Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Environmental Compliance Audit Report and Corrective Action Plan
Project Number: 47381-005 December 2019
SRI: Mahaweli Water Security Investment Program
Upper Elahera Canal Project (Part 3 of 4)
Prepared by Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment for Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and the Asian Development Bank. This environmental compliance audit report and corrective action plan is a document of the borrower. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of ADB's Board of Directors, Management, or staff, and may be preliminary in nature. Your attention is directed to the “terms of use” section of this website. In preparing any country program or strategy, financing any project, or by making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area in this document, the Asian Development Bank does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.
Corrective Action Plan - December, 2019 KMTC Contract Package of UECP of MWSIP, Sri Lanka
Page 27 of 33
Annexure 2
The “Ecological Assessment of Forest Land in Nawaneliya-Belgoda Reserve Forest, Naula, Matale-Final
Report (June, 2019)” prepared by IUCN
Ecological Assessment of a Forest Land in Nawaneliya - Beligoda Reserve Forest, Naula, Matale.
Final Report
June, 2019
IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka Country Office
i
Technical Contributors
Mr. Sampath de A Goonatilake - Field Team Leader/ Fauna Ecologist
Prof. Devaka Weerakoon - Biodiversity Expert
Mr. Naalin Perera - Fauna Ecologist
Mr. Sarath Ekanayake - Plant Ecologist
Dr. Shamen Vidanage - Environment Economist
Mr. Rohana Jayasekara - Fauna Ecologist
Mr. Ananda Lal Peiris - Fauna and Flora Assistant
Ms. Gayani Hewawasan – Legal Expert
Technical Assistance
Mr. Tharanga Wijewickrama - Flora Expert
Ms. Padmi Meegoda
GIS Mapping
Ms. Darshani Wijesinghe
Front & back cover pictures – Cleared road left bank of the Kambarawa Oya (front cover); Disturbed stream bed at Kambarawa Oya (back cover) © Sampath de A Goonatilake @IUCN Sri Lanka
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents ................................................................................................................... ii
Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... vi
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Methodological Approach .............................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Study Area ............................................................................................................ 2
1.2.2 Biodiversity assessment ........................................................................................ 3
1.2.2a Flora ................................................................................................................ 4
Ecosystem and species diversity ........................................................................... 4
Assessment of canopy cover in 5mx50m transects (8 Nos.) .................................. 4
Estimation of merchantable timber volume in 5mx50m transects (8 Nos.) ............. 4
Estimation of forest carbon .................................................................................... 5
1.2.2b Fauna .............................................................................................................. 5
1.2.2c Identification of taxa ......................................................................................... 5
1.2.2d Critical species and Critical habitats ................................................................ 6
1.2.3 Physical damage ................................................................................................... 7
1.2.4 Biological damage ................................................................................................. 8
1.2.5 Cost estimation/valuation .................................................................................... 10
1.2.6 Biodiversity offsets .............................................................................................. 10
2. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Legality of clearing forest outside of the approved area ............................................... 11
2.1.1 Under the Forest Ordinance ................................................................................ 11
2.1.2 Under the National Environmental Act (NEA) ...................................................... 12
2.2 Ecological profile of the affected area .......................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Ecosystem diversity ............................................................................................ 12
2.3 Habitat diversity ........................................................................................................... 14
2.4 Species diversity .......................................................................................................... 15
2.4.1 Floral diversity ..................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Faunal diversity ................................................................................................... 16
Freshwater crabs ................................................................................................. 17
Land Snails .......................................................................................................... 18
Dragonflies .......................................................................................................... 18
Butterflies ............................................................................................................ 18
Freshwater fish .................................................................................................... 18
Amphibians .......................................................................................................... 18
iii
Reptiles ............................................................................................................... 19
Birds .................................................................................................................... 19
Mammals ............................................................................................................. 19
2.5 Critical habitats ............................................................................................................ 20
2.6 Environmental Impact due to the illegal road construction ........................................... 23
2.6.1 Physical impact ................................................................................................... 23
2.6.2 Slope unsatbility .................................................................................................. 26
2.7 Biological impact .......................................................................................................... 27
2.7.1 Loss of plant species ........................................................................................... 27
2.7.2 Loss of canopy cover .......................................................................................... 27
2.7.3 Loss of timber volume ......................................................................................... 27
2.7.4 Loss of carbon storage ........................................................................................ 27
2.8 Impact on faunal groups and habitats .......................................................................... 27
2.9 Cost estimation/valuation ............................................................................................. 28
2.9.1 Estimates based on Benefit Transfer................................................................... 28
2.9.2 Estimates based on Field data ............................................................................ 28
2.9.3 Value of lost forest organic matter ....................................................................... 28
