Environmental Education

TOM PRITCHARD, Ph.D. (Leeds)

Vice-Chairman, Commission on Education, IUCN ; Assistant Director (Wales), The Nature Conservancy, Penrhos Road, Bangor, Wales.

SUMMARY

Techniques in the conservation and management o f natural resources which have been developed through research and practical experience are not being adopted on a widespread scale, partly because o f inadequacies in education about the environment. The functions o f environmental education are discussed in this context. The characteristics o f environmental education are outlined, and reference is made to some trends in schools and in institutions o f higher education and training. The need for educational research is stressed, particularly on the relationships between educational objectives and the requirements o f society in terms o f preparing young people to have a greater sense o f awareness o f their environment, and o f the need for appropriately trained specialists.

ENVIRONMENTAL C H A N G E AND E D U C A T I O N A L

PROBLEMS

Patterns of change in the human environment and the underlying sociological, economic, physical, and biological factors, have been the subject of substantial research effort during this century, and techniques for the design and management of the environment have been developed for a wide range of circumstances. Much of this effort has been aimed towards solving the problems of nations with a well-developed in- dustrial-urban economy, but progress is also being made in the developing countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

Whilst it can be said that the professional experts concerned have, collectively, an impressive under- standing of environmental problems and the means of dealing with them, the application of their knowledge on a widespread scale is conspicuously slow. Policies on environmental issues, even when they are forth- coming, are all too often unrelated to the knowledge available and to the advice that could be provided. The result is unimaginative land-use planning and land- scape design, and failure to relate trends in thechanging needs of humanity to the potential (and limitations) in the utilization of natural resources. Where imaginative policies and supporting legislation do exist, their

implementation is frequently confused and fragmen- tary. Consequently, the quality of the environment is continuously impaired.

Ignoring this blockage in the application of accruing knowledge will, at worst, lead to much waste of effort and, at best, to delay in the appearance of sounder policies and practices. What, then, is the nature of this blockage? In some instances the problem is financial; in others it is political or administrative. However, there is little dispute that the basic problem is insuffi- cient public awareness of the relationships between Man and his environment, arising from inadequacies in our education systems. Mis-use of natural resources occurs largely because the present generation has been inadequately trained to realize the need for environ- mental care. Communities have been uncaring, and unprepared to demand high standards of environ- ment. Their leaders have been unable, or unwilling, to recognize the problems ; or they have been ill-equipped to secure expert advice towards finding appropriate solutions. Nevertheless, some communities have con- sistently demanded high standards and, towards this end, assistance from trained environmentalists. Thus, there are examples of achievement to provide a basis for the extension of sound practices on a wider scale.

A recent survey shows that oftheprogress made by the relatively small group of pioneers in the field of environ- mental management falls far short of what is urgently required (Arvill, 1967). Pressures on the environment, arising from increasing populations, from industrial progress, and from both traditional and entirely new uses of rural land and water resources, create serious conflicts between those who have knowledge and fore- sight and those who are intent solely on realizing rapid, short-term gains. The gulf between such opposing attitudes can and must be closed. Laws, regulations, charters, and conventions, appear at frequent intervals and epitomize attempts to restrict the more disastrous practices. However, such an approach can, at best, be expected only to contain the situation. A more effective educational solution is, therefore, needed.

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Biological Conservation--Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd., England--Printed in Great Britain

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Until recently, few efforts were made to define this need in precise educational terms and to relate educa- tional objectives to environmental matters. This was due partly to the difficulties encountered in definining and locating the environmentally-related elements in education systems, and partly to inadequate communi- cation between educationalists and environmentalists. In the last decade, encouraging progress in the analysis of the principal features of such education and its function in a modern society has resulted from inquiries and discussions by inter-disciplinary groups such as the British Study Group on Education and Field Biology (1963). The term 'environmental educa- tion', to embrace activities which are focussed on the study of man's environment, is now finding a place in the educational vocabulary, and educationalists are recognizing the fundamental precepts in this context and, consequently, their cognate responsibilities.

THE FUNCTIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION

The impetus for environmental education springs from a recognition of two important issues. First, young people seem to have a latent interest in their environment (especially in its natural features) which, if cultivated, can develop into an understanding of scientific phenomena and an appreciation of cultural and aesthetic values which will bring personal enjoy- ment and satisfaction in later life. Secondly, the utiliza- tion of natural resources is a central element in human behaviour, and conservation, although in practice entailing technical and scientific discipline, is essentially a wise attitude towards the human environment. Those guided towards such an attitude can be expected, individually and collectively, to use the resources of the earth to improve their living conditions in aesthetic and cultural, as well as material, terms.

