J. Daniel Arthur, P.E., SPEC of ALL ConsultingOn behalf of the

American Energy and Environmental Research FoundationSeptember 28, 2010

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Introduction Energy Overview Study Approach Reference Materials Environmental Concerns

Environmental Impacts Evaluated Air Quality Water Resources Surface Disturbances Biological Resource Noise Visual

Summary

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This study examines the environmental impacts associated with the development and production of renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

The purpose of the study is to add to the national discussion regarding a path forward for energy development in light of the environmental costs associated with various fuel choices and proven generation methods so that an objective basis for equitable comparisons can be established.

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--En

ergy

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Rene

wab

les

Type

sN

on-

rene

wab

les

Biomass Fuels

Solar Thermal

Wind, Hydro

Photo-voltaics

Fossil Fuels Nuclear

Fuels

Geothermal

Heat Generator ElectricityChemical

Nuclear

Photosynthesis

End Uses:ResidentialCommercialIndustrialTransportation

Gas

Oil

Coal

Fission

Fusion

Adapted from Tester, J.W., E.M. Drake, M.J. Driscoll, M.W. Golay, and W.A. Peters. 2005. Sustainable Energy: Choosing among Options. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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71% of Petroleum is used for transportation

91% of Coal is used to generate electricity

100% of Nuclear is used to generate electricity

51% of Renewables are used to generate electricity

Natural Gas is versatile 34% Industrial 34% Residential/commercial 29% Electrical generation 3% Transportation

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2008, June 2009, Table 1.3 and Figure 2.0.

In 2008 the U.S. consumed over 99.2 quadrillion Btu’s of energy.

93 Percent of Energy Consumed is from Nonrenewable Sources

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Comparative Metrics: Normalized or equivalent denominators that allow an even handed view of the impacts. 1,000 MWe for electrical power Gallons of fuel per 100 miles driven

Regulation and Compliance: Federal and state regulations that limit the degree or intensity of the impacts permitted and may impose mandatory mitigation measures.

Environmental Impacts: Changes that affect all media (air, water and land) and have a range of effects on the natural ecosystems as well as on the human environment and health.

Life Cycle Assessment: Supply chain view from extraction through conversion, transportation, distribution and end use, and that reflects the various impacts generated by the process.

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All energy resources have adverse impacts

Each requires materials, manufacturing and construction

Most require land for facilities

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Clockwise from top to left(1) Wind farm in San

Gorgonio Pass, CA (2) BP oil spill, Gulf of Mexico (3) Sempra Energy Solar

Farm, El Dorado, NV(4) Mountaintop removal coal

mine in southern WV(5) Nuclear Reactor (Three-

mile Island)

AEERFAEERF Wind Farm and Natural Gas Fields near Forsan, Texas.

Wind Farm

Natural Gas Fields

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“Environmental Cost” as presented herein is a euphemism for Impact

Impacts are a change – the physical demonstration of the effect of energy production or use on the environment

The public often associates impacts as negative, not all are, and this should not mean that energy use has an overall detrimental impact on society. Quite the opposite: the advantages to civilization of energy systems are vast.

Hydroelectric impoundments may alter river ecosystems, but they also provide new recreational opportunities. Glen Canyon Dam, Lake Powell, AZ.

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Generation of Electricity: Emissions from the original production

of the fuels Emissions from burning the fuel source

for electrical power generation Transportation Fuels: Emissions from the original production

of the fuels Emissions from the use of the

transportation fuels CO2 emissions from the use of

transportation fuels

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Electrical generation and transportation are the largest sources of air emissions in the U.S. Coal is the largest

contributor for the electrical generation sector

Oil is the largest contributor for the transportation sector

0.00000 0.00050 0.00100 0.00150 0.00200 0.00250

Commercial

Residential

Industrial

Transportation

Electricity Generation

Coal Natural GasPetroleum

Source: U.S. EPA, “Climate Change – Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Human-Related Sources and Sinks of Carbon Dioxide” (updated March 3, 2010), http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/co2_human.html (accessed June 2010).

