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This article was downloaded by: [39.213.54.70]On: 15 July 2012, At: 13:47Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,London W1T 3JH, UK
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTASSESSMENTL. W. Canter a ba Civil Engineering and EnvironmentalScienceb National Center for Ground WaterResearch, University of Oklahoma, Norman,Oklahoma
Version of record first published: 06 Feb2012
To cite this article: L. W. Canter (1982): ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTASSESSMENT, Impact Assessment, 1:2, 6-40
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07349165.1982.9725447
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT L.W. Canter*
Over 14,000 environmental impact statements (EISs) have been prepared in the United States since the January 1,1970 ef- fective date of the National Environmental Policy Act (Public Law 91-190). In addition, the number of prepared environmen- tal impact assessments (EIAs) exceeds, by a t least an order of magnitude, the number of EISs. An EIA refers to a document that provides sufficient analysis for determining whether to prepare an EIS or a finding of no significant impact (FONSI). The basic purpose of NEPA is to ensure that the environment is considered in project planning and decision-making along with traditional technical factors and economic analyses. The 1979 Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations gave emphasis to using scientific approaches and techniques in im- pact prediction and analysis (Council on Environmental Quality, 1978). This emphasis was due, in part, to the fact that many EIAs and EISs prepared during the 1970s were lacking in scientific approach.
The purpose of this paper is to identify scientific methods and techniques which can be used in environmental impact studies. A complete review of applicable approaches is beyond the scope of this paper, therefore, only examples will be cited. A framework for the conduct of environmental impact studies is shown in Figure 1 (Canter, 1977). Key elements include basic activities, preparation of a description of the affected environ- ment, impact prediction and assessment, selection of the preferred action from alternative plans based on environmental effects and other considerations, and appropriate environmen- tal documentation through the writing of an EIA or EIS.
BASIC ACTIVITIES Basic activities include the formulation of alternatives for
meeting identified needs and the thorough review of ap- propriate laws, regulations, and executive orders. There are
*Professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science and Co-Director, National Center for Ground Water Research, Un- iversity of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
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Basic
> Impact Pre
dict
ion - Selec
tion o
f Wr
i t t e
n Activities
and Asse
ssment
Proposed Action-
Documentation
T Description
of
Affected E
nvironment
Figu
re 1:
Framew
ork
for Envirorimental Impact St
udie
s
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over 30 federal laws, regulations, and executive orders which must be considered in the preparation of EIAs or EISs. Another aspect is the formation of an interdisciplinary study team ap- propriate for each study in each geographical location. Inter- disciplinary study teams should include persons who can ad- dress impacts on the physical and chemical, biological, cultural, and socio-economic environments (U.S. Soil Conser- vation Service, 1977). Basic activities also include the iden- tification of potential environmental impacts from alternative plans. Several approaches can be utilized, including literature reviews on the environmental consequences of similar projects (Canter, 1980), and the development of interaction matrices or networks. Interaction matrices are directed toward identifying the potential impacts of project features on identified environ- mental factors (Leopold, 1971; Fischer and Davies, 1973; Bhutani, et al., 1975; Yorke, 1978; Baram and Webster, 1979). Networks refer to structured approaches in which initial and subsequent environmental changes are linearly displayed (Sorenson, 1971; Whitlich, 1976; and U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1977).
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT The second element is the preparation of a description of the
affected environment for the potential area of influence. This requires identification of environmental factors and their organization into physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and socio-economic components. Numerous checklists of environ- mental factors are available (Dee, et al., 1972; Carstea, et al., 1975; Voorhees and Associates, 1975; Fitzsimmons, Stuart, and Wolff, 1975; Duke, et al., 1977; Canter and Hill, 1979). Major tasks include the procurement of existing baseline information as well as the planning and conduct of necessary field studies. Table 1 lists example references on data sources and planning. An important need is to recognize interrelationships among en- vironmental factors; one approach is to use indices for air and water quality, and biological and socio-economic features (Inhaber, 1976; Ott, 1978).
IMPACT PREDICTION AND ASSESSMENT The most important technical element involves the predic-
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tion of changes in environmental factors resulting fro6 alter7 native plans, and the interpretation and assessment of their significance. Every attempt should be made to quantify an- ticipated changes and to use scientific rationale for significance assessment. Impact prediction and assessment can be con- sidered relative to environmental components, and within the physical-chemical component are mathematical models for predicting changes in air, water, and noise quality as well as other geological or physical features. Table 2 lists some example references for various models. Assessment of impact significance can be based on environmental standards for air, water, and noise quality; and the exercise of professional judg- ment.