The function of environmental education can be more readily appreciated if it is considered in the light of the role that young people will be expected to play when they enter adult society. The following groups will make an impact on the environment and may be in a position to take action, or formulate opinions, which affect environmental management:

First, there are those who will embark on a career in the earth and life sciences, including biologists, geographers, geologists, and agricultural and forest scientists, as well as farmers and foresters.

Secondly, there are those who, as planners, land- scape designers, architects, civil engineers and the like,

Biological Conservation

will deal with the design, construction, and control, of projects affecting the environment.

Thirdly, there are those destined to become physi- cists, chemists, and technologists, whose research and development work may severely affect the environ- ment.

Fourthly, there will be the future statesmen, public servants, and other leaders who wil l - - local ly , nationally, or internationally - - formulate policies and authorize actions having far-reaching effects on the environment.

Thefiflh group, and probably the most important in the long term, will be those who, as the educationalists of the future, will have the task of interpreting know- ledge to young people.

The last group includes those who, without any direct professional involvement, should have suffi- cient interest to form a collective voice which will influence those in the previous categories.

Thus, the function of environmental education can be considered as falling into two categories. First, it provides vocational and specialist training in environ- mental subjects for those in groups 1, 2, and 5 (above). Secondly, it can form part of the liberal education of all young people, serving as the basis of their under- standing of the environment and appreciation of the importance of its conservation.

THE COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION

Environmental education may take the form of urban or rural studies, or a combination of both. In formal education, it may include studies within other subjects (such as biology, geology, geography, or social science), or it may be a principal study in its own right (such as nature study, junior science, rural studies, or conservation education). In institutions of higher education, it may take the form of advanced courses in conservation or resource management.

There is also a strong extra-curricular component offered by clubs and societies, both for young people and for adults. These activities have been customarily associated with the naturalist. Thus, very widely now- adays, people who would be surprised if they were regarded seriously as naturalists, are nevertheless obtaining experience of and insight into the natural environment as an integral part of their recreational and leisure activities. Young people are taken on ol'ganized expeditions for outdoor recreation, and adults enter the countryside in larger numbers than ever before. Nature trails and other interpretative

Pritchard: Environmental Education 29

techniques, supported by popular television pro- grammes about wildlife, are contributing greatly towards encouraging public interest in the environ- ment.

A comparative analysis of the current position in schools and institutions of higher education in north- west Europe is now under preparation (Pritchard, in preparation), and some information is available about developments in other regions (1UCN, 1965, 1967, and in press). Some of the problems which have been considered may now be discussed:

Schools In primary schools, environmental education com-

prises local studies of plants and animals and their habitats, with the aim of stimulating the child's interest in living organisms and in earth, air, and water. One opinion, widespread amongst progressive teachers, is that such studies should be treated as a gateway to scientific education. If imaginatively taught, they can embrace not only simple biology and earth science but also mathematics, chemistry, and physics, as well as history, art, and literature. Addi- tionally, they offer opportunities for practical activi- ties, such as mapping and the conducting of simple experiments. Several innovative teaching methods that are now being tested in different countries, are providing guidelines for widespread improvements along these lines in primary schools.

This unity of approach is more difficult to maintain at the secondary-school level. In practice, the main elements of environmental education are usually found in biology and geography (where they have to compete with a wide range of other studies). Thus, environmental education occupies a confused and unsatisfactory position. At the lower secondary-school levels it is part of both liberal and scientific education, but at the higher levels it is usually only provided for those who aspire to professional or academic qualifi- cations in the environmental sciences.

At the primary-school level, interest in environ- mental subjects is easily maintained. However, there are serious problems in sustaining this interest at the lower-secondary level, where the broad, environ- mentally-based studies of the primary school are rather abruptly replaced by circumscribed scientific disciplines, some of which are arbitrarily chosen and of a narrow and specialist kind. Biology, for example, which is an essential component of environmental education, frequently becomes separated into such compartments as morphology, anatomy, physiology, and genetics. Then there are organizational difficulties in providing time and facilities for studies out-of-

doors, which are an essential ingredient of environ- mental education.

The average secondary-school child is not, therefore, placed in a position from which he or she can easily pursue the environmental approach. Such an un- fortunate situation, however, is less widespread than it used to be; in some countries, rapid progress has been made towards strengthening the unity of scientific disciplines by maintaining the characteristics of the best primary-school studies, whilst achieving ad- vanced and profitable educational standards.

Reference has already been made to the social values of environmental education. If its value as a medium for creating a better society in the future is accepted, then much more attention should be paid to this subject at secondary-school levels. What kind of dividend could be expected? Can environmental studies contribute towards achieving universal scien- tific literacy, which is one of the major challenges of our time?

Educationalists are finding that these studies do provide opportunities, by virtue of their flexibility and breadth, for pupils of varying bent and ability to obtain a mental training to equip them to look at problems from a scientific standpoint. Can these studies also enable young people to obtain greater satisfaction out of their environment both now and later in life?

