172etymology, 173going forward versus in the future, 172Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184habit with meaning/skill, 383hyperplasia, 130

508 Index

hypertrophy, 130linguistic change, 418misconstrual of words, 197Neologism, 180secondary stress, 82, 83

semantic(s)semantic attenuation of compound verb,

299semantic aureole, 123, 140semantic fields, 134semantic hierarchy:, 60semantic hierarchy, 63so (use of word), 264sound and meaning, 168supersession of literal meaning, 181Supersession of Literal Meaning, 181tw-, 377, 378untranslatability/translatability, 190

Sens commun, bon sens, 184, 185Sense and sounds, 53, 185, 187Sense and Sounds, 376, 377Sensu stricto

exactly right (phrase), 157secondary stress, 82, 83

Sensu StrictoSelf-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138that’s a good question. (phrase), 253that’s a good question. (phrase), 254ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265

Sentient, 243Sepia (pronunciation), 94Sequela, 275Serbian, 306

ethical dative, 306lenition, not voicing, 30marked, 51voiced, 40

Sesquipedalianian, sesquipedalianism, 169Set

affective vocabulary, 164Stammering, 331

Sex versus gender, 188Shakespeare, William, 79, 134, 141, 388Shapiro (surname), 117Shapiro, Ari, 137Shapiro, Constantine

“Saison beendet das Orchester,…,”, 390“The poet wishes you happiness,…,”, 412“To a Japanologist Friend…,”, 394“To the right and left are mountains,…,”,

399anapests, 283biographical information about, 401Russian name,, 201

Shapiro, Lydia Ita (née Chernetzky), 16, 395,404

Shapiro, Marianne (née Goldner), 57, 66, 73,126, 142, 148, 158, 393

Shapiro, MichaelRussian Phonetic Variants and

Phonostylistics, 113Word Paints a Thousand Pictures

The Consolation of Philosophy in theAge of Stupravity, A, 148

Shapiro, Uncle Misha (Diadia Misha), 38, 124,190

Sharapova, Maria, 55, 56Short-lived, 93Shostakovich (pronunciation), 8Show

good show (phrase), 134play versus, 181Running the Show (Phrase), 134running the show (phrase), 181

Shrank versus shrunk, 380Sibilant, 51, 52Sic (use of word), 251, 252Sicilian pronunciation, 63Sic transeunt onera mundi, 162Sic transit gloria mundi, 105, 106Siegel, Robert, 89, 335Sign, signata

consonant clusters, 87, 88contraction(s), 274, 275diagrammatization, 355drift and the iconic, 356, 357habit with meaning/skill, 383

Sign, SignataIndirection, 360interjections, 82Latino speakers, 90, 92normative/nonnormative speech,, 40normative/nonnormative speech, 41phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98pleonasm(s), 305pronunciation, 362style, 363, 366subject-predicate number, 309, 310Subjunctive and Tense-Number

Syncretism, 346subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,

348tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100thirdness, 333tw-, 377, 378unstressed vowels, 104verbal tics, 260vowel reduction, 58

Index 509

Sign, Signata (cont.)woman versus lady, 267word as structural unit, 86

Sign function, 5Sign theory, sign-theoretic, 40Sime, Ruth Lewin, 290Simon, Scott, 89Simplex

Anglo-Saxon Versus Latinate, 143Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144prior to versus before, 253tw-, 377, 378

Simulacra, simulacrumbarbarisms, 7Der Untergang des Abendlandes, 10Ersatz English, 268prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296, 297

Sine qua non, 112Singulare tantum, 324, 325Singulative, singulative deverbal nouns, 161Skill set (phrase), 42, 231, 232, 294, 295Skittles, 16Sl-, 378Slavic. See also Slavonic, Church

affective vocabulary, 164dative case, 306

SlavicEnglish versus, 60incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 125literal (etymology), 118medieval, 68nomina propria, 69surnames, 55Yiddish, 69