Biological impact prediction is primarily based on habitat or land use changes or more sophisticated approaches such as the Habitat Evaluation Procedure (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980) and the Habitat Evaluation System (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1980). A key limitation is the absence of techniques for quantifying habitat changes, particularly when considering long-term effects. Highly sophisticated approaches involve the use of energy systems diagrams, although this technique is not widely used due to data, personnel, and resource requirements. Significance interpretation should be based on appropriate laws, regulations, and executive orders as well as the applica- tion of ecological principles and professional judgement. Table 3 lists some example references for biological impact prediction and assessment.
Impact prediction and assessment for the cultural environ- ment involves eonsideration of changes in historic and archeological resources as well as cultural attributes such as visual quality. Several methodologies exist for describing the visual quality of an area, and, by use of conceptual drawings and photographs, these same methodologies can be used to quantify and evaluate project-induced changes in visual quality. Table 4 identifies some example references for the cultural environment.
Socio-economic impact prediction can be based on models ranging from simple extrapolation techniques to complicated econometric approaches. Interpretation of changes can be based on recommended standards or criteria, geographical
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averages, and the relationship of the information to original design standards or concepts (Voorhees and Associates, 1975; Fitzsimmons, Stuart,-and Wolff, 1975; Chalmers and Anderson, 1977). Table 5 lists some example references for socio-economic impact prediction and assessment.
SELECTION OF PROPOSED ACTION Selection of the proposed action from a series of alternative
plans represents the focal element in the environmental impact process. Systematic methodologies should be used to compare alternatives; many methodologies involve multiple criteria decision-making wherein decision factors are assigned impor- tance weights and each alternative is evaluated based on each decision factor. Alternatives can be scaled or ranked from best to worst in terms of each of the decision factors, with a final decision matrix used for displaying the results. Table 6 iden- tifies some methodologies which can be useful in the selection process. Several types of alternatives should be considered, in- cluding site locations, timing alternatives, various design features of specific alternatives a t specific locations, and no ac- tion (Council on Environmental Quality, 1978).
DOCUMENTATION The final element is the preparation of written documenta-
tion. Appropriate technical writing principles should be utilized in the preparation of either an EIA or EIS. One of the best aids is the development of an extensive outline prior to initiating the writing process. Liberal usage should be made of visual display materials such as maps, photographs, tables, and figures. Glossaries of technical terms can also be useful in documenta- tion. Scientific referencing should be utilized for procured en- vironmental setting information as well as impact prediction techniques.
CONCLUDING REMARKS Numerous scientific methods and techniques are available
for usage in environmental impact studies; however they have not been extensively used due to one or more of the following reasons: (1) minimal emphasis on their use until the 1979 CEQ regulations; (2) information gap due to lack of knowledge of
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available approaches on the part of many practitioners; (3) non-existence of current technology during the early years of the decade of the 1970s; and (4) general reluctance to use ap- proaches which 3re perceived to be time and cost consuming.
Usage of scientific methods and techniques is expected to in- crease due to the 1979 CEQ regulations and the growing emphasis on public participation. Active public participation programs encourage practitioners to utilize the most ap- propriate methods and techniques in environmental impact studies. In fact, public participation undergirds all elements in the framework for environmental impact studies. Appropriate public participation techniques should be selected based on the objectives of the public participation effort, the potential publics to be involved, and the communication characteristics of individual techniques relative to objectives and publics (Bishop, 1975). Another reason for an increasing usage of scien- tific methods and techniques is the increasing knowledge base for conduct of environmental impact studies.
One of the long-term benefits of the environmental impact process is that needed research continues to be identified by agencies. This directed research should lead to cost reductions in project planning as a result of new information on the en- vironmental effects of various project types. Some research needs related to environmental impact studies are listed in Table 7. Only the first two items will be addressed from the non-prioritized listing. Post-audit analysis refers to studies needed to verify whether or not predicted impacts actually oc- curred, and if their magnitudes match those that were an- ticipated. If post-audit analyses can be made, this will enable better conduct of future studies since the approaches can be calibrated to more accurately reflect anticipated impacts. Value judgments are used throughout the enviromental impact process, and research is needed to better understand and in- tegrate value judgments within the process.
Finally, environmental impact studies should be based on the use of a systematic framework and approach. There is no substitute for the application of the scientific process and ap- propriate technology in environmental impact studies. These studies must be founded on these principles in order to achieve an appropriate consideration of the environment in project planning and decision-making.
