back) is a comprehensive account of the changes which have affected social housing in five European countries: the l /K, |:rance. West (Jermany, the Netherlands and the USSR. This is it personal study of tile social and man- agcnaent problems which are being cxpclicnced internationally. It is of unustml depth and insight, written by a civil servant who has worked extcn- siveh at the central-local governnlent interface. It is based upon his experi- ence and a series of extensive Jilter- view'~, m the countries covered (aided by hinguage skills unusual in this field). The author is a senior official in the t ;K Department of the Environ- mont. (The address of the School for Advanced Urban Studies is: Rodncy I.odgc. (}range Road, Bristol BS8 4EA. The School also issues a cata- logue of all its publications.)

The Municipal Year Book 1991 fol- lows its usual pattern of collating ex- tensive data on municipal officials and their salaries, together with reference material on such matters its directories of nninicipal organizations and othcr sources of in format ion, and a number of arlicles. The latter cover manage- mcnt issues and trends (including

inf ras t ruc ture f inance, affordable housing, and affirmative action), and intcrgovernmental relations (including a review of major judicial decisions, and congressional actions affecting municipal]tics). It is published by the International City Manvgement Asso- ciation, 777 North Capitol Street, NE, Suite 50(1, Washington, U(" 20002.

John M. l,evy's 1991 book has been substantially revised for its second edi- tion: Economic IJevelolmU'nt Prog- ram.s for ('tries, ('ountie,~ and Towns, Praeger. 1990. 192 pp. US$39.95 hard- back, US$19.95 paperback. Much new material has been added to reflect the increasingly important role of state government, heightened intermuni- cipal competition, rising foreign in- vestment, the dinfinished availability of federal development funds and so forth. 1.ikc the previous edition, this is designed as a 'how to" hook for the practitioner, its well its being a student text. The author provides i, generi, I framework for considering the pros and cons of various economic develop- ment approaches, offers an overview of the new federal role in local econo- mic development policy, and presents a systematic discussion of local econo-

Bookwatch:'Book reviews

mic development techniques, strategy, financing and tax abatement, federal and state programmes, and marketing and promotion. John l,evy is an associate professor of urban affairs and planning at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

The constitution plays a much larger role in US city planning policy than is the case in other countries. The stu- dent of city policies thcrefl)rc must keep abreast of constitutiomd action and thought. A leading contributor to the latter is Professor l.aurencc Tribe who, with Michael ('. l)orf, is author of a useful thoughtful essay entitled On Reading the Constitution ( l la rvard University Press, Can]bridge, MA, 1991, 144 pp, US$18.95 hardback}. Though addressed to lawyers, the book will convey to the general rel,der the isstics which are raised in a country governed by a written constitution.

d. Barry Cullingworth College of Urban Affairs and Public

Policy, University of Dela ware,

Newark, DE, USA

Book reviews A time for action ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES FOR CITIES IN THE 1990s

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OECD, Paris, 1990, 91pp

REVIVING THE CITY: Towards Sustainable Development

T. Elkin and D. McLaren with M. Hill- man

Friends of the Earth, London, 1991, 277pp

If the 1970s and 1980s were decades of warning of e n v i r o n m e n t a l catas-

trophe, there is a grove]rig consensus that the 1990s hits to be a time for action. Experts may continue to differ on detail, but there is no argument of worth that disputes the necessity for new policies not simply to combat existing environmental degradation but also to discover ways of living more in harmony with ot, r natural surroundings . Publ icat ions, then, which go beyond polemic to put the focus on viable policies for the future are to bc warmly welcomed. Around the world there is a ready readership in search of constructive ideas.

Each of the above two books con- centrates on policies for cities. With nearly half of the world's population expected to be living in cities by the year 20(X), this emphasis is more than

justified. Correctly, however, in neith- er book is attention confined to en- vironmental conditions within urbvn boundaries but each takes its its remit the global inaplications of city life- styles. The books share a common sense of concert1 and are very n3uch products of their tin]e, but in other respects they reflect different briefs.

