EPA Tier 2 -120,000 Mile Tailpipe Emission Limits

Hybrid and Alternative Fuel VehiclesBy James D Halderman and Tony Martin

© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.Pearson Prentice Hall

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458




OBJECTIVES

After studying chapter 1 the reader should be able to:1. Describe the role of hybrid and alternative fuel vehicles

in today’s society. 2. Identify carbon-based fuels.

3. Describe how organic materials decompose into carbon-based fuels,

4. Explain the difference between carbon-based and noncarbon-based energy sources.

5. Explain the Federal and California Air Resources Board emission standards.

6. List alternatives to carbon-based fuels.7. List the factors that will be needed to reduce the carbon

footprint.




THE PUROSE OF HYBRID AND ALTERNATIVE FUEL VEHICLES

The purpose of manufacturing and selling hybrid and alterative fuel vehicles is to provide an alternative vehicle to the

buyer who wishes to reduce the use of our natural resources. The use of hybrid and alternative fuel vehicles will help the environment and reduce the production of carbon dioxide by

reducing the amount of fuel used.




CARBON-BASED SOCIETY

The term organic is applied to anything that was alive at one time. Throughout history most of the energy used in the world

is generated by burning organic fuel that contains carbon (abbreviated C). The economy that uses only carbon-based

fuels is often referred to as a carbon-based society. Carbon is formed from materials that were once alive on the earth

including:Plants that die and eventually are turned into coal, oil, and

natural gas.Animal life of all types that also dies and decays to form

carbon fuels.The source of carbon-based fuels is limited to the remains of

dead plants and animals and is therefore not a limitless resource.




CHEMICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF CARBON-BASED SOCIETY

In carbon-based biology, the basic energy storage compounds are in carbohydrates where the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds into a chain. (For example, CO2 plus H2O plus sunlight and chlorophyll = CH2O + O2). A carbohydrate is

oxidized (combined with oxygen) to release energy (and waste products of water and carbon dioxide).

Plants release oxygen during photosynthesis and animals, including humans, release carbon dioxide when they exhale.




Chemistry of the Atmosphere

When carbon is burned, it combines with the oxygen in the air. The atmosphere on earth has about 21% oxygen abbreviated O2

(pronounced “O two”), about 78% nitrogen abbreviated N2 (pronounced “N two”), and 1% of many other gases.




Chemistry of Carbon-Based Fuels

Organic chemistry names chemicals according to the number of carbon atoms that are in the element.

The name and number of the most commonly used carbon elements include:

Methane = one carbon atom. Ethane = two carbon atoms.

Propane = three carbon atoms. Butane = four carbon atoms. Pentane = five carbon atoms. Hexane = six carbon atoms.

Heptane = seven carbon atoms. Octane = eight carbon atoms.

The carbon atoms are attached to hydrogen atoms to form hydrocarbons (abbreviated HC).




Chemistry of Carbon-Based Emissions

When carbon-based fuels are burned, the carbon and the hydrogen from the fuel combines with the oxygen and the

nitrogen in the air to create many new and often dangerous compounds including:

Carbon monoxide (CO) - A colorless, odorless poisonous gasCarbon dioxide (CO2) - An inert greenhouse gas, which is

thought to cause global warmingHydrocarbons (HC)- This is simply unburned fuel and is one of the components of smog. (A term used to describe a condition that looks like smoke and/or fog and therefore the term smog).




THE CLEAN AIR ACT ESTABLISHES THE FRAMEWORK

The federal Clean Air Act (CAA) was established in 1970 to create nationwide air quality standards to protect public

health. The CAA also granted California, which has some of the worst

air quality in the nation, the authority to set its own vehicle emission standards. Other states began adopting the

stricter California standards beginning in 1990. Federal and California tailpipe standards limit exhaust

emissions of five pollutants:Hydrocarbons (HC) – a component of smog

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – a lung irritant and a component of smog

Carbon monoxide (CO) – a colorless, odorless poisonous gasParticulate matter (PM) – for diesel vehicles only; also

called sootFormaldehyde (HCHO) – thought to be a cancer-causing gas




Which Are the “Green States”?