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TABLE 1: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON STUDIES OF THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area Reference
Data Sources Golden, et al. (1979)- Data reference book for environmental impact studies.
Keown and Weathersby (1976)-Catalog of in- formation sources for en- vironmental baseline
description.
Meyers, Fake, and Au- sura (1977)-Directory of major environmental data bases maintained by federal agencies.
Naval Environmental Support Office (1976)- Sources of environment- al information are listed, including federal and California state sources.
Van Weringh, e t al. (1975) -Collection of Environ- mental laws, regulations, and standards.
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Study Planning Burns (1978)-Proceed- ings of symposium on planning for environ- mental impact studies.
Rau and Wooten (1980)- Comprehensive hand- book for conducting en- vironmental impact studies.
States, et al. (1978)- Planning for ecological baseline studies.
Stout, et al. (1978)-Plan- ning for integrated baseline studies of the environment.
Ward (1978)-Book on planning, conducting, and interpreting bio- logical impact studies.
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TABLE 2: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT P R E D I C T I O N A N D A S S E S S M E N T F O R T H E
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area Reference
Air
Surface Water
Busse and Zimmerman (1973)-Discussion of climatological disper- sion model (CDM) .
Turner (1970)-Work- book of atmospheric dispersion calculations from multiple source types.
U.S. Environmental Pro- tection Agency (1977) -Discussion of single- source, steady-state Gaussian plume dis- persion model.
Brown (1979)-221 ab- stracts on the hydro- dynamics and model- ing of heated effluents.
Nemorow (1974)-Book on modeling water quality resulting from organic pollution.
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Ground Water
Non-Point Pollution
Orlob (1977)-Literature review of mathematic- al modeling of surface water impoundments.
Ozturk (1979)-Model of dissolved oxygen in es- tuaries.
Velz (1970)-Book on modeling water quality resulting from organic, inorganic, thermal, and bacterial pollution.
Hammer and MacKichan (1981)-Overview of quantity and quality aspects of surface and ground water.
Prickett (1979)-Sum- mary of ground water modeling techniques.
Overton (1977)-Model- ing of effects of land use changes on stream- flow quantity and qual- ity.
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Noise
U.S. Environmental Pro- tection Agency (1976) -Procedures for pre- dicting impacts of ur- ban stormwater.
Walker (1976)-Litera- ture review of irriga- tion return flow models.
Kessler, e t al. (1978)- Evaluation of con- struction site noise.
Magrab (1975)-Book on noise prediction from variety of source types.
TABLE 3: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT P R E D I C T I O N A N D A S S E S S M E N T F O R T H E
BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area Reference
Habitat Approaches U.S. Army Corps of En- gineers (198O)--Sys- tematic methodology for aquatic and terres- trial ecosystem evalua- tions.
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Ecosystem Models
U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service (1980)-Proce- dural manual for es- timating and compar- ing development pro- ject impacts on fish and wildlife resources.
Gilliland and Risser (1977)-Systems dia- grams and energy flow analysis of activities a t White Sands Mis- sile Range.
Green (1978)-Model for the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem with sub- models on wetlands, plankton, seagrasses , other benthos, and fish trophic levels.
Najarian and Harleman (1977)-Model of nitro- gen-cycle dynamics in an estuarine system.
O’Neill, Ferguson, and Watts (1977)-946 re- ferences on mathema- tical modeling, with emphasis on forest bi- omes.
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Assessment
Ostrofsky and Duthie (1978)-Methodology for modeling productiv- ity in reservoirs.
Veith, Defoe, and Berg- stedt (1979)-Model for estimating bioconcen- tration of organic chemicals in fish.
Walker and Bayley (1978)-Quantification of the contribution of natural ecosystems to man’s economy in be- nefit - cost analysis.
Bovee and Cochnauer (1977)-Methodology using weighted criteria to assess impacts on stream habitats.
Fletcher and Busnel (1978)-Book summa- rizing effects of noise on aquatic and terres- trial wildlife.
Mueller (1977)-Discus- sion of burdening ca- pacity of ecosystems.
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Perez (1978)-Discussion of persistence limits in ecological systems.
Sharma (1975)-Confer- ence proceedings on determining the sig- nificance of biological impacts.
Stalnaker and Arnette (1976)-Methodologies for determining in- stream flow require- ments for fish, terres- trial wildlife, and wa- ter quality.