2.9.4 Value of lost timber ............................................................................................. 29
2.9.5 Value of soil ........................................................................................................ 29
2.9.6 Value of lost forest carbon ................................................................................... 29
2.10 Biodiversity Offset to compensate for the long term damage ..................................... 29
3. Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Legal enforcement ....................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Damage & restoration .................................................................................................. 30
4. Restoration plan ........................................................................................................... 31
4.1 Remove the abandoned truck from the island .............................................................. 31
4.2 Restoration approaches (Soil stabilization and Runoff water control) ........................... 32
4.3 Stabilization of damaged stream beds ......................................................................... 36
4.4 Stabilization of leaning trees ........................................................................................ 38
4.5 Proposed vegetative restoration interventions ............................................................. 39
4.6 General approach for field level planting operations (on-site & off-site)........................ 40
Step 1: Site assessment and enlisting of potential plant species .................................. 40
Step-2: Planting of nurse crops (applicable for sites allocated for ecological compensation forestry) ................................................................................................. 42
Step 3: Plant procurement and temporary maintenance............................................... 43
Step 4: Field planting ................................................................................................... 43
Step 5: Maintenance .................................................................................................... 44
Step 6: Monitoring ........................................................................................................ 45
4.7 Cost for restoration plan .............................................................................................. 46
iv
5. References .................................................................................................................. 49
Annexes .............................................................................................................................. 51
Annex 1: List of plants recorded in and around cleared forest area ................................... 51
Annex 2: Large trees (DBH 20cm or above) enumerated. ................................................. 56
Annex 3: List of fauna at the study area ............................................................................. 60
Annex 4: Species that were considered for the Critical Habitat assessment based in IFC gudeline .............................................................................................................. 73
v
ABBREVIATIONS
BrR - Breeding resident
CoS - Conservation Status
CR - Critically Endangered
CSR - Corporate Social Responsibility
DBH - Diameter at Breast Height
DD - Data Deficient
DOM - Domestic Species
EN - Endangered
END - Endemic
EXO - Exotic Species
GRL - Global Red List
IAS - Invasive Alien Species
IND - Indigenous
IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature
NK - Not Known
LC - Least Concern
MADP - Moragahakanda Agricultural Development Project
MWSIP - Mahaweli Water Security Investment Programme
NE - Not Evaluated
NRL - National Red List
NT - Near Threatened
VES - Visual Encounter Survey
TEEB - The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
VU - Vulnerable
WV - Winter Visitor
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the Mahaweli Water Security Investment Programme (MWSIP),
specially Eng. K.R. Neil Bandara, Program Director and Mr. Pathmasiri Moonamale,
Environment Specialist for their logistical support to facilitate the study. We would like to
express our gratitude to the Mr. Mahinda Seneviratne (Conservator of forests - Environment
Management & Geo Resources) and Mr. Isuru Alawatta (Assitant Conservator) for their
support during the preparation of report, DFO Matale Office, BFO of Pallegema Beat office
and his field officers for their active participation during the field survey. We are also grateful
to the Kalu Ganga Moragahakanda Transfer Canal Project Director, Project Engineer, and
Environment Officers for their support during the fieldwork.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
The Moragahakanda Agricultural Development Project (MADP) involves harvesting water
from Amban Ganga, one of the main tributaries of the Mahaweli Ganga, which flows through
the knuckles mountain range, by establishing a reservoir. Furthermore, this project resulted
in the establishment of new settlements along the right and left banks and associated
infrastructure. As part of the investment, Kaluganga reservoir is also being built by
constructing a dam across Kalu Ganga to provide excess water to MADP. For this purpose,
Kaluganga-Moragahakanda Transfer Canal (KMTC) is being built as a part of the Upper
Elehera Canal Project under the Mahaweli Water Security Investment Program (MWSIP).
The contractor commissioned for construction of the KMTC, Sinohydro has cleared a patch
of forest outside of the approved area during the construction of the access road to the
proposed outlet portal of the KMTC in the Nawaneliya-Beligoda Reserve Forest. The incident
took place in an area outside the approved area for construction of “road section F” in the approved addendum to Environmental Impact Assessment (Sept. 2018) by the Asian
Development Bank (ADB) and the Central Environment Authority (CEA). A preliminary
environment incident report has been compiled by the Program Management, Design and
Supervision Consultant (PMDSC, 2019). It has addressed a) Environment safeguard Non-
compliance status of the incident, b) Ecological significant of the area, c) Impact due to the
contractor’s damage on sensitive ecosystem, and d) Immediate action taken by the engineer
and recommendations to rectify the damage.
Development projects, when failed to comply with environmental safeguards, as indicated by
this incident, can result in degradation of ecosystems and loss of biodiversity. The
biodiversity loss presents significant economic challenges (Dasgupta, 2008). Therefore,
valuation of the loss of ecosystem services play an integral part of the damage assessment
and preparation of recovery plans based on applicable tools.
As per the recommendations proposed in the Environment Incident Report, the MWSIP has
requested (through letter “MMDE/MWSIP/PMU/ENV/UECP/Gen-Vol 2” dated 5th February
2019) IUCN to undertake an assessment of the ecological damage resulting due to the said
unauthorized forest clearance, assess the cost of damage and provide a restoration plan for
the affected area. Due to time and data limitaions this assessment this assessment used the
principles of ‘benefit transfer’ to arrive at values for the damage using best available data.
1.1 Objectives
Therefore, IUCN has conducted a preliminary visit followed by a detailed biodiversity/ecology
survey at the cleared site to fulfil the following objectives.
To assess the present biodiversity around the cleared area.
To document the potential loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services due to the
said forest clearance.
To calculate the cost of damage to the ecosystem.
To identify suite of short and long term measures that can be taken to ecologically
improve the degraded area.
To prepare a restoration plan including above findings.
2
1.2 Methodological Approach
1.2.1 Study Area
The study area included the area impacted by the illegally constructed road, specifically a
100 m strip on either side of the illegally constructed road. Study area lies at the upper
reaches of Moragahakanda reservoir high flood level along the Kambarawa Oya near
Beligoda village. The area falls within the Nawaneliya-Beligoda Reserve Forest on the
northern slope of the Knuckles mountain range, which is contiguous with the Knuckles
Conservation Forest (Highland World Heritage site) (see Map 01).
Map 01. Study Area (red line indicate the unauthorized forest clearance).
3
1.2.2 Biodiversity assessment
The objective of this assessment is to characterize the biodiversity of the cleared area in
order to assess the impact of the illegal road construction on the biodiversity. Both literature
survey and field survey was done to gather the biodiversity data from the study site. It has
referred two main EIA reports with several taxonomic papers to gather previous information
(Anon 2015; Anon 2017; Bahir & Yeo, 2005).
Map 02. Study Area (red line indicate the unauthorized forest clearance).
4
For the field survey, eight 5x50m belt transects were established at 100m intervals along the
cleared road, based on the assumption that the cleared area had similar vegetation. In the
left bank, the sampling was carried out above the illegal road as road traversed closer to the
Oya while in the right bank sampling plots were placed between the illegally cleared road
and Oya where damage due to forest clearance was relatively less compared to the left bank.
The study is can be divided into four key sections (see map 02); (i) Left bank of Kambarawa
stream, where large scale vegetation clearance is done for the illegal road construction (ii)
Right bank of Kambarawa stream, where relatively less amount of vegetation has been
cleared for road construction, (iii) Two causeways constructed across Kambarawa Oya by
placing boulders and (iv) Island section between the two causeways.
1.2.2a Flora
Ecosystem and species diversity
In this rapid assessment, Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method was used to document
general flora (flowering plants) in different ecosystems as well as 5mx50 transects (8 Nos.).
Transects were laid adjacent to the high impact zone assuming plant life in such sites were
similar to the area impacted by the illegal road. There are three standard sampling designs
for visual encounter surveys: opportunistic or randomized walk, walking along a line
transects, or the quadrat or plot sampling (Crump and Scott, 1994), and the present survey
made use of the second technique, belt transects laid in different habitat patches to capture
maximum diversity. Visual encounter surveys can determine species richness; be applied in
long term monitoring projects; provide information for compilation of a species list; and
provide data used to estimate proportion of area surveyed that is occupied by target species.
Photographic records were made to identify less familiar species, and standard taxonomic
keys and other scientific literature mentioned in the list of references were used in the
process.
During the analysis, medicinal plants were identified using the Ayurveda Medicinal Plant
Database, University of Ruhuna (Anon, 2018).
Assessment of canopy cover in 5mx50m transects (8 Nos.)
Canopy radius (r) was visually estimated and converted to circular coverage using; Canopy
cover = 2*(22/7)*r. Larger trees having diameter at breast height (DBH) of 20cm or above
were enumerated. Actual vertical projection shape of canopy cover was given
diagrammatically referring 5mx50m plots.
Estimation of merchantable timber volume in 5mx50m transects (8 Nos.)
Merchantable timber volume was calculated using Samalian's formula; Timber volume of a
log = [(A+B)/2]*L (cited in Goulding, 1979). Larger trees having diameter at breast height
(DBH) of 20cm or above were enumerated (Gouldling, 1979).
A= Cross section area of log at large end (lower end)
B= Cross section area of log at small end (upper end)
L= Length of merchantable log
Working definitions and assumptions: Diameter at breast height (DBH) was used to
calculate value A. Merchantable length of the log height was assumed as 75% of total height
of the tree, which was visually estimated. B was calculated based on the assumption that
diameter of the cross section at small end is to be 2/3 of DBH.
5
Estimation of forest carbon
The damaged forest can be categorized as Moist-mixed evergreen forest that comprise of
dry zone forest species. However, it was difficult to find any forest carbon estimation studies
in similar forest types in Sri Lanka or India. Therefore, forest carbon was calculated using the
reference forest carbon value of 131.38 Mt/ha reported for a similar tropical dry deciduous
forest (which has similar species) by Gandhi & Sundarapandian (2017).
1.2.2b Fauna
All groups of vertebrates (freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) and
selected invertebrate taxa (butterflies, dragonflies, land snails and aquatic snails) was
sampled and documented. The same floral sampling belt transects (50x5m) was used to
sample different groups of fauna in the project area (Table 1). Three night surveys were
conducted along the cleared road using flashlights, to document the nocturnal species. All
efforts were made to document the animals in a non-destructive manner. Other than the
terrestrial fauna, aquatic fauna was sampled by using different techniques such as river bank
observations using flash lights, snorkeling along the stretch of the river on either side of the
makeshift causeway established during the construction of the road.
Table 1. Summary of sampling techniques for fauna
Group/ taxa Method Technique
Fish Direct Bank counts; hand nets; snorkeling upstream and downstream near the causeway
Amphibians Direct Visual encounter survey within the 5x50m belt transect; night observation using flashlights
Reptiles Direct Visual encounter survey within the 5x50m belt transect; communication with project laborers
Birds Direct and indirect
25m radius circular plot (visual and auditory observations) at the two ends of the 5x50m belt transect
Mammals Direct and indirect
Within the 5x50m belt transects (including presence indicated by tracks, fecal matter, feeding signs, carnivore scat analysis and calls); night sampling; communication with project laborers
Butterflies and dragonflies
Direct Visual encounter survey within the 5x50m transect
Land and aquatic snails
Direct Visual encounter survey within three (1x1m) quadrats established within each 5x50m belt transect
1.2.2c Identification of taxa
The species of plants and animals were identified and classified using the latest standard
published guides, peer reviewed journal papers and keys available in Sri Lanka. Some of the
key references that were used to identify flora and fauna are given below in Tables 2 and 3.
Threatened status of recorded species was obtained from the 2012 National Red List of Sri
Lanka and IUCN global Red List (https://www.iucnredlist.org/).
6
Table 2. Sources used for the identification and classification of flora
Subject Source
Taxonomic identification Ashton et al. (1997); Dassanayake and Fosberg (1980 - 1991);
Dassanayake et al. (1994 - 1995); Dassanayake and Clayton
(1996 - 1999); de Vlas & Jong (2008)
Invasive species BDS, MMD&E, (2016)
Ecosystem and Species
Nomenclature and Conservation
status
MoMD&E (2016); MOE (2012); Global Red List (2019)
(https://www.iucnredlist.org/)
Table 3. Sources used for the identification and classification of fauna
Purpose Group Source
Taxonomic
identification
Land snails Naggs and Raheem (2000)
Aquatic snail Peiris et al., (2014)
Dragonflies Bedjanič et al, (2007)
Butterflies van de Poorten and van der Poorten, (2018)
Freshwater Goonatilake (2007)
Amphibians Manamendra-arachchi & Pethiyagoda (2006)
Reptiles Somaweera (2006); Somaweera & Somaweera (2009)
Birds Grimmett et al. (2016)
Mammals Kotagama & Goonatilake (2017)
Nomenclature and
Conservation
status
All of the
above
MoE, (2012); Global Red List (2019) (https://www.iucnredlist.org/)
1.2.2d Critical species and Critical habitats
The term ‘critical habitat’ has been defined in different ways by various sources. However,
for the purpose of this report the definition given in the International Finance Corporation
(IFC) guideline has been adopted. According to IFC guidance note 61, a ‘critical habitat’ is
defined as an area of high biodiversity value that will satisfy at least one or more of the
following five criteria (IFC, 2012ab).
Criterion 1: habitat of significant importance to Critically Endangered and/or Endangered
species, endemic and/or restricted-range species, and globally significant concentrations of
migratory species, and/or congregatory species
Criterion 2: areas with regionally unique and/or highly threatened ecosystems
1 http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/c2815b0049800a9fab72fb336b93d75f/Phase2GN6Englishclean.pdf?
MOD=AJPERES
7
Criterion 3: areas, which are associated with key evolutionary processes
Criterion 4: Legally Protected Areas (particularly IUCN Categories I-IV) and Internationally
Recognized Areas (e.g., KBAs and IBAs); and
Criterion 5. Areas of high biodiversity value, such as areas of high scientific value or areas
of old growth forest
1.2.3 Physical damage
Physical damage was determined with respect to four different parameters a) damage to the
forest litter layer (organic matter/compost) along the cleared road, b), damage to the top soil
along the cleared road c) damage to the seasonal stream beds that passes through the
cleared road, d) damage to banks of the main perennial stream (Kambarawa Oya).
a) Damage to the forest litter layer (organic matter /compost) along the cleared
road.
The road has been constructed by levelling the sloppy terrain along the both banks of
Kambarawa Oya. Therefore, the total surface area of the slope was calculated to find the
volume of organic matter removed due to road construction. The slope width (sw) was
calculated using Pythagorean theorem (see figure 01). Since the soil cut height varied in
different sections of the cleared road, calculations were done according to the height classes.
Accordingly, four different height classes were recognized.
Figure 01. Diagrammatic illustration of the measurements taken
Following equation was used for the calculation of total surface area that has been disturbed
due to the road construction.
According to Pythagorean theorem, sw2 = h2+w2
Slope width Sq Rt. sw2 = Sq Rt. h2+w2
From each 5x50m2 sampling plots litter samples were collected from two 1x1 m2 sub-plots.
The total weight of the litter collected from the 16 sub-plots was weighed and the mean value
was determined. Finally, the total weight of the cleared litter due to road construction was
calculated by multiplying the mean value with the total surface area disturbed (in sq m) due
to the road construction.
8
b) Damage to the topsoil along the cleared road
The road has constructed by levelling the sloppy terrain along both banks of the Kambarawa
Oya. Total depth to which the soil was excavated, road width, and the length were the
variables used to calculate the soil removed from the site. The depth to which the soil was
excavated varied in different sections of the cleared road, calculations were done according
the height classes. Accordingly, 15 different height classes were recognized (see figure 02).
Figure 02. Diagrammatic illustration of the measurements taken
Following equation was used for the calculation of total volume of soil removed from the
cleared road.
Total amount of soil removed from a section 1= (l1 * h 1 * w1)/2
Total amount of soil volume removed from the cleared area (T) = section 01 (l1 * h1 *
w1)/2 + section 2 (l2 * h2 * w2)/2 + section 3 (l3 * h3 * w3)/2 +….+ section 15 (l15 * h15 * w15)/2
c) Damage to the seasonal stream beds which passes through the cleared road,
There are number of seasonal streams that drain through the road that has been
established. During the road construction, the stream bed/substrate (boulders and
pebbles) of these streams has been disturbed. The width and length of each seasonal
stream that passes through the newly cut road was measured with GPS location.
Relevant restoration measures were also recorded for each of the streams affected.
d) Damage to banks of main perennial stream (Kambarawa Oya).
Left bank of the Kambarawa Oya at the point where the road cross though the stream
has been largely damaged due to road construction. It will result in high level of soil
erosion during the rainy season. Therefore, steps that should be taken to restore the
stream bank before the onset of the rainy season was documented.
1.2.4 Biological damage
Biological damage was evaluated with respect to impact caused to three aspects of
biodiversity; ecosystems, species richness, habitats and population size of different
taxonomic groups.
9
a) Damage to ecosystems
Two main ecosystems, Moist-mixed evergreen forest and Riverine evergreen forest
were identified in the area impacted by the road construction. Therefore, damage
caused to these ecosystems was determined with respect to the impact on vertical
stratification, canopy cover, herb and epiphytic diversity of each ecosystem.
b) Damage to the species richness
Overall impact on the species richness of the affected area as well as the status of
the affected species such as indigenous, endemic, relict, point endemic, range
restricted and both national and global conservation status such as Critically
Endangered, Endangered, vulnerable.
c) Damage to the habitats and population size of different taxonomic groups
In addition to species diversity, the effect of the road construction on different faunal
groups was recorded during the biodiversity assessment. This was done by assigning
a score for each taxonomic group on a 1-6 points scale by the field team based on
field observations as well as their prior knowledge on the habitat of the faunal group
assessed. The parameters used in assigning a score is given in table 4.
Table 4. Parameters used to assign a score for the impact on habitats and population size of
different taxonomic groups due to the road construction.
Impact to Population Impact to Habitat
Parameters
considered
for scoring
Population density within the area Extent of physical and structural changes
to the habitats
Ability to move away successfully from
the area impacted due to road
construction
Impacts to nesting, feeding, roosting,
hiding areas of a particular group of
animals including feeding plants and
micro habitats of the group
Impact to migration or movement of
particular group of animals
Values given Definitions Definitions
1 - very low Few individual impacted Insignificant damage to habitat
2 - low 25% of individual impacted Minor damage
3 - Moderate 50% population impacted Half of the habitat destroyed
4 - High 75% population impacted 75% of the habitat destroyed
5 - very high More than 90% population destroyed More than 90% habitat destroyed
10
1.2.5 Cost estimation/valuation
Given the limited time available for the assessment and allocation of resources, value of
ecological damage of the unauthorized forest clearance was assessed using benefit transfer
methods (Kotagama, Vidanage, Dahanayake and Batagoda, 2005), where previously
conducted primary valuation studies elsewhere were used to derive values of the damage in
the given situation.
Application of benefit transfer can vary between simple and pragmatic applications to more
technical and complex operations. This approach is the internationally accepted way of
assessing value of environment when the baseline information, resources or time becomes
a constraint while a decision is needed urgently (Pearce and Moran, 1995). In assessing the
Ecosystem service values, we used mainly values given for tropical forests in Asia from the
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) valuation database (Van der Ploeg,
and de Groot, 2010). Alternatively, we attempted to value selected forest ecosystem services
such as soil value, timber value, carbon value, organic matter (compost) value based on
direct valuation techniques with available information. However, due to limitations in these
assessments (selected forest ecosystem service values) we do not recommend them to be
used in decision-making. They are presented to provide a flavor of the associated costs in
such damages.
1.2.6 Biodiversity offsets
Habitat loss has been considered as the main cause of biodiversity loss. In planning, several
countries require that developers first avoid biodiversity impacts, then minimize the impacts
that cannot be avoided and, if there are any residual impacts, offset these through actions
that generate an equivalent biodiversity gain, there or elsewhere. This hierarchy of avoiding
> reducing > offsetting impacts is known as the mitigation hierarchy in mitigating
environmental harm in planned development.
As part of mitigation hierarchy, the biodiversity offsets have been used successfully in
countries such as United States, Australia, Brazil, Colombia, and South Africa (McKenney
and Kiesecker, 2010). Biodiversity offsets seek to compensate for the residual environmental
impacts of planned developments after appropriate steps have been taken to avoid, minimize
or restore impacts on site (McKenney and Kiesecker, 2010). Offsets are emerging as an
increasingly employed mechanism for achieving net environmental benefits in above-
mentioned countries. However, offsets have not been recognized in many other places
including in Sri Lanka as part of the mitigation hierarchy in development projects due to
various limitation including weak governance in such countries. Though the offsets are not
recognized in mitigation due to possible dangers of clearing mature forests by the name of
creating new areas - offsetting, in this given situation in Beligoda damage is already done,
hence offsetting is recommended in this context to compensate the ecological damage done
in Beligoda.
According to McKenney and Kiesecker (2010), six key issues are to be considered in
implementing offsets: (1) equivalence of project impacts with offset gains; (2) location of the
offset relative to the impact site; (3) ‘‘additionally’’ (a new contribution to conservation) and acceptable types of offsets; (4) timing of project impacts versus offset benefits; (5) offset
duration and compliance; and (6) ‘‘currency’’ and mitigation replacement ratios. They further identified further policy guidance covering the: (1) ensure conformance with the mitigation
hierarchy; (2) identify the most environmentally preferable offsets within a landscape context;
and (3) determine appropriate mitigation replacement ratios.
11
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2.1 Legality of clearing forest outside of the approved area
The area subjected to the unlawful clearance comes within the Nawaneliya – Beligoda
Reserved Forest with a total extent of 647,326 ha and declared as a Reserved Forest by
Extraordinary Gazette No. 1628/30, under the Forest Ordinance as amended, on 18.11.2009.
Therefore, any unauthorized activities within the Reserve Forest are a violation of the
relevant legal bounds with the Forest Ordinance.
2.1.1 Under the Forest Ordinance
Reserved Forests are one of the four categories of protected forests where the following acts
are prohibited and carry a legal penalty if violated.
Sections 7 (1) of the Forest Ordinance prescribe the prohibited acts within a Reserved Forest
as, inter alia;
(a) trespasses or causes trespass or remains therein;
(c) fells a tree or cuts or drags timber, causes damage by negligence or
intentionally strips off bark or leaves from any tree or girdles, lops, taps or burns a tree
or does any act to damage or destroy any tree;
(d) blocks any waterways within such forest or obtains water from such waterway
by means of a pipe line or any other devices or pollutes or poisons water or pollutes
the forest environment by dumping and disposing any garbage in the forest;
(i) fells, cuts, saws, converts, alters, collects, removes or transports any tree or
timber or collects, removes, transports or has in his possession, custody or control of
any forest produce;
(l) constructs any road, alters or damages any road already constructed, uses any
road so constructed, damages, alters, disfigures or removes any wall, ditch,
embankment, fence, hurdle, gutter, hedge, name board, sign board or any other
boundary mark.
The Ordinance provides that any person or persons within a declared forest reserve, carries
out any of the prohibited acts, as mentioned above, is guilty of an offence under the law. And
such person or persons shall be liable on conviction to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years or
stipulated fine
or both
In addition to the above, the Court may
Award compensation for any damage caused to the Reserved Forest. Such
compensation shall be equivalent to the actual value of the damage caused to
the Reserved Forest and shall be charged and recovered as a fine levied by Court.
Also as per Section 7 (2) of the Forest ordinance - Any person who aids or abets in the
commission of any offence specified in subsection (1), or causes any such offence to be
committed shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable to the same
punishment as is specified for the commission of that offence.".
12
2.1.2 Under the National Environmental Act (NEA)
The National Environmental Regulation Gazette 772/22 of 1993, under the National
Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980 as amended, also prescribes projects, set out in its
Schedule, for which approvals shall be necessary under the provisions of the National
Environmental Act (provided for in Part IVC – that the prescribed projects require approval
under this provision).
Such provisions, which are relevant to the damage caused in this incident, are as follows;
In Schedule Part I, subsections
(3) “Extraction of timber covering land area exceeding 5 hectares”
(4) “Conversion of forests covering an area exceeding 1 hectare into non-
forest use”
(5) clearing of land areas exceeding 50 hectares”
In Schedule Part III, subsection 1
o any project within 100m from any declared area under, inter alia, the Forest
Ordinance
Under the National Environment Act and National Environment Regulation the only
repercussion would be the revocation of the permit but doesn’t prescribe a monetary penalty or compensation according to damages caused. This is covered under the Forest Ordinance
in this instance.
2.2 Ecological profile of the affected area
2.2.1 Ecosystem diversity
Moist-mixed evergreen forest- The Tropical semi-evergreen forest is the major natural
vegetation type present in the affected area. These forests have many large trees that shed
their leaves during the long dry, windy season, mainly from July-August, e.g., Albizia
odoratissima (Kabal maara), Chloroxylon swietenia (Burutha), Chukrasia tabularis
(Hulanhik), Haldina cordifolia (Kolon) and Premna tomentosa (Bu-sera). Hence they are
referred to as semi-evergreen forests. Well-developed forests of this type are found in most
of the Nawaneliya-Beligoda Reserved Forest.
The forest consists of four strata: a canopy (20-30 m), sub-canopy (10-15 m), shrubs (3-5m)
and ground vegetation. Common trees that can be seen in this forest type include:
Cleistanthus pallidus (Galmaratu), Dimocarpus longan (Mora), Diospyros oocarpa, Drypetes
sepiaria (Weera), Mesua ferrea (Naa) and Tetrameles nudiflora (Hema). Mature undisturbed
forests have a continuous canopy. Hence, the forest interior is dark and ground vegetation
is scanty. The vertical structure of these forests allows habitat partitioning for birds and many
other small animals, enabling a higher animal diversity. Giant woody lianas (e.g. Derris
parviflora and Ventilago maderaspatana) are also an important structural element of these
forests. Thickets of lianas are found in more disturbed sites and apparently such disturbance
have taken place many years ago. With the opening up of canopy, they have established
themselves by clinging and raising themselves on the surrounding trees. The stratified forests
are very effective in intercepting rain, with little or no soil erosion.
13
Figure 03. Moist-mixed evergreen forest at left bank.
Riverine evergreen forest- This vegetation type can generally be seen as a narrow strip of
few meter width on steep stream banks and over a 10 m wide belt when the stream is flowing
through flat areas. Vegetation height is about 25-35m with almost a closed canopy belt of
forests. A sub-canopy (15 m) and a layer of shrubs/herbs (5-3 m) can also be distinguished.
Woody flora is dominated by species such as Celtis philippensis (Medithala), Ficus racemosa
(Attikka), Ficus virens, Garcinia morella (Gokatu), Hydnocarpus venenata (Makul),
Margaritaria indica (Karau), Myristica ceylanica (Malaboda) and Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk).
The general luxuriance compared to semi-evergreen forests make them more like rain
forests. Lianas e.g. Entada pusaetha (Puswel) are an important constituent of the forest
framework. There is hardly any deciduous species and Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk) is the
commonest species. The ever-luxuriant nature could be attributed to the unlimited availability
of ground water throughout the year. Riverine forests form the inter phase between the
stream and other terrestrial habitats. It is the frontline defense against stream bank erosion
due to water currents. Thick root system of trees and shrubs act as a protective cushion
covering the banks. Well-developed riverine forests associated with the stream provide
convenient resting sites for birds, bats, reptiles, amphibians etc.
The perennial streams flowing through this ecosystem support healthy populations of
threatened herbs like Cryptocoryne beckettii, Cryptocoryne parva (Araceae) and Dalzellia
ceylanica (Podostomaceae), which provides added conservation value to this ecosystem.
14
Figure 04. Riverine evergreen forest at the island.
2.3 Habitat diversity
Two major habitat types (terrestrial forest habitat, and aquatic habitats) were identified
respect to faunal groups present in the study area. These two types can be further divided in
to four sub categories (see table 5).
Table 5. Habitat types
Major habitat
types
Sub categories Faunal groups
1 Terrestrial
habitats
Upland Forest Mammals, Forest birds, Terrestrial reptiles, frogs,
Land snails, Butterflies, and Dragonflies
Seasonally inundated
riverine forests and
island
Mammals, Forest birds, Terrestrial reptiles, frogs,
Land snails, Butterflies, and Dragonflies,
Semiaquatic mammals, Aquatic birds,
Semiaquatic reptiles
2 Aquatic habitats Seasonal steams Aquatic snails, Aquatic reptiles, Amphibians,
Freshwater fish, Freshwater crabs,
Perennial streams Aquatic snails, Fresh water fish, Amphibians,
Aquatic birds, semiaquatic mammals
Terrestrial Habitats: Terrestrial habitats represent upland forests. This unauthorized forest
clearance directly has affected mainly terrestrial habitats. This habitat has provided food and
shelter for majority of the terrestrial fauna such as mammals, forest birds, endemic terrestrial
and fossorial reptiles (Otocryptis nigristigma, Cnemaspis podihuna, Eutropis madarazi,
Lankascincus fallax), amphibians (Pseudophilautus spp.), Land snails (Allopeas marine,
15
Glessula pallens, Mirus panos, Aulopoma itieri, etc.) butterflies (Ariadne merione, Kallima
philarchus, Libythea celtis) and other terrestrial fauna (see annex 03).
The riverine forests present on either side of the Kambarawa Oya and the island located
within the oya also support number of terrestrial as well as semiaquatic faunal species. The
area becomes seasonally inundated during the rainy season. Therefore, it has relatively wet
environment ompared to the upland forests. This wet area is used by number of butterflies
as a source of minerals. Specially endangered Five bar swordtail (Graphium antiphates) was
observed on several occasion while it was mud-puddling during sunny days. It is also a
habitat preferred by the endemic Greenpit viper (Trimeresurus trigonocephalus) which
generally occurs in wet zone forests and rarely in dry zone forests with predominantly wet
conditions. The composition and structure of the vegetation present in the island was different
from that of upland terrestrial forests.
Aquatic habitats: The aquatic habitats can be divided in to two major categories, seasonal
streams and perennial stream (Kambarawa Oya). This serves as a major habitat for range
restricted and threatened freshwater fish (Dawkinsia srilankensis, Systomus martenstyni,
Systomus ‘Richmondi', Labuca insularis, Tor khudree), endemic amphibians (Lankanectes
corrugatus, Indosylvirana temporalis, Hydrophylax gracilis), endemic freshwater crabs
(Mahatha adonis), endemic aquatic snails (Paludomus sp), endemic and threatened
dragonflies (Orthetrum chrysis, Libellago greeni, Paragomphus campestris, Zygonyx iris,
Euphaea splendens), aquatic birds and semiaquatic mammals (Lutra lutra) (see Annex 03).
It also provides a habitat for number of aquatic/ semi aquatic, endemic and threatened plant
species such as Dalzellia ceylanica and Cryptocorine beketii, Cryptocoryne parva and
Memecylon angustifolium.
2.4 Species diversity
2.4.1 Floral diversity
During the present investigation, 215 plant species belonging to 69 plant families (Annex 01)
were documented. The vegetation comprised of diverse plant forms creating a very complex
three-dimensional structure providing an array of niches, which explains the high faunal
diversity observed in the area. The floral assemblage comprised of 82 tree species, 34 shrub
species, 63 herb species, nine species of stragglers, 24 species of climbers and three
species of epiphytes. The 216 plant species recorded, included 151 species listed as
medicinal plants, 33 species listed as endemic plants, 40 species (represented by 12
Endangered, 28 vulnerable) listed as Nationally threatened plants (MOE, 2012) and eight
species listed as Globally threatened plant species (Table 6). Further, 20 Nationally Near
Threatened species were also recorded.
Table 6. Globally Threatened floral species recorded from the site.
Family Botanical name
Local
name Medicinal SpS NRL GRL
1 Anacardiaceae Mangifera zeylanica Etamba - END LC VU
2 Anacardiaceae Semecarpus nigro-viridis Badulla Medicinal END LC VU
3 Apocyanaceae Willughbeia cirrhifera - END VU VU
4 Celastraceae Euonymus walkeri - END LC VU
5 Cycadaceae Cycas nathorstii Madu Medicinal IND VU VU
6 Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenoides Habaraliya - END EN EN
7 Meliaceae Dysoxylum ficiforme - IND NT VU
8 Myristicaceae Myristica ceylanica - IND VU VU Abbreviations used: SpS - Species Status; NRL - National red List; GRL - Global Red List END - Endemic; IND - Indigenous; LC - Least concern; VU - Vulnerable; EN - Endangered; NT – Near Threatened
16
2.4.2 Faunal diversity
Altogether 262 faunal species representing all five vertebrate groups (freshwater fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) and selected invertebrate groups (land snails,
aquatic snails, butterflies, dragonflies, and freshwater crabs) were found within the study
area. Out of the 262 faunal species recorded, 252 species are native to Sri Lanka, 78 (31%)
species are listed as endemic species. A higher percentage of endemics were represented
by the freshwater crabs (100%), Land snails (75%), Amphibians (62.5%), Freshwater fishes
(58.33%) and reptiles (57.14%). This indicates that the area that has been damaged serves
as a high quality habitat supporting a rich assemblage of endemic, range restricted and
threatened faunal species. This is to be expected, as the Nawaneliya-Beligoda Reserved
Forest reserve lies adjacent to the Knuckles Conservation Forest one of the high biodiversity
sites in Sri Lanka. Further, six species of forest migrants and one species of introduced
freshwater fish were also recorded (see Annex 03 and Table 07).
Table 7. Species richness of the faunal groups recorded from the site.
Faunal Group
Recorded from study site
Total Native Endemic % Endemics Migrant Exotic
Freshwater crab 4 4 4 100.00 0 0
Land snails 20 20 15 75.00 0 0
Dragonflies 23 23 6 26.09 0 0
Butterflies 57 57 4 7.02 0 0
Freshwater fishes 25 24 14 58.33 0 1
Amphibians 8 8 5 62.50 0 0
Reptiles 21 21 12 57.14 0 0
Birds 80 73 14 19.18 6 0
Mammals 24 24 4 16.67 0 0
Total 262 254 78 30.71 6 1
The 262 faunal species recorded included 51 (20.16%) species Listed as Nationally
Threatened species (Critically Threatened (CR) - 8, Endangered (EN) - 21, and vulnerable
(VU) – 22). Further, the faunal assemblage comprised of twelve species (Endangered (EN)
- 8 and vulnerable (VU) - 4) listed as globally threatened in the IUCN Red List. Further, 29
nationally Near threatened (NT) and seven globally Near threatened (NT) species were
recorded from the site. Another two species listed as nationally data deficient (DD) two
species listed as globally Low Risk - Conservation Dependent (LR/cd) were also recorded
from the site (see Table 08 & 09).
17
Table 8. Threatened status of the species within the recorded faunal groups.
Faunal Group
National Threatened status
(MOE 2012)
Global Threatened status
(IUCN 2019)
CR EN VU NT DD CR EN VU NT DD LR/cd
Freshwater crab 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Land snails 3 7 5 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dragonflies 0 3 4 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Butterflies 0 3 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Freshwater fishes 3 0 2 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 1
Amphibians 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
Reptiles 1 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Birds 0 0 1 7 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
Mammals 1 5 3 4 0 0 4 3 4 0 0
Total 8 21 22 29 2 0 8 4 7 0 2
Table 9. Globally Threatened faunal species recorded from the site.
No Family Scientific Name English Name SpS NRL GRL
Freshwater Crabs
1 Gecarcinucidae Oziotelphusa stricta END EN VU
Dragonflies
2 Gomphidae Gomphidia pearsoni Rivulte Tiger END EN EN
Freshater fishes
3 Cyprinidae Systomus martenstyni Martenstyni's barb END CR EN
4 Cyprinidae Tor khudree Mahseer IND NT EN
Amphibians
5 Rhacophoridae
Pseudophilautus
cavirostris
Hollow snouted shrub
frog END EN EN
Mammals
6 Manidae Manis crassicaudata Pangolin IND NT EN
7 Cercopithecidae Macaca sinica
Sri Lanka toque
monkey END LC EN
8 Cercopithecidae Semnopithecus vetulus
Purple-faced leaf
monkey END EN EN
9 Felidae Panthera pardus Leopard IND EN VU
10 Felidae Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat IND EN VU
11 Elephantidae Elephas maximus Elephant IND EN EN
12 Cervidae Rusa unicolor Sambur IND NT VU
Abbreviations used: SpS - Species Status; NRL - National red List; GRL - Global Red List END - