Jonathan Mullen Period: 03A.P.E.S Due: 5/17/10

Chapter 1:1) Location: Central America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Costa Rica and Honduras.( 2° 9" North, 86° 16" West) Neighboring Countries: Honduras and Costa Rica Topography: The Caribbean coast, known as the Mosquito (or Miskito) Coast or Mosquito, consists of low, flat, wet, tropical forest, extending into pine savannas 80–160 km (50–100 mi) inland. The coastal lowland rises to a plateau covering about one-third of the total area. This plateau is broken by mountain ranges extending eastward from the main cordillera to within 64–80 km (40–50 mi) of the Caribbean coast. The mountainous central area forms a triangular wedge pointed southeast, rising at its highest to some 2,000 m (6,600 ft.). The plains and lake region, in a long, narrow structural depression running northwest to southeast along the isthmus, contains a belt of volcanoes rising to 1,500 m (5,000 ft.) and extending from the Gulf of Fonseca to Lake Nicaragua. In this region is located Lake Managua, at 41 m (136 ft.) above sea level, which drains through the Tipitapa Channel into Lake Nicaragua, at 32 m (106 ft.) above sea level, which, in turn, drains through the San Juan River eastward into the Caribbean. Lake Nicaragua is about 160 km (100 mi) long and 65 km (40 mi) wide at the widest point, while Lake Managua is 52 km (33 mi) long by 25 km (16 mi) wide. Nicaragua lies in an earthquake zone.

2) Flag: Major Languages: Although Spanish is the main language spoken in Nicaragua, other languages found within the country include:

Miskito Garífuna Nicaragua Creole English Rama

3) Nicaragua is classified as being a Less Developed Country (L.D.C.) because of its higher poverty rate, low currency value, and overall low net wealth.

4) Economic growth remains overall the same if you look at it over a long period of time. Although per capita wealth fluctuates, wealth classes have remained identical to that of 20 years ago. Therefore it is fair to say there is NO economic growth.

5)

Year 1961 1970 1980 1990 2000 2003Agricultural production per capita

index(Index: 1999-2001=1000)143.1 184.8 128.1 93.7 103.6 106.7

Table 1: Agricultural Footprint

Year 1999 2001Ecological Footprint

(Global hectares per person)1.53 1.63

Table 2: Ecological Footprint

6) Not Available

Chapter 2:

a)

Chapter 3:

a) Food Web: A succession of organisms in an ecological community that constitutes a continuation of food energy from one organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in turn is preyed upon by a higher member.

b) Producers of Nicaragua: The majority of the producers found in Nicaragua are for industrial / agricultural use. Approximately 25% of all plant life in Nicaragua is native making the remaining 75% of Nicaragua’s plant life introduced / non-native species. Herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores, of Nicaragua: Nearly all the herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores found in Nicaragua are insects or smaller animals similar to those found in the U.S. Others of the area include tropical non-migratory birds.

Decomposers of Nicaragua: Include nearly all of those found in the warmer climates of the U.S. as well as tropical fungi (mushrooms), mold, and microorganisms.

c) The primary effect caused by humans on the soil nutrient cycle is said to be soil erosion due to massive land clearing for energy and agricultural uses.

d) Nearly all ecological research taking place in Nicaragua is based in its remaining rainforests.

Chapter 4:a) The only remaining Hot-Spots of diversity in Nicaragua are found within its rapidly decreasing rain forests.

b) From what I have researched, No evidence of evolution has been found in this area.

c) The ability to survive constantly changing tropical temperatures has been the primary climatic condition which has influenced natural selection.

d) Nearly all of the extinctions in Nicaragua’s history have been due to the following:1) Rapid destruction of tropical rainforests2) Introduction of Non-native and potentially invasive species

e) The Jaguar (which happens to be endangered, non-native specie of Nicaragua) is commonly considered to be keystone specie as well as foundation specie because it maintains the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and granivorous mammals; apex felids maintain the structural integrity of forest systems

Chapter 5:a) Interspecific Competition:

ALL organisms found in tropical rainforests are competing for sunlight, and nutrients because of the rapidly decreasing forests.

b) Predator and Prey:All in-shore medium sized (1.5’ – 2.5’) cool blooded organisms and the copper beach shark (introduced invasive specie)

c) Parasite and Host:Tape worms are common in this area because of poor sanitary conditions and because of poverty.

d) Commensalism:

Native rubber trees: Provides natural rubber, and is maintained by the population for commerce. This tree is native and is not invasive in this area.

e) Mutualism:Tropical fungi (tropical mushrooms) decompose dead bio-material and return nutrients

into the ground for the benefit of other producers.

f) The United Nations does not declare any area in Nicaragua as having a stable eco-system. This is partly due to the fact that land is DIRECTLY controlled by the government, which is highly debt and poverty ridden.