Slavish, slavishly (pronunciation), 86Slavonic, Church, 211, 228, 236Sloan, Allan, 333Slough, 156Slovenliness, 258Small handful versus handful, 293Smile, apotropaic, 17, 73, 317Smite (Use of Word), 235So (use of word)

apotropaic, apotropaism, 210defined, 270discourse-introductory, 286phatic, 210ticastic, 199

Sociolect, sociolectal, 125, 240, 241Solecistic, solecistically, solecism

Der Untergang des Abendlandes, 9hypercorrection, 308language change, 374, 375learnèd plurals,, 324

learnèd plurals, 323metanalysis as explanans,, 352

Solecistic, Solecistically, SolecismMetanalysis as Explanans, 351objective versus subjective case, 289well versus good, 170

Solipsism, 31, 32Sologub, Fyodor, 325Sonorant(s)

interjections, 80, 82normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Ronko(n)koma, 412vowel syncope, 112, 113

Sonoritydejotation, 65desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

110, 111Interjections, 80interjections, 82

Sounds*triblet of trisyllables, 2meaning and., 15meaning and, 168Sense and, 53, 186sense and, 187, 376

Southern Californian girls (\“Valley girls\”),126

Spanishcategory/categoria (pronunciation), 278Frenchification of, 159, 160thanks, acknowledgment of, 259

Specious, SpeciouslyErsatz English, 267

Specious, speciouslyuptalk, 255

Speech, Speech ActsAuthoritative Speech, 77

Speech, speech actsauthoritative speech, 78biological sex, 72competence, linguistic, 246competence, linguistic, 246culture, 10exogenous production, 230Inner Speech, 344Nature of, 372performative, 237performative, 238repetition, 331Statistical Norms of, 370theory of language, 340

Spondee, spondaicPlease exit through the rear door. (phrase),

406

510 Index

spondaic anapest, 11Spoonerism, 321Sport versus sports, 376Sprachgefühl, 328, 381Sprezzatura, 148Stalin, Joseph (pronunciation), 64, 160Stammering (stuttering), 219, 315, 316Stammering (Stuttering), 331, 332Stamping/stomping ground (folk etymology),

176Standard American English (SAE)

accents versus, 373ain’t versus isn’t (use of word), 248Error Defined, 320folks versus people, 215variations, 41, 44, 76, 103, 105

Stanislavaskii, Konstantin, 211Stem

adjective derivation, 93affective vocabulary, 164morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37pluriverbation, 295rection, 291, 292virtuous defined., 116virtuous defined, 116

Stem-final, 37Stick to it (phrase), 107Still life(s) [plural form], 131Stolberg, Sheryl Gay, 139Stomping/Stamping Ground (Folk Etymology),

175Stop

alveolar flap, 57, 70emphasis, 261englessness, 77Glottal, 17glottal, 18Latino speakers, 90, 92Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98sounds and sense, 187tw-, 377, 378word as structural unit, 86

Straight Talk, 247Straight talk, 248Strange duck versus odd duck, 212Street (pronunciation), 46Strength (pronunciation), 46Stress

accents versus, 13Adjectival, 2adjectival, 4

defense (stress pattern), 233Hypermetrical, 109penultimate, 55productive/unproductive, 232, 233Quadrisyllabic Words, 65quadrisyllabic words, 66Secondary, 70secondary, 83verb/noun, 13vowel alternation, 15Vowel Reduction, 59vowel reduction, 61

Strident, stridencymellow versus, 87

Strident, StridencyMetathesis, 69metathesis, 69

Strong verbs, 326Structural coherence, 5Structuralist, structuralism

diagrammatization, 355neostructuralism, 351Sturm und Drang (pronunciation), 57, 428,

430Student (pronunciation), 70, 83Stunk versus stank, 380Style, stylistics

of alveolar flap,, 54Style, Stylistics

of Alveolar Flap, 53trope, 363, 366–369trope of meaning, 340

Subcutaneous, subcutaneouslylanguage change, 374, 375

Subjective, subjective casehypercorrection, 308metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352,

353Subjective versus objective case, 288Subject-predicate number, 308, 309Subjunctive, and Tense-Number Syncretism,