T m L E 4: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON I M P E T P R E D I C T I O N A N D A S S E S S M E N T FOR T H E
CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area Reference
Historical and Archeolog- ical Resources
Dickens and Hill (1978) -16 papers on cultural resources planning and management.
King (1978)-Description of methods for con- ducting archeological surveys.
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Visual Quality Bagley, Kroll, and Clark (1973)-Review of 12 methodologies for measuring or quan- tifying aesthetics.
Felleman (1975) -Review of numerical, geomet- ric, and geomorphic landform description approaches for eval- uating scenic quality.
Harper (1975)-Use-ori- ented method for visual quality evaluation of the coastal zone.
U S . Bureau of Land Management (19783)- Description of visual resource contrast ra- ting system.
U.S. Bureau of Land Management (1978b)- Description of method for upland visual re- source inventory and evaluation.
U.S. Forest Service (1974)-Description of visual management system used for the
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Forest Service studies in the northwestern United States.
U S . Soil Conservation Service (1978)-De- scription of procedure for landscape resource quality.
TABLE 5: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT
MENT PREDICTION FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRON-
Topical Area Reference General Approaches Daneke and Delli Pris-
coli (1979) -Discussion of quality of life ac- counting me t hodolo- gies.
Finsterbush and Wolf (1977)-Book on meth- odologies for social im- pact assessment.
Frendeway, Monarchi, and Taylor (1977)- Model for regional im- pacts of population, employment, manufac- turing, commerce, and service industries.
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Specific Projects
Shapiro, Luecks, and Kuhner (1978)-Eval- uation of the infra- structure requirements resulting from secon- dary development.
Chalmers and Anderson (1977)-Methodology for prediction of eco- nomic and demogra- phic impacts of water resources projects.
Christiansen (1976)- Methodology for ad- dressing social impacts of land development projects.
FitzPatrick , et al. (1977) -Methodology for e- valuation of the secon- dary impacts of waste- water treatment facili- ties.
Fitzsimmons, Stuart, and Wolf (1975)- Methodology for de- velopment of social well-being account for water resources pro- jects.
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Guldberg and D’Agos- tino (1978)-Total air pollutant emissions from induced develop- ment from a waste- water project.
Muller (1975)-Method- ology for addressing fiscal impacts of land development projects.
Muller (1976)-Method- ology for addressing economic impacts of land development pro- jects.
Mumphrey, Thayer, and Wagner (1977)-Socio- economic impacts from outer continental shelf oil and gas develop- ment.
Willeke (1978)-Socio- economic impacts from wastewater manage- ment plans.
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TABLE 6: EXAMPLES OF METHODOLOGIES FOR COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVES AND SELECTION
OF PROPOSED ACTION
Methodology Reference
Matrices Phillips and DeFilippi (1976)-Matrix analy- sis and narrative de- scription for waste- water management system.
Schwind (1977)-Matrix used to evluate im- pacts of alternative land uses in terms of cost-benefit approach- es.
Sellers and North (1979) -Matrix for evalua- tion of trade-offs be- tween economic and environmental objec- tives in water resour- ces planning.
Tamblyn and Cederborg (1975)-Matrix for nu- clear power plant site selection.
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Checklists
Modeling
Ahmed, Husseiny, and Cho (1979)-Checklist for development of in- dex of site acceptabil- ity for nuclear power plants.
Burnham, Nealey, and
Weighting checklist for combining societal and technical judgements relative to nuclear power plant siting.
Maynard (1975)-
Coastal Environments, Inc. (1976)-Checklist for evaluating on-shore impacts from off-shore oil and gas develop- ment.
Gertz (1978)-Ranking checklist coupled with non-parametric statis- tical analysis.
Sondheim (1978)-Sca- ling checklist for eval- uation of a proposed dam project.
Hill (1976) -Resource allocation model for evaluation of waste-
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Miscellaneous
water management al- ternatives.
Lavine (1979)-Energy a- nalysis model for con- ducting environmental cost-benefit analyses for transportation ac- tions.
Schrender, Rustagi, and Bare (1976)-Simula- tion models for eval- uating the impacts of alternative wildland- use decisions.
Babb and Hickey (1978) -Use of computer graphics for evaluation of impacts from con- ventional energy sys- tems.
Duckstein, et al. (1977)- Methodology for inclu- ding uncertainty in en- vironmental impact as- sessment.
Hydrologic Engineering Center (1978)-Use of grid cell banks in en- vironmental impact as- sessment.
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Keeney (1976)-Decision- making using multi- attribute utility tech+ niques.
Rubinstein and Horn (1978)-Methodology for including risk ana- lysis in environmental impact assessment.