Chapter 6:a) The most up-to-date population count of Nicaragua is the 2008 World Bank census, which

states that the total population of Nicaragua is 5,667,325 the 2010 projection is 6 million.

b) The birth Rate of Nicaragua is: 3.7 births /1,000 Population

c) The Death Rate of Nicaragua: 4.33 deaths / 1,000 Population

e) Population growth rate of Nicaragua: 1.30% increase / year (Please note: the immigration and emigration rates of Nicaragua are unknown and are not reported.)

f) Population age structure:

g) Governmental family planning services are not available in Nicaragua.

Chapter 7:a) A tropical climate exists throughout Nicaragua with a dry period throughout the winter.

b) Because of the low costal topography, flooding is often found throughout Nicaragua. It is also important to note that Nicaragua is in an earthquake zone.

c) Topographic Map:

d) Volcanic Map:

Chapter 8)

a) Although Nicaragua never had much of a coral reef on either of its shores, biodiversity is very limited off the coast. This is believed to be caused by major costal pollution, heavy commercial fishing, and no costal regulations.

b) There are very little photosynthetic organisms off the cost of Nicaragua. The majority of these types of organisms are found in land due to agricultural pollution and untreated sewage.

Chapter 9:a) The Nicaraguan Pelican was declared extinct in 1967 due to overhunting. They were killed off because they posed a threat to local in-land costal area agriculture. Second native specie that was declared extinct was the Echo Tree Frog. It is believed to be extinct because of the rapidly decreasing rain forests. Finally, all species of Canaries were declared locally extinct in Nicaragua (as well as neighboring nations). A reason for this local-scale extinction is unknown at this time.

b) The United Nations environmental council maintains a great number of “Green Professionals.” All of the following could greatly benefit Nicaragua both environmentally as well as benefit economically:

Agriculture

Agricultural Pollution Agroforestry Alternative Crops Animal Husbandry Aquaculture Biodynamic Farming Biotechnology Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) Composting Gardening Genetically Modified Foods Organic Farming Permaculture Pest and Weed Control Sustainable Agriculture

Air Quality

Acid Rain Air Pollution Asthma Critical Pollutants Fossil Fuels Ground-Level Ozone Indoor Air Quality Industrial Pollution Pollution Prevention Transportation

Biotechnology

Brownfield Redevelopment

Climate Change

Global Warming Greenhouse Effect Ozone Layer Urban Heat Island Effect Weather Patterns

Community Planning

Citizen Participation Community Development Local Economies

Ecosystems

Coastal Ecosystems Coral Reefs Deserts Forests Grasslands Mountains Oceans Rainforests Rivers, lakes and Streams Wetlands

Ecotourism

sustainable vacations ecological study trips

Energy

Alternative Fuels Biomass Distribution of Energy Energy Conservation Energy Efficiency Fossil Fuels Fuel Cells Geothermal Energy Hydroelectric Energy

Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Wind Energy

Environmental Advocacy & Communications

Environmental Applications in Banking, Financial Investments, Law, and Real EstateEnvironmental Disasters

Chemical Spills Earthquakes Environmental Effects of War Floods Hurricanes Landslides Monsoons Nuclear Disasters Oil Spills Tidal Waves Tornadoes Volcanoes Wildfires

Environmental Economics

Economic Development Free Trade Globalization

Environmental Education

Environmental Studies Higher Education Outdoor Education Environmental Ethics

Deep Ecology

Ecofeminism Religion and the Environment Social Ecology Environmental Engineering