346Subjunctive, and tense-number syncretism, 348Sub rosa

lengthening clause-final unstressedsyllables, 102

thirdness, 333Subserve, 167Substantive

Back-Formations, 147Errors, 362errors, 363errs (pronunciation), 79Errs (Pronunciation), 79

Index 511

systemzwang, 345Substrate, substratum

at the end of the day (phrase), 407German barbarisms, 56, 57kick the can down the road (phrase), 250

Subsume, 99Succeed, 90Suffix, suffixal, suffixation. See also unsuffixed

adjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 4adjective derivation, 93past passive participle, 293secondary stress, 82, 83

Suffix, suffixal, suffixation*triblet of trisyllables, 2childish errors, 380derivational, 37false analogies, 106learnèd plurals, 324, 325morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37names of boys, 138names of girls, 138pluriverbation, 294, 295

Suffix, Suffixal, SuffixationQualified and Contrasted Words, 176singulative deverbal nouns, 161word as structural unit,, 86

Superordination, 127Supersession

of American English drift, 171of American English Drift, 171of literal meaning, 181of marked by unmarked, 233

Supervene, supervenient, superveningconsonant clusters., 87consonant clusters, 87metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352,

353style, 366subject-predicate number, 310

Supposedly (pronunciation), 110Suprasegment, Suprasegmental

ain’t versus isn’t (phrase), 248Suprasegment, suprasegmental

analogy as explanans, 337assertory force, 317Hypermetrical Stress, 109kick the can down the road (phrase), 250placement of stress, 5prosody and emphasis, 71secondary stress, 82, 83

Sweep under the carpet/floor (idiom), 156Sweet, Henry, 100Syllabic, syllables

adjectival stress,, 5adjectival stress, 2, 4, 5antepenult, 4

Syllabic, SyllablesDesyllabication of /n/ in Consonant

Clusters, 110desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

111Quadrisyllabic, 65quadrisyllabic, 66vowel syncope, 112, 113

Syllogism, 178, 179Symbol, symbolism

sounds and sense, 187style, 366symbolic functioning, 341

Syncategorematic, 99Synchronic, synchrony

archaic, archaisms, 318, 319diagrammatization, 355Enjoy!, 194

Synchronic, Synchronyfossilized speech, 268fossilized speech, 269

Syncope, syncopate, syncopationAmericans English speakers of French, 101consonant clusters,, 87consonant clusters, 87phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98voiceless vowels, 68vowel syncope, 112, 113

Syncretic, syncretismmetanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352,

353subjunctive and tense-number, 348

Syndetichypercorrection, 308objective versus subjective case, 289

Syndeton, Superfluous, 229Synod (pronunciation), 104Synonyms, synonymy, 151Syntactic, syntax

linguistic change, 418Syntagm, syntagmatic

different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,280

head for versus head to, 281, 282style,, 368style, 366theory of language,, 340theory of language, 340

Systemlevels of patterning in language, 52Metalinguistic Function, 327

512 Index

metalinguistic function, 327phonological sandhi rules, 62

Systemzwang, 345

TTacit, 99Takeoff, 190Taliban (pronunciation), 25, 32Tantamount, 366Tant Pis

Names, 139Tant pis

names, 140Portmanteau, 156postpositions, 305

Tautological, 253Taxonomy

neostructuralism, 351style., 366

Telic, 281, 282Telos/teleos, teleological, teleologically,

teleologydesyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

110, 111drift and the iconic, 356, 357Enjoy!, 194errs (pronunciation), 79

Telos/Teleos, Teleological, Teleologically,TeleologyErrs (Pronunciation), 79habit with meaning/skill, 383language change, 47Multiple Versus Many, 164neostructuralism, 351style, 366

Temperature (Pronunciation), 64Temperature (pronunciation), 65Tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 40, 98–100Tense

German, 52pronunciation, 361, 362Social Security (pronunciation), 51sounds and sense, 188subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,

348th (pronunciation), 109tw-, 377

Tense versus laxat the end of the day (phrase), 207Latino speakers, 90, 92lenition, not voicing, 30morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

38normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41

palatalization across word boundaries, 74,75

phonetic ellipses, 95tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100tw-, 377