Youth, growing up in urban surroundings, and without easy access to open-air facilities for spon- taneous recreation, is being faced with complicated emotional problems, and young people are finding great difficulty in adapting themselves to existing social patterns. Sociologists might consider whether boredom may or may not be related to the inability of youth to obtain any mental or physical refreshment from the environment. They might also consider the potential for a joint study of the problems by sociolo- gists, educationalists, and environmentalists.

At senior secondary schools (gymnasium and equiva- lent) the biological sciences, taught as the basis for entering higher education courses in the environmental sciences, contain varying amounts of ecology. It may be argued that there should be a much larger ecological component; but this leads to controversy on the merits or otherwise of early specialization. The options emerging from educational development work, such as the US Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, the UK Nuffield Science Project, and curricular studies in Sweden and elsewhere, have provided opportunities for reform leading to a more effective secondary-school education in environmental subjects - - both as an end in itself and as a basis for advanced studies and vocational training in environmental science (especi-

30 Biological Conservation

ally ecology). Discussions on several of these issues are reported in the proceedings of two recent conferences held in Britain, on 'The Countryside in 1970: Second Conference' (Nature Conservancy, 1965) and on 'The Teaching of Ecology' (British Ecological Society, 1967).

Higher Education and Training Universities and other institutions of higher educa-

tion in many countries are becoming increasingly conscious of their responsibilities as centres which ultimately have a tremendous impact on the way in which the human environment is treated. They are the primary centres of fundamental and applied research, and they exert a dominating influence in educational circles because their entrance requirements determine the pattern of teaching in secondary schools - - quite apart from the fact that they train the majority of teachers for these schools.

The approach to education and training is greatly affected by the location of the institution concerned, its historical background, and the specialized interest of its professors and other staff. It is, therefore, excep- tionally difficult to provide an over-all view. Environ- mental education normally comprises a range of sub- jects which are taught either separately as distinct disciplines or together as an integrated course. For undergraduates, such education usually takes the form of ecology taught as part of botany, zoology, or biology; or it may be taught as environmental studies, in the case of geography. Some courses for town and country planners, landscape designers, civil engineers, foresters, and farmers, also incorporate ecology.

New courses on ecology, environmental studies, natural resources, and related subjects, have been appearing in many countries during the last few years. They are oriented towards conservation and the management of natural resources. An account of significant developments in Europe, the United States, and the Soviet Union (IUCN, 1967), contains com- parisons between a variety of courses currently avail- able to meet a variety of vocational requirements.

The growing demand for specialists with a scientific background to deal with environmental problems has undoubtedly affected the degree to which conserva- tion philosophy is entering into current syllabuses. However, vocational considerations are unlikely to be the only reason for professors to include a larger com- ponent of environmental education in their teaching programmes. Probably of greater significance has been the recognition that the management of natural resources is an applied science in its own right. Greater emphasis on these subjects may, in some institutions, also have resulted from reassessment of

the content of courses in biology and the earth sciences.

Ecology and related subjects have been drawn into a debate about the value of broader-based studies at undergraduate levels as opposed to early specializa- tion. Further, it has been argued that ecology and other environmental studies are particularly important as a bridge between botany and zoology; and simi- larly, there are geographers and geologists who wish to see closer relationships, mainly through ecology, between their subjects and biology.

The information so far obtained by the Commission on Education of IUCN, although incomplete, indicates that there are educational problems and teaching techniques which are common to many countries, but there are others which have hitherto been character- istic of certain places only, yet could profitably be adopted in a modified form to meet the needs of many other institutions. There is a need for greater efforts in educational research, particularly on the relationships of higher education and training to the patterns of vocational requirements that are emerging. One proposal, under study by IUCN, is for the establish- ment of an advisory and consultative service on higher education and training in the environmental sciences. Such a service should facilitate communica- tion between experts and soon gather a fund of infor- mation to be made available to those who ask for it - - particularly educationalists proposing to develop new courses in their institutions.

There is clearly a need for an appraisal to be made of the following situations:

(1) The present position, in higher education and training, in the environmental sciences in all parts of the world, with special emphasis on obtaining infor- mation about major types of courses and techniques of teaching, which are aimed at achieving distinct educational objectives and at meeting widely-varying vocational requirements.

(2) The existing, projected, and potential, demand for environmental scientists and other key personnel who would benefit from environmental education, especially in the developing countries. This appraisal should include an investigation into the extent to which different types of training may be related to existing and projected characteristics of vocational requirement, which in turn can be expected to respond to changing pressures on the environment.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my colleagues, Dr. D. F. Ball, Mr. P. H. Oswald, and Mr. T. LI. Williams, for reading and discussing an early draft of this manuscript.