Environmental Government Programs

Environmental Health & Safety Management

Environmental Legislation, Policy, Regulation

Environmental Justice Environmental Law Enforcement Environmental Politics Chlorine Dioxin Drinking Water Environmental Psychology Fluoride Food Quality Genetically Modified Foods Lead Light Pollution Mercury Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Noise Pollution Occupational Hazards Organochlorines Poverty Radiation Radon Toxins

Environmental Protection Agencies

Environmental Preservation and Restoration

Environmental Research

Forestry and Soil Conservation

Agroforestry Deforestation Forest Management National Forests Old Growth Rainforests Reforestation Sustainable Forestry

Geography

Geospatial Technology (GIS-related)

Green Building

Sustainable Design

Home Building Home Improvement Building Products and Materials Construction Open Space

Ground Pollution

Brown Fields Industrial Pollution Landfills Pollution Prevention Resource Extraction Soil Quality

Habitat Conservation

Land Preservation Marine Habitat Conservation National Parks Public Lands Resource Extraction Wilderness Areas

Human Health

Alternative Health Practices

Land Use

Smart Growth Multi-use Design & Planning Planning and Zoning

Manufacturing/Packaging Technology

Natural History

Environmental History Prehistory

Natural Resources

Oceans, Fisheries

Aquaculture Beaches

Coastal Ecosystems Coral Reefs Fisheries Marine Biology Oceanography

Outdoor Recreation

Biking Bird Watching

Population

Overconsumption Overpopulation

Process and Pollution Prevention Technology

Public Health

Asbestos Asthma Cancer

Remediation and Industrial Services

Renewable Energy

Restoration Ecology

Sciences

Astronomy Atmospheric Sciences Biology Bio mimicry Botany Chemistry Ecology Geography Meteorology Oceanography Ornithology Paleontology Physics

Social Sciences and Humanities

Anthropology Lifestyle Simplicity Organic Gardening and Landscaping Social Investing

Sustainable Business

Green Business Development Green Business Certification

Sustainable Development

Economic Development Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable Forestry Sustainable Technology

Sustainable Living

Consumerism Green Living Home Maintenance Personal Transformation Voluntary Simplicity

Transportation

Alternative Fuel Vehicles Bicycles Mass Transit Non-motorized Transportation Telecommuting Transportation Alternatives Transportation Pollution

Urban Ecology

Urban Issues

Light Pollution Noise Pollution Sprawl Traffic Urban Heat Island Effect Urban Planning

Vegetarianism

Fruitarianism Veganism Vegetarianism

Waste Management

Hazardous and Toxic Waste Landfills Nuclear Waste Recycling Solid and Infectious Waste

Water Quality

Beaches Drinking Water Fishing Groundwater Protection Industrial Pollution Lakes and Rivers Pollution Prevention Storm water Water Conservation Water Pollution Water Treatment

Wetlands Science

Wildlife

Animal Rescue Animal Wildlife Biodiversity Endangered Animals Endangered Plants Hunting & Trapping Invasive Species Laboratory Animals Native Plants Plant Wildlife Wildflowers Wildlife Preservation Wildlife Sanctuaries

c) Currently H.I.P.P.C.O. is not evident in Nicaragua

d) See Above regarding invasive species

e) Less than 10% of Nicaragua is protected land. By 2020 it is projected that less than 5% of land will be governmentally protected. (Note: Land considered protected INCLUDES reserved land for fuel extraction sites. This is due to the fact that the Government directly controls land)

f) As of 2009 the Republic of Nicaragua has established legislation (Land Protection Act (L.P.A.)) at protecting land from point source pollution. This is the first of this type of legislation passed in Nicaraguan history!

Chapter 10:a) Agricultural expansion, poverty, and pollution are the three major threats to the terrestrial ecosystems still found in Nicaragua.

b) Forests are unmanaged in Nicaragua, and are used unsustainably. The majority of all bio waste from forests is burned as a form of energy.

c) According to the United Nations all rangeland in the Country of Nicaragua are subject to extreme overgrazing.

d) All national parks are owned and operated by tourism companies. The government of Nicaragua does not own or operate any national park. This is the same for nature preserves, although the U.N. environmental council oversees these.

e) Nicaragua fails to maintain any of its biodiversity. Although the country was once considered a diverse hotspot, if they continue to fail to regulate its forests, and other “ecological systems” they will no longer have a diverse ecosystem.