Tent (pronunciation), 70Tenure,, 99, 100Terminus Ad Quem, 132Terminus ad quem, 133Terminus a quo, 366Term versus phrase, 191Term Versus Phrase, 191Ternary

Sounds and Sense, 53spondaic anapest, 11

Tertium non datur, 43Tertium Non Datur, 43Teutonisms, 57Text, textual

phonological sandhi rules, 62textual cohesion,, 75textual cohesion, 27

Th (pronunciation), 107, 109Thanks, thank you (phrase), 210Thanks for asking (phrase), 262Thanks for Asking (Phrase), 262Thanks for having me versus thanks for having

me on, 299, 306, 322That’s a Good Question. (Phrase), 253That’s a good question. (phrase), 254That’s exactly right, exactly right (phrase), 157,

405that Said (Phrase), 209That said (phrase), 209Theory, language. See also specific

theoreticians and theoriesglobal, 340, 341habit with meaning/skill, 383hermeneutics, 340

Third compared with three (pronunciation), 69Thirdness, 225, 332, 333This year (pronunciation), 75Thorn, 109Thought

Fundament of, 358fundament of, 359language of,, 344, 406language of, 228, 229, 407, 412, 413patterns of, 322

Tic, TicasticFeminine pronouns, 265

Tic, ticasticFeminine pronouns, 266like (use of word), 149, 150, 200, 206

Index 513

Tic, ticastic (cont.)Macaronic language, 271Macaronic language, 271so (use of word), 199

Timbre, timbralauthoritative speech, 78female speech, 73, 78, 138infantilization, 127, 128, 138paralinguistic (mis)behavior, 218, 219

To have versus to have on, 306Tokyo, 28Tolstoy, A. K., 389Tolstoy, Leo, 152Tone-Deafness, 24Tone-deafness, 25Toponym

Japanese Prosody, 27Manhattan (Pronunciation), 33Manhattan (pronunciation), 33morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37theory of language, 340Tunis, 37Vowel Reduction, 59vowel reduction, 60

Tout courtimperfective learning, 212, 213metaphors (use of word), 234not a problem (phrase), 217theory of language, 340thirdness, 333

To wit (use of word), 251, 252Traduttore, traditore, 164Trafficky (use of word), 327Tragedy versus atrocity, 158Transitive, transitivity, transitivization

*triblet of trisyllables, 2, 4media/mediae, 301nomina propria in adverbial position, 301past passive participle, 293transitive verbs, 300

Translatability/untranslatability, 190Transliterate(d), transliteration, 166Transliterate(D), Transliteration, 166, 398Trebuchet, 217Triadic, 371-trib-ute (verb ending), 2Trigeminal neuralgia, 178, 179Trinomial, 333Tri-relative, tri-relativeness, 333Trochaic

kick the can down the road (phrase), 250Please exit through the rear door. (phrase),

406

Troops (use of word), 298Trope, tropology, tropological, tropologically,

troping, tropehood tropismclichés, 120

Trope, Tropology, Tropological,Tropologically, Troping, TropehoodTropismClichés, 120Drift and the Iconic, 356drift and the iconic, 357Englessness, 76englessness, 77form and content, 203form and content, 204global theory of language, 340Homo Figurans, 323homo figurans, 323Indirection, 237indirection, 237, 360infantilization,, 128infantilization, 127metaphors (use of word), 234Speech, 372style, 363, 366supersession of literal meaning, 181tw-, 377, 378well versus good, 170

Trubetzkoy, Nikolai, 100Truck versus lorry, 171Truisms of linguistics

discontinuous lexica, 122sounds and sense, 187

Truncate, truncationglottal catch/glottal stop, 18kick the can down the road (phrase), 250