En viron mental Policies lor the 1990s is. in fact, a report prepared by a project group established under the auspices of the O E C D Group on Urban Affairs. The three-year project was conducted in the context of a need to design urban policies that ,,,,'ill en- able cities to grow and prosper with- out dmiinishing environmental pros- peets for future generations. The ta.,,k of seeking to meet two apparently irreconcilable sets of requirements, is difficult enough in i t s e l f - but it is, additionally, a task that has to he met across the ideological boundaries of the 26 member states (ranging from Turkey to USA. Iceland to Greece).

Thus, the way forward is charted in

CITIES November 1991 329

t~ook reviews

terms of reliance tin market principles. These, it is contended, have shtlwn themselves adaptable to social consid- erations, and now simihir adjustments have to be nlade to encompass en- vironmental factors. The measurabLe gains of so dt)ing are that rnember states will not incur the costs t/f en- vironmental degradat ion (often ema- nating in a ne ighbourmg country); that there will be at bet ter allocation of resources worldwide: and that l(mg- te rm economic growth can be phmned without the radical disruptions caused by a series of environmental disasters.

More tellingly (if one is to win the support of municipal politicians) en- vironmental qua l i t y and the sustain- able use ()f natura l resources can he used to enhance the competi t iveness of individual cities. The day has long past when smoke was a visible symbol of economic vitality; it is not tile grimy cities of the former East ( iernlany. revealed so starkly when the Iron Cur- taJn was d rawn back. that o f fer at glimpse of tile future st) much as clean- er, more energy efficient cities like Frankfurt , ( 'o logne and lh imburg .

The projcct findings are presented at tw(I levels • tile first dealing with urban environmental policies in gener- al, and tile second through a topic case study approach looking, m turn, at local in i t ia t ives in urban rehabil l t ; , i- titin, urban transport and urban ener- gy management . The framework is coherent enough; but as is so often the case with reports that require the agreement of different rncmber states, the prose reflects a mixture of banality (designed to of fend no one) and in t r i - cate reservat ions ( inser ted, 11() doub t , to meet ind iv idua l needs). "l'hcit said, the i n l po r tan t th ing is not the qucil i ty o f t i le prose so much as the fact thai the repor t was wr i t t en at al l and the c lear sense o f c o m m i t m e n t that shines th rough. Phe reader who goes beyond the sections which ad(I l i t t le to our know ledge o f t i le subicct is rewarded by at series of 12 accoun ts of proven good practice from various of the member states. There is, for instance, the ca.se of Angers, France, where a kecn sense of local env i ronmenta l consciousness has been deve loped , and where an at tempt has heetl made to in tegra te municipal pol icies to

maximize environmental protection. In Stockholm a study of politically acceptable ways of reducing car use hats revealed that an area licensing schenle combined with a public trails- port fare reduction could lead to a 30% target reduction of nitrogen ox- ide emissions. Reference is also made to the example of l )enmark ' s energ,',, s t ra tegies , inchiding tile beneficial effects of increasing conlbincd heat and power/district heating schemes - yielding substantial energy sa'~ings and a corresponding reduction of emis- sions of carbon dioxide.

The evidence of good practice is not, hmvcvcr , to bc overstated, in some cases, initiatives have ,vet to be irnplernerned v,,hile elscvvhcre they re-

main marginal within a general sctting of degradati tm. The OI -CI ) report points the way to further imprt)ve- nlcnts but there is still a very hmg wa$. to go . Spreading evidence of proven good practice will be one way in which this initial work can be followed tip.

In a more comprehensive study, deal ing with at greater number of topics and with its authors not hehol- den to tile different priorities of at variety of nation states, Reviving l i l t " City also sets sustainabil i ty centre stage but has about it a greater sense of urgency. Pt.blishcd by Friends of the Ear th , there is nothing mealy mt)uthed about the text in this case. It provides a purposh'e acctiunl t)f tile problem and atl uninhibited search for solutions.

The airn of the book is to discuss "ill practical terms, how cities, and in particular, UK cities, might develop towards sustainability into the tv.'ent).- first century ' . The book is pervaded hv at serise t)f urgency thut new policies must be introduced now s(i that, by the end of the 1990s, "renewable ener- gy supplies sh()uh.I he on stream, mass transit systems constructed, nluch of our huikling stock refurbished, [and] the necessary infrastructure ill place to prevent contaminat ion of sewage' . It is also a positive b()ok, with a belief that cities ('an he revived.

In spite of its I_JK orientat ion, the analysis and prcscription is clearly of comparat ive interest. Sustainability is rightly defined ira terms not only of future needs and cnvirotmlental costs

of all new development I~ut also as a social concept. Thus, equity and parti- cipation are acknowledged as essential principles for policies of sustainability. In so doing, attention is drawn to the highly challenging isstie of providing equal access to cnvi ronnlcn ta l re- sources for currently deprived popula- tions in tile Third WorhJ. It is no longer enough to sock to solve prob- lems of sustamability as if they were sirnply the preserve of thc richer na- tions.

l ' u achieve its aim of prmiding at basis for new policies, the book is divided into two scctions, the first examining six key topics (built en- vironment , transport, energy, natural env i ronment , food and agriculture, and w:.istc atnd pollut ion) and the second discussing broader socioec(mo- mac issties. As an example of the stance taken, the chapter on the buih en~,ironment rests on the argument that the bcst way to achieve sustaina- hility is through conlpl,ctness. "Fhc simplicity of this argument is appeal- ing: by concentrat ing at city's activities at mecliunl to high densities economies arc yielded in terms not t,nlv tit the use of land itself but also of support ing services. The scope for nlaximizing the efficiency of, say, public transport or district heating systems ix consider- able. And to the functional consictcra- tions are added the looser arguments of a , , itality of city life that ix evident hi plaices like Covent (}arden, not to mcntion parts of New York ~)f 30 years ago. as invoked by ,lane Jacohs.

But the case its put alll(iunts |t) a position paper. It rightly draws atten- tion to at key area for policy makers to review. For most of the 2(Rh century the trend has been towards rclativclv Imv density dispersal, and it ix most certainly time to reassess whether this is adequate to allay otn+ cttrrent con- terns about the environnlell t . At the same time, the ahernat ive case fits prescnted I~y I--Ikins el al) is hy no nleans proven.

At the Lrniversi ty of R e a d i n g , Michael Breheny is undertaking re- search for the Depar tment of the En- vironrnellt on this very isstie of con- ccntration as opposed to dispersal, and his initial thoughts (as expressed at the Annual Conference of tile Town

3 3 0 C I T I E S N o v e m b e r 1991

and Country Planning Association in November 1990) are to urge caution. Ouick fire, common sense conclusions on this complex subject are by no means necessarily a sound basis for long-terrn policies. Elsewhere, Colin Ward argues that low density develop- ment (with more opportuni t ies for honlc based emph)yment) might well he environmental ly friendly: the Town and ( ' oun t ry Planning Associa t ion persists with its long held advocacy of dispersal: and one can point to numer- ous cases of h)cal opposit ion to what is popularly known its "town cramming' .

So here lies a real di lemma. The solution offered for the futt, re de- velolmlent of the bt, ilt env inmmen t is but :m exemplar of how a range of topics, e~,ch of which is in itself highly contentious, might be dealt with. A massive shift from public to private transport systems, the implications of a real reduction in energy consulnp- tion. and an overhaul of agricultural subsidies in favour of local and sus- tainable methods of production repre- sent a challenging political agenda. Sustainability is not a soft option" far

from being something that can be simply grafted on to existing struc- tures, it calls to account the workings of every existing institution. Not least of all, it questions the very csseiIce (:,f econornic growth its traditionally per- ceived.