Chapter 11:a) Threats to aquatic ecosystems include:

Sewage / Waste Dumping Overfishing Poor Aquatic Regulation Poverty Agricultural Runoff Non-Point Source Pollution Introduction of non native species Introduction of invasive species (plant and animal life) Introduction of new disease due to non native specie introduction

b) The marine ecosystems are not maintained.

c) Freshwater ecosystems are not maintained except within a 100 mile radius of international borders.

d) Wetlands are not maintained

e) An aquatic reserve is a designation given certain state-owned marine lands to ensure greater protection and recovery of important native aquatic plants and animals. There is NO established aquatic reserve system found in Nicaragua.

f) Nicaragua does not maintain its aquatic biodiversity. Although Nicaragua is considered a biodiversity hotspot, if Nicaragua continues with its current ecological “stresses” this will change.

Chapter 12:A) Food insecurity is one of the most critical development challenges facing Nicaragua. Nicaragua demonstrates continued high levels of chronic malnutrition and remains dependent upon U.S. food aid to meet the needs of its population.

B) Cash Crops are the most common type of agriculture found in Nicaragua. Although most of these crops consist of edible foods, they are not affordable to many residents. Agriculture in Nicaragua is NOT sustainable because once a field is depleted of its nutrients, the field is then abandoned.

C) The most common type of soil found in Nicaragua before human contamination is medium-high moisture semi sandy loam with a high organic material composure. Average pH is 3.3 (acidic).

D) The two most common methods of protecting crops from pests are: 1: Introduction of non-native species, 2: Use of inexpensive chemicals, not all of which are used for its intended purpose.

Chapter 13:a) Although 65% of Nicaragua has no usable water, the most common method of obtaining water is through wells. Note: 45% of all Nicaragua’s standing water is too contaminated for human use of any kind.

b) Currently 65% of Nicaragua has no usable water. As of now there are no projections into the spread of this water shortage.

c) One benefit of dams in Nicaragua is that 90% of Nicaragua’s power comes from hydroelectric power. On the negative side, some problems associated with dams include: Forced relocation, trapped gasses, loss of biodiversity, and risk spread of invasive species

d) Although flooding is common in costal areas, severe flooding is only common during earthquakes. Since Nicaragua is located on 4 faults, the U.N. considers these random floods unavoidable without severe relocation.

Chapter 14)a) The only major geological hazard that is frequently found in Nicaragua is earthquakes, and costal flooding due to the earthquakes.

b) Nicaragua is home to the world’s 3rd largest coal belt, and is also abundant in diamond mining on its western coast.

c) Expected depletion times are not available for Nicaragua.

d) Nicaragua must calculate / estimate the amount of minerals present in order to determine depletion time and sustainable methods.

Chapter 15:a) Major sources of energy include: Coal, Hydroelectric, and incineration

b) Benefits include: Cost, Abundance Disadvantages include: Not regulated, used unsustainably, poor working conditions

c) Water pollution, health risk, land pollution, air pollution, ozone depletion, buildup of smog, and climatic changes are just a few of the endless amount of consequences.

Chapter 16:

a) Both energy efficiency and waste could be greatly improved with adequate regulation and available funds.

b) Solar energy is seldom available. Because of the high poverty rates, the cost exceeds the benefits.

c) Like solar energy, wind energy is available (in costal areas only) but because of the high poverty rate, the cost exceeds the benefits.

d) Biomass is currently used, and is widespread. Benefits include: abundance, cost, ease of operation. Disadvantages include: promotes unsustainable resource use, strongly contributes to pollution of all kinds, has harmful waste (ash) as a byproduct.

e) Geothermal is not an option due to the frequent earthquakes throughout the country.

f) Hydrogen is not currently an option because of poor governmental regulation, cost, and resource readiness.

Chapter 17:a) HIV/AIDS in Nicaragua

Population, 2008 5,700,000

People living with HIV/AIDS, 2007 7,700

Women (aged 15+) with HIV/AIDS, 2007 2,100

Children with HIV/AIDS, 2007 N/A

Adult HIV prevalence (%), 2007 0.2

Chapter 18-20

Nicaragua is one of the Western Hemisphere’s poorest countries. With no significant mineral resources, its economy is heavily dependent on agriculture. Not only is Nicaragua vulnerable to natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and floods, the country also faces serious environmental degradation. Deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution present significant risks for Nicaragua’s future.