Truncate, Truncationyou are/you’re welcome, 258you are/you’re welcome, 259

Tsetse fly (pronunciation), 6Tsunami (Pronunciation), 6Tsuris, tsores, tsures (pronunciation), 37, 190Tunis, Tunisia, Tunisian, 37Tunisia, Tunisian (pronunciation), 37Turgenev, Ivan, 269Turkic group, 90Tw-, 377, 378Twaddle defined, 377Tweak defined, 377, 378Twerk (etymology), 182Twitter (etymology), 377, 378Two (pronunciation), 253Tynianov, Yury, 394Type, typology, typological, typologically

back-formation of compound verbs, 284

514 Index

Type, Typology, Typological, TypologicallyDesyllabication of /n/ in Consonant

Clusters, 110desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,

111German barbarisms, 56, 57levels of patterning in language, 52phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100,

154, 155

UUkraine (Pronunciation), 94Ukraine (pronunciation), 95Ultima

at the end of the day (phrase), 407Frenchification of Spanish words, 159, 160spondaic anapest, 11vowel reduction, 60

Ultimate, 28Umbrage, 245Unassailable, 178, 179Unbelievably versus very highly, extremely,

181Unbidden, 412Ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265Unit

diagram between context and, 65word as structural unit, 86

Univerbal, univerbative, univerbationback-formation of compound verbs, 284calques, 125, 126pluriverbation, 295

Unmarked, unmarking. See also marked,markednessablaut pattern, 326phonetic variation, 46, 47

Unmarked, unmarkingSocial Security (pronunciation), 51sounds and sense, 187subject-predicate number, 310verb/noun stress alternation., 13verb/noun stress alternation, 15

Unmotivated/motivated errors, 131, 223, 241Unmotivated/Motivated Errors, 273, 278, 359,

362, 363Unreflectively, unreflexivity, 230Unrounded pronunciation, 48Unstressed

Syllables, 102Vowels, 103vowels, 104

Unsuffixed, 295

Untergang Des Abendlandes, der (the Declineof the West)(Spengler), 9

Untranslatability/translatability, 190Unvoice (voiceless), 30, 68Uprise, uprising, 213Uptalk, 254, 255, 271, 272, 335Ur-, 321Uralic group, 90Urban Dictionary, 182Usage, correct/incorrect

idioms, 190Usage, Correct/Incorrect

Metalinguistic Function, 327metalinguistic function, 328

User-friendly (use of word), 57, 285Usurpation, 93Ut pictura poesis, 306

VVacuum clean/vacuum cleaner (use of word),

195Valorize, Valorization

Multiple Versus Many, 155Valorize, valorization

subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,348

supersession of literal meaning, 181Value

innovations in language, 220, 222, 223,226, 228

markedness, 5Vanek-Smith, Tracey, 57Variations

Phonetics, 45phonetics, 46pronunciation, 19, 20Pronunciation, 360, 362

Velar, Velarize, VelarizationEnglessness, 76

Velar, velarize, velarizationenglessness, 77German barbarisms, 56, 57Tone-Deafness?, 24

Velumfemale nasalization, 12word as structural unit, 86

Veracious, 88, 89Verbal tic(s)

absolutely (use of word), 192, 193Verbal Tic(S)

Basically (Use of Word), 316between you and I/me (phrase), 265naming spouse/interlocutors, 198repetition, 331

Index 515

Verbal Tic(S) (cont.)so (Use of Word), 199speech, 260, 261thanks for asking (phrase), 262ticastic, 149

Verbatim, 251Verbs. See also deverbal, deverbative\; verbal

tic(s)-trib-ute (verb ending), 2back-formation of compound verbs, 284calques, 125compound verbs, 147, 299

Verbs. See also Deverbal, Deverbative\; VerbalTic(S)Noun/Verb Stress, 12noun/verb stress, 13perfect versus imperfective, 161Prepositions After, 312prepositions after, 313preterit verb tense, 326proprioception, 78reference to time, 13strong, 326transitive verbs, 300

Verisimilar, 149, 150Vermont, Vermontian, 124, 230, 398Versification, 2Very highly, extremely, 181Vibrato, 366Viet Nam (pronunciation), 19Vilipend, 122Virgule, 267, 268Virtuous defined, 116Vis-à-vis, 105, 265, 266, 302, 310, 367, 381Viva Voce

Back-Formations, 147Consciousness, Differential, 337

Viva voceconsciousness, differential, 338grammar, 359like (use of word), 149, 150metalinguistic function, 381