States that have adopted the California emission standards are usually called green states. Other states that have adopted the California emission standards include Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont,

Pennsylvania, Oregon, and Washington.




EMISSION STANDARDS IN THE UNITED STATES

In the United States, emissions standards are managed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as well as some U.S. state governments. Some of the strictest standards in the world are enforced in California by the California Air

Resources Board (CARB).




Tier 1 and Tier 2:

Federal emission standards are grouped by Tier. All vehicles sold in the United States must meet Tier 1 standards that went into effect in 1994 and are the least stringent. Additional

Tier 2 standards have been optional since 2001, and are currently being phased in and are to be fully adopted by 2009.

The current Tier 1 standards are different between automobiles and light trucks (SUVs, pickup trucks, and

minivans), but Tier 2 standards will be the same for both types.




TLEV – Transitional Low Emission Vehicle – More stringent for HC than Tier 1.

LEV – (also known as: LEV I) Low Emission Vehicle, an intermediate California standard about twice as stringent as

Tier 1 for HC and NOX.ULEV – Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle (also known as: ULEV I), a

stronger California standard emphasizing very low HC emissions.




ULEV II – Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicle, a cleaner than average vehicle certified under the Phase II LEV

standard. Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions levels are nearly 50% lower than those of a LEV II-

certified vehicle.




SULEV- Super-Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicle, a California standard even tighter than ULEV, including much lower HC and NOX

emissions; roughly equivalent to a Tier 2 bin 2 vehicles. ZEV – Zero Emission Vehicle, a California standard prohibiting

any tailpipe emissions.




PZEV: Partial Zero-Emission Vehicle, compliant with the SULEV standard; additionally has near-zero evaporative emissions and

a 15-year/150,000-mile warranty on its emission control equipment.

Tier 2 standards are even more stringent. Tier 2 variations are appended with "II", such as LEV II or SULEV II. There are

other categories that have also been created. ILEV – Inherently Low-Emission Vehicle PZEV – Partial Zero Emission Vehicle




AT-PZEV – Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicle If a vehicle that meets the PZEV standards and is using high

technology features, such as an electric motor or high-pressure gaseous fuel tanks for

compressed natural gas, it qualifies as an AT-PZEV. Hybrid electric vehicles like the

Toyota Prius can qualify, as can internal combustion engine vehicles that run on natural

gas (CNG), such as the Honda Civic GX. These vehicles are classified as "partial" ZEV

because they receive partial credit for the number of ZEV vehicles that automakers would

otherwise be required to sell in California.

NLEV – National Low Emission Vehicle- all vehicles nationwide must meet this standard which started in 2001.




PZEV rated vehicles meet SULEV emission standards, but in addition must produce zero evaporative emissions and have an extended (15-year/150,000 mile) warranty on their emission-control equipment. Many gasoline vehicles from the 2001 and

later model years meet the standard for PZEV.




LEV Standard Categories

(Numbers in parenthesis are 100,000 mile standards for LEV I, and 120,000 mile standards for LEV II.

NMOG means non-methane organic gases, which includes alcohol. CO means carbon monoxide. NOX means oxides of nitrogen. PM means particulate matter, also known

as soot.)

NMOG

grams/mile

CO

grams/mile

NOX

grams/mile

LEV I

(Cars)

TLEV 0.125/0.156 3.4/4.2 0.4/0.6

LEV 0.075/0.090 3.4/4.2 0.2/0.3

ULEV 0.040/0.055 1.7/2.1 0.2/0.3

LEV II

(Cars and Trucks < 8,500 lbs)

LEV 0.075/0.090 3.4/4.2 0.05/0.07

ULEV 0.040/0.055 1.7/2.1 0.05/0.07

SULEV --/0.010 --/1.0 --/0.02




California LEV II 120,000 mile tailpipe emissions limits

(Numbers in parenthesis are 100,000 mile standards for LEV I, and 120,000 mile standards for LEV II.

NMOG means non-methane organic gases, which includes alcohol. CO means carbon monoxide. NOX means oxides of nitrogen. PM means particulate matter, also known

as soot. The specification is in grams per mile (g/mi).)