TABLE 7: RESEARCH NEEDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT' STUDIES
Post-Audit Analysis
Value Judgment Approaches
Techniques for Impact Prediction and Assessment
Substantive Areas of Increasing Importance (acid rain, ground water, wetlands, energy development)
Decision-Making Techniques
Public Participation Techniques
Benefits and Costs of Environmental Impact Studies
Procedures for Systematic Review of EIS's
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SELECTED REFERENCES Ahmed, S., Husseiny, A.A., and Cho, H.Y. (1979). Formal
Methodology for Acceptability Analysis of Alternate Sites for Nuclear Power Stations, Nuclear Engineering Design, 51, 361-388.
Babb, M.C. and Hickey, H.R., Jr. (1978). Applications of Com- puter Graphics to Inregrated Environmental Assessments of Energy Systems, TVA/EP-78/10, Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Bagley, M.D., Kroll, C.A., and Clark, C. (1973). Aesthetics in Environmental Planning, EPA-600/5-73-009, U.S. Environ- mental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Baram, R. and Webster, R.D. (1979). Interactive Environmental Impact Computer System (EICS) User Manual, CERL-TR- N-80, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Labor- atory, Champaign, Illinois.
Bhutani, J., et al. (1975). Impacts of Hydrologic Modification on Water Quality, EPA-600/2-75-007, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Bishop, A.B. (1975). Structuring Communications Programs for Public Participation in Water Resources Planning, IWR Contract Report 75-2, U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Water Resources, Fort Belvoir, Virginia.
Bovee, K.D. and Cochnauer, T. (1977). Development and Evaluation of Weighted-Criteria, Probability-of-Use Curve for lnstream Flow Assessments: Fisheries, Report No. FWS/OBS-77/63, IFIP-3, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
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Brown, R.J. (1979). Thermal Pollution, Part 3. Hydrology and Hydrodynamics (A Bibliography with Abstracts), National Technical Information Service, U S . Department of Com- merce, Springfield, Virginia.
Burnham, J.B., Nealey, S.M., and Maynard, W.S. (1975). Method for Integrating Societal and Technical Judgements in Environmental Decision Making, Nuclear Technology, 25, 675-681.
Burns, E.A. (1978). Symposium Proceedings of Process Measurments for Environmental Assessment, held in Atlanta, on February 13-15. Final Task report, April, 1977-February 1978, EPA/600/7-78/168, TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California.
Busse, A.D. and Zimmerman, J.R. (1973). User’s Guide for the Climatological Dispersion Model, Environmental Monitoring Series EPA-R4-73-024, NERC, .EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Canter, L.W. (1977). Environmental Impact Assessment, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 20-29.
Canter, L.W. (1980). Review of Current Literature on Environ- mental Impact Studies for Water Resources Projects, Uni- versity of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma (report submitted to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi).
Canter, L.W. and Hill, L.G. (1979). Handbook of Variables for Environmental Impact Assessment, Ann Arbor Science Pub- lishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.
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Carstea, D. et al. (1975). Guidelines for the Environmental Impact Assessment of Small Structures and Related Activities in Coastal Bodies of Water, MTR-6916, Rev. 1, The Mitre Corporation, McLean, Virginia.
Chalmers, J.A. and Anderson, E.J. (1977). Economic/Demo- graphic Assessment Manual: Current Practices, Procedural Recommendations, and a Test Case, Engineering and Research Center, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado.
Christiansen, K. (1976). Social Impacts of Land Development, URI 15700, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C.
Coastal Environments, Inc. (1976). A Process for Coastal Resources Management and Impact Assessment, report to Louisiana State Planning Office, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Council on Environmental Quality, National Environmental Policy Act-Regulations, Federal Register, Vol. 43, No. 230, November 29, 55978-56007.
Daneke, G.A. and Delli Priscoli, J. (1979). Social Assessment and Resource Policy: Lessons from Water Planning, Natural Resources Journal, 19, 359-375.
Dee, N., et al. (1972). Environmental Evaluation System for Water Resources Planning, Final Report, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio.
Dickens, R.S., Jr. and Hill, C.E., eds. (1978). Cultural Resources-Planning and Management, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
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Duckstein, L., et al. (1977). Practical Use of Decision Theory to Assess Uncertainties about Actions Affecting the Environ- ment, Completion Report, Department of Systems and Industrial Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
Duke, K.M., et al. (1977). Environmental Quality Assessment in Multiobjective Planning, Final Report to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado.
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