Viva voce not a problem (phrase), 217Vive la différence, 277, 278Vocable

Americans English Speakers of French, 100horror silentii, 315infantilization,, 128infantilization, 127stammering, 331, 332that’s a good question. (Phrase), 253that’s a good question. (phrase), 254Untranslatability/Translatability, 189untranslatability/translatability, 190

Vocal fry (creaky voice), 336Vocative, vocative case

advertising, 88Vocative, Vocative Case

Conation, 88conation, 88Russian poetry., 398Russian poetry, 396

Voice, voiced, voicingcreaky voice/vocal fry, 336French, 40German, 40lenition, not voicing, 30morphophonemics of nominal derivation,

37normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98sounds and sense,, 187th (pronunciation), 109

Voiceless (unvoice), 30Voiceless (Unvoice), 67, 68Vowel(S)

Alternation, 14Vowel(s)

alternation, 15broad vowel, 32flat vowel, 19, 32, 252front vowels, 43, 90Harmony, 90Loss, 67loss, 68Merger, 15merger, 16nasalization,, 112nasalization, 12, 112Reduction, 59reduction, 60Syncope, 112syncope, 112unstressed, 68Unstressed, 103, 104voiceless, 27Voiceless, 67, 68

Vulgarism, 27Vulgate, 116, 147, 152, 415

WWagner, Richard (pronunciation), 8Wake up call (phrase), 136Wayward, 257, 258Webster’s Third New International Dictionary,

Unabridgeddative case, 306genius defined,, 392

516 Index

idiom defined, 239knave defined, 318, 319pantheon (use of word), 234, 235

Welcome, You Are/You’re, 258Welcome, you are/you’re, 259Wellek, R., 369Well versus good, 127, 135Well Versus Good, 169, 170Wessel, David, 131Whorf, Benjamin Lee,, 379Who versus whom, 273, 375Wife/wives (pronunciation), 319Wile, 401Willful mistakes, 278Williams, Mike, 317Williamson, Lucy, 345Willy Nilly, 141Willy nilly, 141, 142Wilson, Russell, 412Winans, Bill, 288Winged, winged words

isoglosses, 38qualified and contrasted words, 182

Winthrop, Bayard, 77Withal, 360

Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94oral tradition/transmission, 94that’s a good question. (phrase), 254

with Boots/Boots (Use of Phrase/Word), 218Wodehouse, P. G., 366, 367Wolfram, Walter, 417, 418Woman versus lady, 267Word blind (use of word), 239Word Paints a Thousand Pictures\

The Consolation of Philosophy in the Ageof Stupravity, A (Michael Shapiro), 166

Wright, Robin, 10Wrong (etymology), 321Wunderkind, 166, 167

YYiddish

calques, 125, 126dialects, 38discourse-introductory so, 285, 286Enumerative Intonation, 68enumerative intonation, 69female speech, 126Krepier, 135krepier, 136patois, 125

phrases, 303profanity, 229Pronunciation, 38pronunciation, 190Slavic, 69Untranslatability/Translatability, 189untranslatability/translatability, 190

Yodpalatalization across word boundaries, 74,

75tw-, 377, 378

Yore, 106You Are/You’re Welcome, 258You are/you’re welcome, 259You know (phrase), 316Younger speakers

air quotes, 316alveolar flap, 71apotropaic, 73

Younger SpeakersDesyllabication of /n/ in Consonant

Clusters, 110Faux English, 271Faux English, 272female speech, 12, 16, 73Friends (Pronunciation), 15Homage (Pronunciation), 23infantilization, 128intonation, 16jargon, 374lengthening clause-final unstressed

syllables, 102like (use of word), 248long story short (phrase), 53male speech,, 16male speech, 16nasalization, 12obsolescent vocabulary, 162phrases, 53secondary stress, 83seeing versus hearing, 155so (use of word), 263Sounds and Sense, 53student (pronunciation), 70

Young kid versus kid (use of phrase/word), 293

ZZero

singulative deverbal nouns, 161Use of Word, 338

Zhirmunsky, Viktor, 394

Index 517