Certification Level NMOG (g/mi) CO (g/mi) NOX (g/mi)

LEV-2 0.090 4.2 0.07

ULEV-2 0.055 2.1 0.07

SULEV 0.010 1.0 0.02




Federal EPA Bin Number

The higher the Tier number, the newer the regulation and the lower the bin number, the cleaner the vehicle. The 2004

Toyota Prius is a very clean Bin 3, while the Hummer H2 is a dirty Bin 11.




EPA Tier 2 -120,000 Mile Tailpipe Emission Limits

Certification Level NMOG (g/mi) CO (g/mi) NOX (g/mi)

Bin 1 0.0 0.0 0.0

Bin 2 0.010 2.1 0.02

Bin 3 0.055 2.1 0.03

Bin 4 0.070 2.1 0.04

Bin 5 0.090 4.2 0.07

Bin 6 0.090 4.2 0.10

Bin 7 0.090 4.2 0.15

Bin 8a 0.125 4.2 0.20

Bin 8b 0.156 4.2 0.20

Bin 9a 0.090 4.2 0.30

Bin 9b 0.130 4.2 0.30

Bin 9c 0.180 4.2 0.30

Bin 10a 0.156 4.2 0.60

Bin 10b 0.230 6.4 0.60

Bin 10c 0.230 6.4 0.60

Bin 11 0.230 7.3 0.90Note: The bin number is determined by the type and weight of the vehicle.




Air Pollution ScoreUS EPA Vehicle Information Program

(The higher the score, the lower the emissions.)

Selected Emissions Standards Score

Bin 1 and ZEV 10

PZEV 9.5

Bin 2 9

Bin 3 8

Bin 4 7

Bin 5 and LEV II cars 6

Bin 6 5

Bin 7 4

Bin 8 3

Bin 9a and LEV I cars 2

Bin 9b 2

Bin 10a 1

Bin 10b and Tier 1 cars 1

Bin 11 0




Smog Emission Information

New vehicles are equipped with a sticker that shows the relative level of smog causing emissions created by the vehicle compared to others on the market. Smog causing emissions include unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides

of nitrogen (NOX).




California Standards

The pre-2004 California Air Resources Board (CARB) standards as a whole were known as LEVI. Within that, there were four possible ratings which included Tier 1, TLEV, LEV, and ULEV. The newest CARB rating system (since January 1, 2004) is known

as LEV II. Within that rating system there are three primary ratings which include LEV, ULEV, and SULEV. States other than

California are given the option to run with the Federal EPA standards, or they can adopt California's standards.




EUROPEAN STANDARDS

Europe has its own set of standards that vehicles must meet and include the following tiers:

Euro I (1992-1995) Euro II (1995-1999) Euro III (1999-2005) Euro IV (2005-2008)

Euro V (2008)




GREENHOUSE GASES

Greenhouse gases are those gases in our atmosphere that block harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun but if in too

great a concentration can prevent heat from escaping the surface, which leads to an increase in the temperature on

earth.




OZONE

Ozone is composed of three atoms of oxygen and is abbreviated O3. Ozone occurs naturally in the atmosphere and can be

detected by smell after a thunderstorm. Ozone has a strong clean smell, and in high concentrations, can be a lug and respiratory irritant. Ozone can be created by lightning, which breaks the molecular of oxygen (O2) into atoms (O), which then combine back into oxygen or combine to create

ozone.




Upper level ozone. Ozone located in the upper atmosphere (called the ozone layer) is helpful because it helps block

harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun from entering the lower atmosphere.




Ground level ozone. Ozone that is located at ground level or in the atmosphere close to the earth is a health concern

because it causes breathing problems including:Eye irritation

AsthmaShortness of breathChest tightness,

Wheezing




Vehicles and ozone. Exhaust from vehicles causes ground level ozone levels to increase because unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX) in the presence of sunlight combine to create ozone, also called smog, which is a term used to describe the smoke or fog-like appearance of ground

level ozone.




ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION ABSORPTION

Ultraviolet radiation is divided into three designations based on their reaction to living organisms. The designations

include:Designation “A”, abbreviated UVA, is not absorbed by the ozone layer and generally is not damaging to biological organisms.Designation “B”, abbreviated UVB, is only partially absorbed

by the ozone layer and can cause damage to biological organisms.