Emissions of four major pollutants – CO, NO2, PM, and SO2 – from energy sources used to generate electricity and to provide energy for transportation in light duty vehicles.

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Total Electric Generation by Fuel Source 2008

48%

22%

1%20%6%

3%

Coal Gas Oil Nuclear Hydroelectric Renewables

Source: U.S. EIA, “Table 1.1: Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), 1996 through March 2010),” Electric Power Monthly with Data for March 2010 (June 16, 2010), http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_1.html (accessed June 2010).

Coal is the largest emitter of CO2 from electrical generation accounting for 82 percent of GHG from all power sources

Wind, solar, nuclear and hydroelectric power have very small emissions, mostly from construction and transportationTotal Generation – 4,110 GWh

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0 5 10 15 20 25

Natural Gas (Combined Cycle)

Oil (Combined Cycle)

Wood-fired

Coal

Tons of Emissions per MWh Generated

Crite

ria P

ollu

tant

NOx SO2 PM CO

Source: U.S. EIA, “Table 1.1: Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), 1996 through March 2010),” Electric Power Monthly with Data for March 2010.

NOX and SO2 are the largest emissions from coal generation

CO is the principal pollutant from gas generation

SO2 is the greatest emission from oil generation

Wood produces large amounts of CO and NOX

Comparison of emissions, in tons, of four major air pollutants, NOX, PM, SO2, and CO, for the four fuel sources, from the generation of one MWh of electricity.

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Emissions per vehicle are small

There are over 250 million gasoline-fueled LDVs on the road in the U.S.

If each emits about ten pounds of CO, when driving 1,000 miles, over 1.2 million tons of CO would be emitted.

Comparison of Light Duty Vehicles Emissions

Source: U.S. DOT and Research and Innovative Technology Administration, “Table 1-11: Number of U.S. Aircraft, Vehicles, Vessels, and Other Conveyances,” National Transportation Statistics 2010. 2010. Available at http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/pdf/entire.pdf.

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Water Withdrawals by Sector

Freshwater Consumption by Sector

Water Intensity of Raw Fuels

Water Intensity of Electrical Generation and Power Plants

Water Intensity of Transportation Fuels

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Water withdraws continue to increase Population Irrigation Energy demand

Fresh water is becoming an increasingly important resource

Sources: M. Hightower, “Energy and Water: Issues, Trends and Challenges.” presented at the EPRI Workshop (July 2008); with data from Susan S. Hutson, Nancy L. Barber, Joan F. Kenny, Kristin S. Linsey, Deborah S. Lumia, and Molly A. Maupin, “Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2000,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268 (Reston, VA: 2004), table 14.

Between 1950 and 2000, water withdrawals for energy production experienced the largest overall increase in gallons of water withdrawn per day.

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U.S. Fresh water consumption was equal to 100 billion gallons/day (in 1995)

Irrigation is the dominant fresh water consumption sector.

Irrigation80.6%,

Livestock3.3%

Commercial 1.2%Thermoelectric

3.3%Industrial 3.3%

Domestic7.1%

Mining 1.2%

Sources: U.S. DOE, “Energy Demands on Water Resources,” report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (December 2006); and W. B. Solley, R. R. Pierce, and H. A. Perlman, “Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995,” USGS Circular 1200 (1998), Figure 7.

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Gals/MMBtu Deep Shale

Natural Gas 0.6–3.8

Natural Gas 1–3 Coal (no slurry

transport) 2–8 Nuclear 8-14 Conventional Oil

8-20 Fuel Ethanol

(Irrigated Corn) 2,500-29,100

Biodiesel (irrigated soy) 14,000-75,000

Hydrogen (electrolysis 100-200)

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Other Natural Gas

Deep Shale Gas

Coal (no slurry transport)

Nuclear (processed Uranium ready to use in power …

Convetnional Oil

Synfuel - Coal Gasification

Petroleum from Shale Oil (in-situ retorting)

Coal (with slurry transport)

Petroleum from Shale Oil (Surface Retorting)

Petroleum from Tar Sands (Oil Sands)

Synfuel - Coal Liquid (Fischer-Tropsch)

Enhanced Oil Recovery

Fuel Ethanol (irrigated corn)

Biodiesel (irrigated soy)

Gallons of Water

Ener

gy S

ourc

e

Sources: Matthew E. Mantell (Chesapeake Energy Corporation), “Deep Shale Natural Gas: Abundant, Affordable, and Surprisingly Water Efficient,” paper prepared for Presentation at the 2009 GWPC Water/Energy Sustainability Symposium, Salt Lake City, Utah, September 13-16, 2009; and U.S. DOE, “Energy Demands on Water Resources,” report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (December 2006), Table B-1.