Since the late 1800s, coffee has been a primary source of income for Nicaragua’s farmers, as well as one of the country’s chief exports. In recent years, however, extreme fluctuations in the world market price for coffee have made coffee farming an extremely insecure source of income. When prices were at their lowest, many small-scale farmers could not even cover their production costs and were forced to sell their farms. Hundreds of thousands of coffee farm workers were unemployed. Malnutrition rates soared to 33 percent in rural coffee-growing areas.

Nicaraguan coffee farmers producing for the Fair Trade or organic markets have weathered the coffee crisis better because of the premium prices consumers pay for specialty coffee. Many Fair Trade farmers’ cooperatives have invested in quality improvements and processing capital that allows them to achieve still greater profit from the sale of their coffee.

Figure 1: Photochemical Smog increasing in cities of Nicaragua

Water supply and sanitation in Nicaragua is provided by a national public utility in urban areas and water committees in rural areas. Despite relatively high levels of investment, access to water in urban areas has barely kept up with population growth, access to urban sanitation has actually declined and service quality remains poor. However, a substantial increase in access to water supply and sanitation has been reached in rural areas.

Nicaragua is a water-rich country with a water availability of 35,000 cubic meter/capita/year, corresponding to more than five times the average for Central America and the Caribbean. Less than 1% of these water resources are withdrawn for human use. The major water user is agriculture (84% of withdrawals), followed by domestic use (14%) and industry (2%).[11]

Rainfall, while abundant, varies greatly. The Caribbean lowlands are the wettest section of Central America, receiving between 2,500 and 6,500 millimeters of rain annually. The western slopes of the central highlands and the Pacific lowlands receive considerably less annual rainfall. Mean annual precipitation for the rift valley and western slopes of the highlands ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 millimeters. Rainfall is seasonal—May through October is the rainy season, and December through April is the driest period.

Well water is the main source for municipal water supply in Nicaragua. For example, Managua - which is located on the shores of the polluted Lake Managua - is supplied entirely by groundwater, including by groundwater that infiltrates from the craters of volcanoes - called "lagoons'" within the city. For example, Asososca lagoon, to the west, is Managua's most important source of drinking water.

Chapter 21:a) E-waste is not an issue in Nicaragua, however if Mexico is allowed access to “dumping sites” in Nicaragua, this may possibly become an issue.

b) Solid wastes as well as hazardous wastes are a problem in Nicaragua only because the Government fails to regulate proper disposal and maintenance tactics.

c) Solid waste is under the control of local governments and for the most part is poorly regulated.

d) Wastes of any type should have minimum standards adopted regarding its reuse, disposal, and treatment methods.

e) Nicaragua is not currently dealing with this issue publically.

Chapter 22:a) Major urban environmental issues include: poor sanitation, lack of safe water, poor air conditions, NO public parks, buildup of photochemical smog, overpopulation

b) Yes, urban areas are strongly affected by transportation emissions.

c) There is no evidence of urban land-planning in any of Nicaragua’s cities.

Chapter 23:a) The economic system in Nicaragua is on the verge of collapse, and is the 3rd poorest nation in the western hemisphere.

b) Very little (if any) concern is placed on environmental issues, except in the small tourist areas.

c) As of right now, environmental issues are not being dealt with

d) Poverty is extremely high throughout the country. If the poverty levels were to be reduced, it would favor the environment beneficially.

Chapter 24:a) With the exception of tourist areas, the government has not assisted in a transition to a more sustainable society.

b) Can’t be answered

c) Nearly all laws concerning the environment have been passed through international legislation.

d) The main goal of environmental groups in Nicaragua is to prevent the destruction / deforestation of tropical rainforests, and to provide useable water to poorer parts of this country.

e) Causes to increase environmental security in Nicaragua have not been effective.

Chapter 25:a) Because of the high poverty rate in Nicaragua, the environment has not been a major concern in this country.

b) Education has not played a role, in people’s ability to live sustainably mostly because of the extremely high poverty rate.

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[edit] External links

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