Designation “C”, abbreviated UVC, is almost completely absorbed by the ozone layer and represents little of any

health concerns.







Carbon dioxide that is generated as result of human activity is known an anthropogenic greenhouse gas.




KYOTO PROTOCOL

A meeting in Kyoto Japan on December 11, 1997 asked that countries voluntarily agree to reduce their overall emissions of greenhouse gases by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012. The United States and Australia signed this agreement but did not ratify it so these countries are not held accountable for reducing the amount of

greenhouse gases produced.




Ozone gas (O3) in the earth’s upper atmosphere filters ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from the sun before it reaches ground level. This process is essential to life on earth

because UV-B is associated with skin cancers, eye cataracts, and weakened immune systems. It can also reduce plant yields.

Certain man-made chemicals used in refrigeration, air conditioning, fire and explosion prevention and as solvents

can trigger reactions in the atmosphere that destroy the ozone layer.




Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) include:Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),

Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),Halons

Methyl bromide




HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

High levels of ozone, a respiratory irritant, can cause respiratory problems, including inflammation of the lungs.

Ozone exposure may lead to the following conditions:Premature death (due to long-term exposure to high levels of

ozone)Shortness of breath

Chest pain when inhaling deeplyWheezing and coughing

Another health concern involves particulate matter (PM), also called soot, which is found in the exhaust of diesel engines. Particulate matter has been linked to respiratory disease and

cancer.




What Are Volatile Organic Compounds?

Volatile organic compounds, abbreviated VOC, are gases emitted by paints, solvents, aerosol sprays, cleaners, glues,

permanent markers, pesticides, as well as fuels.Health effects of VOC emissions into the atmosphere

include:Eye, nose, and throat irritation

HeadachesNausea

To reduce the levels of volatile organic compounds released, always follow the manufacturer’s directions for use of

household and industrial products.




ACID RAIN

Acid rain refers to rain that has a pH lower than 7, indicating that it is acidic. Normal rain is pure water that is neither acidic with a pH of less than 7, nor alkaline with a pH greater than 7. Acid rain usually has a pH of 5.5 but

can be as low as 4.3 according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The rain becomes acidic due to gases in the atmosphere, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of

nitrogen (NOX). Sulfur dioxide combines with the rain water to form mild sulfuric acid; oxides of nitrogen combines with

rain water to form nitric acid.







Both acids are harmful to the environment and can cause the following problems:

Damage to forests and soilsDamage to fish because the acid rain makes lakes and

streams more acidicDamage to buildings and paint on vehicles

Damage to roads and sidewalks




CARBON FOOTPRINT

The carbon footprint is a representation of the effect a person or organization has on the climate in terms of the total volume of greenhouse gases (mostly carbon dioxide)

produced.




Reducing the Carbon Footprint

The following is a list of simple things you can do immediately, which will start to reduce your contribution to global warming. The items in this list will cost you no money

at all and will in fact save you money.1. Turn electrical devices off when not in use, such as

lights, television, DVD player, stereo, and computer.

2. Turn down the central heating slightly (try just 1 to 2 degrees).

3. Turn down the water heating setting (just 2 degrees will make a significant saving)

4. Check the central heating timer setting - there is no point heating the house if everyone is gone to work during the day.

5. Fill the dish washer and washing machine with a full load - this will save you water and

electricity, as well as detergent. 6. Unplug your cell phone as soon as it has finished

charging. 7. Defrost the freezer regularly; if not done automatically,

consider disabling the automatic function to save electricity.

8. Do shopping in a single trip. 9. Walk, rather than drive, to the gym.

10. Sign up with a green energy supplier, who will supply electricity from renewable

sources (e.g. wind and hydroelectric power). This will reduce the carbon footprint

contribution from energy sources that use carbon-based fuels.




The following is a list of items that may take an initial investment, but should pay for themselves over the course of 1

to 4 years through savings on your energy bills.1. Install energy saving light bulbs, such as compact

florescent bulbs, instead of incandescent bulbs.2. Install thermostatic valves on your radiators, if not

equipped.3. Insulate the hot water tank.

