ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATIONAND SECURITY

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATIONAND SECURITY

AK DattaRam Kumar

Defence Research & Development OrganisationMinistry of DefenceNew Delhi - 110 011

2006

DRDO MONOGRAPH SERIES

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND SECURITY

AK DATTA, RAM KUMAR

Series EditorsEditor-in-Chief EditorsDr AL Moorthy Ashok Kumar, A Saravanan

Asst. Editor Editorial Asst. Cover DesignSanjay Kumar AK Sen, RK Saxena Rajesh Kumar

ProductionPrinting MarketingSK Tyagi KP Singh, Rajpal Singh

Cataloguing in PublicationDATTA, A.K. & KUMAR, RAM

Environmental conservation and securityDRDO monograph series.Includes index and bibliography.ISBN 81-86514-16-31. Environment 2. Conservation I. Title (Series)3. Security 4. Pollution

© 2006, Defence Scientific Information & Documentation Centre(DESIDOC), Defence R&D Organisation, Delhi-110 054.All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the Indian Copyright Act 1957,no part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted,stored in a database or a retrieval system, in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without theprior written permission of the publisher.The views expressed in the book are those of the authors only. The editors orpublisher do not assume responsibility for the statements/opinions expressedby the authors.

Printed and published by Director, DESIDOC, Metcalfe House, Delhi-110 054.

CONTENTS

Preface xiAcknowledgement xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 11.2 Brief History 51.3 Conservation in India 10

CHAPTER 2

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 15

2.1 Introduction 152.2 Causes of Environmental Degradation 182.2.1 Population Increase 182.2.2 Industrialisation 212.2.3 Urbanisation 262.2.4 Excessive Use of Natural Resources 292.3 Conclusion 31

CHAPTER 3

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 33

3.1. Introduction 333.2 Environmental Pollution 343.3 Air Pollution 343.3.1 Oxides of Carbon 373.3.2 Sulphur Compounds 38

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3.3.3 Nitrogen Oxides 393.3.4 Organic Pollutants 393.3.5 Photochemical Oxidants 403.3.6 Particulate Matter 403.3.7 Indoor Air Pollution 413.3.8 The Greenhouse Effect 443.3.9 Kyoto Protocol 493.3.10 Ozone Layer 513.3.11 Acid Rain 563.3.12 Asian Brown Haze 573.4 Water Pollution 603.4.1 Types of Water Pollution 673.4.2 Sources of Water Pollution 703.5 Soil/Land Pollution 733.5.1 Chief Soil Contaminants and their Influences 743.6 Marine Pollution 763.7 Radioactive Pollution and Wastes 843.8 Noise Pollution 873.9 Thermal Pollution 903.10 Conclusion 92

CHAPTER 4

OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 97

4.1 Introduction 974.2 Toxic Chemicals 984.3 Hazardous/Toxic wastes 1024.3.1 Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary

Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal 1064.4 Biodiversity 1084.4.1 Convention on Biological Diversity 1114.5 Deforestation 1134.6 Wildlife Management and Conservation 1174.7 Cleaner Production 1194.7.1 Conventional Cleaner Production Technologies 1224.7.2 New Directions in Production and Technology 1244.7.3 Challenges for Cleaner Production Technologies 126

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4.7.4 CP Activities/Initiatives in India 1274.8 Environmental Standards 1304.9 Impact of Trade Liberalisation on Environmental

Policies 1344.10 Conclusion 138

CHAPTER 5

ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY 143

5.1 Introduction 1435.2 Definition of Environmental Security 1475.3 Issues and Concerns 1485.4 Environmental Security – Threats and Conflicts 1525.4.1 Military Actions 1535.4.2 Terrorist Activities 1565.4.3 Population Growth, Urbanisation and Industrialisation 1575.4.4 Dual-use Technologies 1595.4.5 Accidents 1595.4.6 Trans-boundary Movements 1605.4.7 Natural Disasters 1625.5 Effects of Economic, Social and Political Instability

on Environmental Security 1635.6 Environmental Security and Sustainable Development 1655.7 Environmental Contamination at Military Sites 1705.8 Environmental Security as a Part of National Security

Policy 1715.9 Weapons of Mass Destruction and Environmental

Security 1755.10 National Interests Vs. Environmental Security 1875.11 Global Environmental Change and Environmental

Security 1895.12 Effects of El Nino and La Nina Events 1915.13 International Perspective of Environmental Security 1955.14 Environmental Emergencies 1985.15 A Linkage Between Causes and Effects of Environmental

Security Threats 1995.16 Environmental Security Analysis 201

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5.17 Environmental Security Control 2035.18 UN Role in Environmental Security 2055.19 Conclusion 208