Pritchard: Environmental Education 31

References

ARVILL, R. (1967). Man and Environment. Crisis and the Strategy of Choice. Penguin, London, 332 pp., 13 plates.

BRITtSH ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY (1967). The Teaching of Ecology. (Ed. J. M. Lambert.) Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford & Edinburgh, xi + 294 pp., illustrated.

NATURE CONSERVANCY (1965). Proceedings of the Confer- ence on Education. The Countryside in 1970: Second Conference. Nature Conservancy, London, 43 pp.

IUCN (1965). Conservation education. Supplementary Paper No. 7, IUCN Publications, New Series, Morges, Switzerland, 75 pp.

- - (1967). Conservation education at the university level. Supplementary Paper No. 9, IUCN Publications, New Series, Morges, Switzerland, 74 pp.

- - (in press). Proceedings of the Conference on the Conser- vation of Nature and Natural Resources in South-East Asia. Bangkok, Thailand, 1965.

- - (in press). Proceedings of the Latin American Conference on the Conservation of Renewable Natural Resources. Bariloche, Argentina, 1968.

Study Group on Education and Field Biology (1963). Science out of Doors. Longmans, Green, London, pp. xvi ~ 240, 13 photos, 29 figures, & map.

Production Processes (PP). - - This is concerned with the utilization of solar energy in photosynthesis and transpira- tion by plants, and with the nitrogen cycle.

Conservation of Terrestrial Communities ( C T ) . - The main task of this section is to provide a scientific basis for the conservation of areas and of species-- to assure, for present and future needs, an adequate supply of natural habitats. These provide unique and rapidly disappearing opportunities for research on biological processes and also have aesthetic values.

Productivity of Freshwater Communities (PF). - - Like PT, this section has branches concerned with primary and secondary productivity. It includes the conservation of aquatic communities. On the practical side, fisheries benefit from an increase of productivity, whereas water-supplies benefit from the reverse.

Productivity of Marine Communities ( P M ) . - This sec- tion is tending to concentrate its activities on inshore waters and estuaries, as there are several other international organizations dealing with the open oceans. The conserva- tion of marine habitats is included.

Human Adaptability ( H A ) . - The subjects covered by this section include genetics, growth and physique, tolerance to heat, cold, and high altitudes, working capacity, and population d y n a m i c s - all of human beings.

The International Biological Programme (IBP)

Of vital interest to all broad-minded conservationists should be the International Biological Programme (IBP), which is a world-wide plan of research concerned with 'the biological basis of productivity and human welfare'. The rapidly increasing human population of the world, and the wide extent of malnutrition among human beings, call for greatly increased food production coupled with rational management of natural resources. This can be achieved only on the basis of scientific knowledge, which, in many fields of biology and in many parts of the world is, at pre- sent, wholly inadequate. At the same time, human activi- ties are creating rapid and comprehensive changes in the environment. Thus, in terms of human welfare, the reason for the IBP lies in its promotion of basic knowledge rele- vant to the needs of man.

The main aim of IBP is to fill in the gaps in knowledge by means of a co-ordinated, comprehensive approach includ- ing sufficient standardization of methods to assure com- parable results. It is concentrated on problems the solution of which will benefit from international collaboration. In order to provide an operating framework for its research, the IBP is divided into seven sections, known by their initials.

T H E SECTIONS OF IBP

Productivity of Terrestrial Communities (PT). - - This is concerned with primary productivity through green plants and with secondary productivity through animals feeding on plants or on each other. It also includes the breakdown of organic matter.

Use and Management of Biological Resources (UM). - - This section includes among its activities the establishment of plant gene-pools, biological control, growth and produc- tion of cereals, and the development of new biological resources for man's use.

In addition to these seven programmes there are inter- sectional activities concerning terminology, biometeor- ology, nutrition, and a programme on large herbivores. Other activities, for example in systematic studies and ani- mal physiology, are also developing.

Institution and Organization Discussions leading up to the establishment of IBP

started in 1959 and were stimulated by the success of the International Geophysical Year (IGY). A planning committee was formed in 1962, but the programme was not formalized until July 1964, when it was approved by the first General Assembly of IBP. The first 3 years (Phase I) were devoted to design and feasibility studies. The opera- tional programme (Phase I1) started formally on 1 July 1967 and will run for 5 years.

A Special Committee for the International Biological Programme (SCIBP) is responsible for the Programme to the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The International Programme consists, however, of the sum of a number of national programmes which are the respon- sibility of national IBP committees. These are set up by scientific organizations, such as national academies of sciences, research councils, or equivalent organizations, most of which are members of ICSU. Thus IBP is not directly part of any governmental organization or organi- zations, although it requires official funds to be carried through.