4. Insulate the sidewalls and ceiling of the house. 5. Replace an old freezer, if it is over 15 years old, with a

new one with a higher energy efficiency rating. 6. Replace an older furnace with a new energy-efficient unit.

7. Travel less and travel more carbon footprint friendly.8. Carpool to work or school.

9. Use the bus or a train rather than your vehicle.10. See if your employer will allow you to work from home one

day a week. 11. While on vacation, rent a bicycle to explore locally

rather than use a rental vehicle. 12. When staying in a hotel, turn the lights and air-

conditioning off when you leave your hotel room. 13. Ask for you room towels to be washed every other day,

rather than every day.




Besides the primary carbon footprint, there is also a secondary carbon footprint that has an indirect effect caused

by buying habits. 1. Buying foods out of season at the super market means that these will have to be shipped in from far away, adding to your

carbon footprint. 2. Buy local wine rather from European countries, Australia,

or South Africa.3. Buy local fruit and vegetables, or grow a garden.

4. Try to buy clothes and products from closer to home (avoid items that are made in the distant lands such as China and

India).




In addition, there is a carbon footprint at work. Do not leave the computer and monitor on when you are away from your desk. Turn off the lights when you leave the office. Try to avoid printing unnecessary documents. All of these activities

increase the carbon footprint.To decrease the carbon footprint, consider doing the

following:Plant trees

Avoid cutting down treesDrive less

Drive a more fuel-efficient vehicle, such as a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)




“Peak Oil”

Peak oil is a term used to define when the worldwide crude oil production peaks and starts to decline. Are we near peak oil? Some experts think that we are at or near peak oil and that from now on the oil supply for energy use is on the decline.




GLOBAL WARMING

In the past 300 billion years the earth’s climate has fluctuated between warm periods and cold periods. Ice age

started 3 million years ago. Glaciers advanced and retreated 20 times and they covered all of North America. We are in a warm period between glaciations, which peaked about 20,000

years ago. Heat is trapped in the earth’s atmosphere. As the gases increase, so does the heat.




The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere include:1. Water vapor (H2O)

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)3. Methane (CH4)

4. Nitrous Oxide (NOX)5. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Carbon dioxide increased 30% in the last 100 years and methane doubled; nitrous oxide has increased by 15% enhancing the heat

trapping capability of earth’s atmosphere. Global temperatures have increased 0.5° to 1.0°F since late 19th

century.




In the 20th century, the 10 warmest years occurred in last 15 years of the century with 1998 being the warmest year on record. This increased global

temperature has caused a rise in sea level and more frequent and intense storm and hurricanes due to the warmer ocean water, plus El Nino events, which are the

warming of the equatorial Pacific Ocean.










SUMMARY

1. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are capable of providing better fuel economy than a comparable size vehicle that uses

an internal combustion engine (ICE) alone. 2. Today’s society is based on the use of carbon-based

fuels, which are made from the remains of living plants and animals.

3. Carbon atoms are attached to hydrogen atoms to form hydrocarbons, abbreviated HC). The Clean Air Act (CAA) was created to establish standards to protect public health.

4. The CAA established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which in turn established emission standards.

5. Anthropogenic (man-mad) greenhouse gases (GHG) are causing an increase in the concentration of CO2 in the

atmosphere.6. The Kyoto Protocol calls for countries to voluntarily

reduce the formation of greenhouse gases by at least 5% below 1990 levels. To help reduce the generation of greenhouse

gases, reduce the total amount of fuel burned. 7. Global warming is thought to be occurring and is likely to be caused by the increased production of greenhouse gases.




REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose or the need for hybrid electric vehicles in today’s society?

2. What is meant by the term “carbon-based society”?3. What are hydrocarbons? List eight hydrocarbons.

4. What are the meanings of the following terms: TLEV, LEV, ULEV, SULEV, ZEV, NLEV, PZEV, and AT-PZEV?

5. Which type of ultraviolet radiation is the most harmful to living organisms on earth?

6. What are six things that a person can do to reduce their carbon footprint?

Documents

EPA Tier 2 -120,000 Mile Tailpipe Emission Limits