CHAPTER 6

REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SITES 213

6.1 Introduction 2136.2 Assessment of Contaminated Site 2176.2.1 Preliminary Site Assessment 2186.2.2 Field Investigation 2196.2.3 Subsurface Investigation 2196.2.4 Analysis of Field Samples 2206.2.5 Remedial Investigation 2206.3 Risk Assessment 2216.3.1 Applications of Risk Assessment 2216.3.2 Phases of Risk Assessment 2226.3.2.1 Problem Formulation 2226.3.2.2 Exposure and Toxicity Analysis 2246.3.2.3 Risk Characterisation 2266.4 Remediation Strategies 2266.5 Natural Attenuation 2306.5.1 Contaminant Transport and Attenuation Mechanisms 2326.5.1.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation 2326.5.1.2 Physical Phenomena 2356.6 Processes for Removal of Contaminants 2386.6.1 Excavation and Disposal 2386.6.2 Free Product Recovery 2386.7 Technologies for Separation of Contaminants 2396.7.1 Soil Washing 2396.7.2 Low Temperature Thermal Desorption 2406.7.3 High Temperature Thermal Desorption 2416.7.4 Chemical Extraction 2416.7.5 Soil Vacuum Extraction 2426.7.6 Air Sparging 2436.7.7 Air Stripping 2446.7.8 Carbon Adsorption 245

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6.7.9 Solid-Phase Separation 2466.7.10 Liquid-Phase Separation 2476.8 Technologies for Destruction of Contaminants 2486.8.1 Chemical Reduction/Oxidation 2486.8.2 UV Oxidation 2496.8.3 Dehalogenation 2506.8.4 Incineration 2506.8.5 Pyrolysis 2516.8.6 Bioremediation 2526.8.7 Enhanced Bioremediation 2536.8.8 Solid Phase Biological Treatment of Soil 2556.8.9 Bioreactors 2566.8.10 Bioventing 2576.8.11 Passive Treatment Walls 2586.9 Processes/Technologies for Isolation of Contaminants 2596.9.1 Vitrification 2596.9.2 Solidification/Stabilization - Physical 2616.9.3 Solidification/Stabilization - Chemical 2626.9.4 Surface Capping (Encapsulation) 2636.9.5 Slurry Walls 2636.9.6 Permeability Enhanced Groundwater Extraction 2646.10 Phytoremediation. 2646.10.1 Phytoextraction 2666.10.2 Phytotransformation. 2666.10.3 Phytostimulation 2676.10.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Phytoremediation 2676.11 Radioactive Wastes 2686.12 Conclusion 273

CHAPTER 7

MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS 279

7.1 Introduction 2797.2 Environmental Conventions/Protocols 2797.3 Conclusion 287Appendix-I Environmental Legislation in India 291Appendix-II National Ambient Air Quality Standards 301

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Appendix-III General Standards for Discharge of Effluents 303Appendix-IV ISO 14000 family of Environmental Management

Standards – An Overview 307Appendix-V Environmental Conventions/Protocols 319

Index 345

PREFACE

Life on earth depends on many ecosystem services that includemicrobial recycling of nutrients, replenishment of atmosphericoxygen, maintenance of atmospheric ozone, water balance andgene pool for world’s stocks of plants, animals and wildlife. However,factors like exponential growth of world population; excessiveconsumption and lack of equitable distribution of natural resources,urbanization; deforestation; unsustainable technological development;disposal of human and industrial wastes in air, water and land beyondthe absorbing and recycling capacity of the environment; economicimbalance; race for getting control of scarce natural resources;development of weapons of mass destruction, etc., have beenjeopardizing, particularly in last few decades, the ability of ecosystemsto continue to provide such essential services for global life supportsystems. Alarmed by the possible adverse effects of these factors onglobal environment and human health, and the complexity of theinteractions between various environmental forces, exploring waysand means for effective management of our planet’s environmentand ecosystems are now getting greater attention.

The concept of national security is now being linked to theenvironmental security at regional and international levels. Efforts arebeing made to develop cleaner technologies; and to evolve effectivestrategies and technologies for remediation of sites contaminated byindustrial and/or military activities. National and internationalstandards are being generated as guiding factors for environmentalmanagement and a number of multilateral environmental agreementsare being negotiated to achieve a common goal of protecting the

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global environment and safeguard the overall interests of present andfuture generations from impacts of adversity.

The above activities have led to a vast amount of literature onvarious aspects of environment particularly related to air, water andsoil pollution, degradation and conservation. However, information onissues such as environmental security, environmental standards,processes and technologies for remediation of sites contaminated byindustrial and military activities, multilateral environmental agreementsis scattered. The aim of this monograph has been to collect, collate,analyse and present information from diverse sources and present aone-volume comprehensive scientific description of basic andsome of the current aspects of environmental issues. To theextent possible, an attempt has been made to make the work conciseand self-explanatory. Some references have been providedfor more detailed information.

The monograph has been divided into seven chapters, each ofwhich covers a particular aspect viz., brief history, environmentaldegradation, environmental pollution, environment relatedmiscellaneous issues, environmental security, remediation ofcontaminated sites, and multilateral environmental agreements.The five appendices briefly describe environmental legislation in India,national ambient air quality standards, general standards for dischargeof effluents, ISO 14000 family of environmental managementstandards, and major environmental conventions/protocols.The monograph contains several illustrations for an easycomprehension and establishing linkages between related issues,causes and effects. An effort has also been made to summarise thecurrent status, both at national and global levels, and possible futuretrends. We hope this monograph proves useful and providesinformation of interest and value to all across the board.

December 2005 Dr AK DattaDelhi 100 054 Dr Ram Kumar

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to place on record our sincere thanks andappreciation to Dr SK Kapoor for his invaluable help and significantpersonal contribution in preparation of this monograph. But for hisoverall support and help it would not have been possible to bring thismonograph into the present form.

The authors thank members of the family, Dr AL Dawar,Ms Anjali, and Ms Tarlochan Dhillon and a number of friends for theencouragement, understanding, assistance and suggestions inconsolidation of this monograph. We acknowledge all the helpextended by Dr Mohinder Singh, Mr A Saravanan and other staffmembers. We are also grateful to various authors and publishers whosepublications have been used to reproduce some diagrams/portions inthe monograph. We are thankful to DRDO for providing financialassistance for writing this monograph.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTIONEarth is unique among the planets of the solar system in that it

supports life. The complex process of evolution occurred because of thepresence of water, an oxygen rich environment, 0.03–0.04 per cent carbondioxide, and a convenient surface temperature of about 15 °C. Mercury andVenus, the two other planets that lie between the Earth and the Sun, do notsupport life. This is because Mercury has no atmosphere and thereforebecomes very hot during the day while night temperatures may reach –140°C. Venus has the same mass as Earth but a thicker atmosphere containingapproximately 96 per cent carbon dioxide makes it too hot (between 150–450 °C) to sustain life. Among all planets, Mars is the most similar to Earth,as both have 24 hours day, seasonal changes, polar ice caps, dust storms,craters, and same land area. Mars atmosphere consists mainly of carbondioxide (95.3 per cent), but the atmosphere is very thin, most of its carbondioxide is frozen in the ground and its average surface temperature is about–50 °C and has so far shown no signs of life or conditions conducive to life.The climates of Mars and Venus are very different but very stableand predictable. As compared to the above two planets, the climateof Earth is regarded as unstable and unpredictable.

Environmental conditions of the earth are being continuouslytransformed through natural processes and human interventions. There areseveral views on the ability of the earth’s environment to withstand thechanges being brought about by human beings. First view is the natureforgiving with its ability to return to its original state. It thrives on the liveand let live principle. Another view is nature unforgiving, which stipulatesthat there is a limit of the environment as a link or provider of services; theworld is finite, and the environmental impacts of society are cumulativeand difficult to reverse. Still another view is of nature resilient. In this case,ecological systems including human beings are strengthened by

Environmental Conservation and Security

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environmental stresses so that they can withstand greater shocks shouldthe need arise, although there is a limit beyond which a system can no longersurvive. Whenever the rates of environmental change become too rapid,successful management in any case may be impossible.

Sufficient scientific evidence is now available that the health of theplanet Earth is under siege. These worrisome trends on the degradation ofthe health of this planet, which include population problem, greenhouseeffect and climate change, depletion of ozone layer, increase in air pollutionand a host of other environmental concerns pose a serious threat to humanlife. The dumping of hazardous wastes in rivers and seas, and land-basedsources of marine pollution pose a threat to the oceans. A large number ofspecies of wild plants and animals is being lost every year. All this requiresinterdisciplinary studies on interactions among atmosphere, oceans, landand biological systems. Human activities such as energy and foodproduction involve the subjects of atmospheric composition, air and waterquality, and bio-geochemical cycles. Estimates by experts bring out clearlythat the world just cannot sustain its present level of natural resourceconsumption and still survive.

These trends indicate the environmental challenges ahead andcan be modified with technological interventions and human resolve.A coherent and flexible policy is needed to provide a foundation forcoordinated national and international inter-agency programmes related toobservations, research, analysis, and negotiation toward a policy consensusand action plan concerning global environmental conservation. Thequestion is, how fast will this transition to more sustainable forms ofproduction and environmental management proceed, and effectivelymitigate the effects of large-scale environmental damage. The linkagesbetween human beings, their environment locally and globally and the linksbetween environmental, social, economic and developmental issues havebeen the focus of international community at the Earth Summits in 1992and 2002.

Over the past 10–15 years, considerable interest has been generatedon the links between environment, impoverishment,conflict and security. Environmental security has emerged as anew facet to combat a non-traditional security threat. Military or terrorist