Gallons of water used per million Btu produced

Water Intensity: The amount of Water needed to extract, mine, or grow materials that are processed and later used for energy or transportation fuels

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Consumption Gals/MWh Wind & Photovoltaic: 1-2 Natural Gas Combined

Cycle: 110-190 Fossil/Biomass Steam

Turbine: 230-510 Nuclear: 430-750 Concentrating Solar:

758-928 Geothermal Steam:

1,400

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Fossil/Biomass Open Loop

Steam Turbine Closed Loop

Natural Gas Combined Cycle Open Loop

Natural Gas Combined Cycle Closed Loop

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Closed Loop

Nuclear Steam Turbine Open Loop

Nuclear Steam Turbine Closed Loop

Geothermal Steam Closed Loop

Concentrating Solar: Trough Closed Loop

Concentrating Solar: Tower Closed Loop

Wind and Photovoltaic

Other Uses Consumption Steam Condensing Consumption Steam Condensing Withdrawal

Sources: U.S. DOE, “Energy Demands on Water Resources,” Table B-1; and Hightower, “Energy and Water.”

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Resource Extraction Wells Mines Farms

Transportation of Raw Resource Pipelines Transmission lines

Refining/Processing Electrical Power

Generation Electrical Power Use

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Acres Nuclear - 169 Shale Gas - 496 Wind Turbines - 1,943* Conventional Natural Gas - 2,051 Coal – Surface Mines - 2,054 Conventional Oil - 2,236 Geothermal - 2,381 Concentrating Solar - 17,241 Photovoltaic - 31,786 Hydroelectric - 172,241 Bio Diesel (soy) - 4,214,227

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000

Nuclear

Gas - Shale Gas

Coal - Underground Mines

Oil - Shale Oil

Wind

Conventional Gas

Coal - Surface Mines

Gas - CBNG

Conventional Oil

Geothermal

Solar - CSP

Solar - PV

Hydroelectric

Biodiesel from soy

Sources: See Appendix A.

Surface acreage disturbance incurred in the generation of 1,000 MW of “new” energy for the national electric grid.

Horizontal scale is logarithmic

*Wind turbines only accounts for the surface disturbed for the pad and access routes not the entire farm.

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Power SourcePower Density

(W/m2)Low High

Natural Gas 200 2,000

Coal 100 1,000

Solar (Photovoltaic) 4 9

Concentrating Solar Plant 4 10

Wind 0.5 1.5

Biomass 0.5 0.6

Source: Vaclav Smil, “Power Density Primer: Understanding the Spatial Dimension of the Unfolding Transition to Renewable Electricity Generation” (May 8, 2010), available at http://www.vaclavsmil.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/smil-article-power-density-primer.pdf.

Power density is a measure of energy flux expressed as watts per meter squared (W/m2) of horizontal area of land or water surface

Compared to surface disturbances by energy source the magnitude of difference between sources is similar

Larger power density indicates less disturbance

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Source Area (km2) Equivalence

Solar (Photovoltaic) 5,600 State of

Delaware

Wind Turbines 22,500 State of Vermont

Wood-Fired 215,000 State of Utah

Area Required to Produce 10% (395 TWh) of U.S. Electrical Generation Annually Based on 2009 Power Consumption

Source: Vaclav Smil, “Power Density Primer: Understanding the Spatial Dimension of the Unfolding Transition to Renewable Electricity Generation” (May 8, 2010), available at http://www.vaclavsmil.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/smil-article-power-density-primer.pdf.