To thei r credi t , the team from Friends of the Earth ask the right quest ions and are not reticent about providing answers. There is much to debate in all their recommendat ions , and there is much with which one might disagree. But it is hard to escape the conclusion that time is running out and that one might have to forgo a traditional sequence of research fol- Iovced by policy making, in favour of a parallel process of on going resc:trch alongside the early implen]entation of new and radical policies. For policy makers this may be the most difficult aspect of sustaim,bility with which to come to terms.

Dennis Hardy School of Geography and Planning

Middlesex Polytechnic, UK

Laissez-faire HOUSING AFRICA'S URBAN POOR

Edited by P. Amis and P. Lloyd

Manchester University Press, Man- chester, 1990, 305 pp

Perhaps l low Africa's Urban Poor Hou.~e Themseh,es would have been a title that better reflected the general theme that runs through most of the contributions to this very useful book. Inevitably it is amplified by observa- tions and analyses of the ineffective- ness of government programmes and the inability of the formal commercial sector to impinge upon the housing needs or satisfy the demands of the majori ty of Africa 's urban population. The story is not new: it hits been around since Charles Abrams ' s Hous- ing in the Modern World appeared more than a quar ter of a century ago. I Iowcvcr , most of the generally avail-

able l i terature rests upon research from Latin America and Asia. This book, a collection of 17 contributions from recent or on going urban re- search in Africa is an important con- tribution to the redress of this bias.

The context of urban housing de- privation and environmental degrada- tion in Africa is that of unemployment and poverty. This, in turn, is the pro- duet of structural decline in agrictdtu- ral productivity since the 1960s, cou- pled with the failure to develop the industrial infrastructure upon which subSaharan Africa pinned its hopes and ambitions at independence 20-30 years ago. Thus the continent which is urbanizing faster than any other is doing so with little indication that, unl ike l,atin Amer ica or much of Asia, the process is deve lopmenta l in any sense or at any level: individual, community , metropol i tan or national. At the same t ime political and admi-

Book reviews

nistrative institutions have not been able to develop in any way commensu- rate with the growing enormity of the task of maintaining the social and physical infrastructure at anywhere near an adequate level. These contex- tual issues are discussed and substanti- ated in an excellent long introductory chapter by Philip Amis.

In response to this, throughout the continent (and most of the rest of the Third World) , there hits been a more or less coherent change in approach to public sector and aid agency interven- tion in the housing market on behalf of the lowest t, rban income groups. This has progressed from ambitious but unrealizable policies for the deliv- ery of highly subsidized, high quality, dwelling units built in the public works tradition, to various forms of aided self help in which the role of the public sector is reduced to the provision of infrastructure and management ser- vices in support of individual and pri- vate sector initiative and endeavour . I lowever , even this hits failed to reach all but a minority of Africa 's urban poor, the vast majori ty being left to house t hemse lves , increas ingly in rented accommodat ion in illegal, un- serviced sett lements. This process is e laborated by Stren and ( 'oquery who report on two major longitudinal re- s e a r c h p r o j e c t s e m b r a c i n g bo th Anglophone and Francophone cot, n- tries. The latter also comments upon the conceptual inadequacy of the con- ventional terminology of housing re- search and calls for more sensitive definitions and tools of analysis.

The middle part of the book con- tains eight case studies embracing different aspects of urban housing markets in Lagos (Akin Aina) , Cairo (El Kadi and Wikan). "lunis (Stam- b o u l i ) , N a i r o b i ( I . e e - S m i t h ) and Lilongwe (Pennant) with a brief over- view of Nigerian federal housing poli- cies (Okoye) and an authori tat ive re- view of urban residential land markets and prices in Kenya making compara- t ive r e f e r e n c e to o t h e r coun t r i e s ( Y a h y a ) . B e t w e e n t h e m , t h e s e accounts start to dispel some of the more convenient assumptions (myths) that underpin the conventional wis- dom of slum and squatter communi- ties ' abili t ies to harmoniously and

CITIES November 1991 331