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Four to eight horizontal wells from a common well pad can produce as much oil or gas as sixteen vertical wells

Reduces surface impacts by as much as 10 fold

Horizontal drilling is becoming more common with shale formation development

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Habitat Fragmentation Displacement Seasonal or Year-

Round Temporary or

Permanent Directly Related to

Surface Disturbance

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Varying Biological Impact Characteristics

Intensity Duration Spatial Impact

Power Density – a measure of the energy produced per acre of disturbance.

More concentrated energy sources have a higher power density.

Impact Characteristics Power Density (energy per acre disturbed)25,26Energy Source Intensity Duration Spatial

ImpactSurface Coal Mining1,2 High Moderate Local HighMountain Top Removal/Valley Fill3,4,5 High Moderate Regional HighUnderground Coal Mining6 Low Long Local HighCoal-Fired Electrical Generation7,8 High Long Regional HighConventional Oil & Gas Drilling9,10,11 Moderate Short Local HighShale Gas Drilling12,13 Moderate Short Local HighOil & Gas Production/Operations14 Moderate Long Local HighNuclear (Solution Mining)15 Moderate Moderate Local Very HighNuclear Electrical Generation16 High Long Local Very HighBiofuels (corn stover)17 High Long Local Very LowBiomass (switch grass)17 High Long Local Very LowBiomass/Biofuels Electrical Generation17 High Long Local Very LowGeothermal18 High Moderate Local ModerateHydroelectric19,20 High Long Local LowSolar21,22 High Long Local LowWind23,24 Moderate Long Local Low

Sources are in Appendix A

To get a true picture of the impacts from a given energy source, impact characteristics must be evaluated in light of the power density of each of the energy sources.

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The extent and magnitude of impacts may vary considerably from one energy source to another

The low power density often results in more wide-spread impacts

Energy sources with low or moderate impact intensity and high power density often pose less risk of impact to biological resources

EnergySource

ResourceExtraction

Power Generation

Coal Higher HigherOil Moderate ModerateNatural Gas Lower LowerNuclear Lower LowerBiomass/Biofuels Higher HigherGeothermal Moderate ModerateHydroelectric HigherSolar HigherWind Higher

Resource extraction and power generation are simultaneous activities for hydroelectric, solar, and wind energies.

Sources: See Appendix A.

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Noise Loudness Frequency Distance Temporary or Permanent

Visual Size/height Location (ridge top, field, etc.) Color/Contrast Temporary or Permanent

Photograph of Sound Barriers placed around compressors in the Barnett Shale Play.

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EPA identified noise levels requisite for the protection of public health and welfare against hearing loss, annoyance and interference with activities for 24 hour exposure levels: Noise levels of 70db or less

prevent measurable hearing loss

Outdoor noise levels of 55 db or less prevent interference with human activities.

Indoor noise levels of 45 db or less prevent interference with human activities.

Noise is a subjective nuisance form of impact.

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Wind Turbine1.5 MW(262.46’)

Wind Turbine2.3 MW(393.70’)

Statue of Liberty

(301.25’)

Nuclear Hybrid Cooling Tower

(169.04’)

Natural Draft Cooling Tower

(500’)

Pump Jack(15’)

GasWellhead

(6’)

High Voltage Tower(82’)

Visual impact: is the alteration of an aesthetic experience of a viewshed. It is highly subjective; therefore, quantifying visual impacts can be complex.

This study focused on skyline impairment and surface disturbance which allow a degree of scaling.

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All Energy Sources Have Impacts - Impacts may vary in type, magnitude, and areal extent

Not all concerns are scientifically supported Choices among energy sources entail tradeoffs

among impacts, as well as costs, benefits, security, availability, and other factors.

There is no free energy: making available sound, scientifically supported information on impacts and tradeoffs will improve policy and investment decisions

J. Daniel Arthur, P.E., SPEC darthur@ALL-LLC.com

918.382.75811718 South Cheyenne Avenue

Tulsa, OK 74119

American Energy and Environmental Research Foundation (AEERF), The Environmental Cost of Energy, Presented at GWPC Annual

Forum and Water/ Energy Symposium, Pittsburgh, PA, September 26-29, 2010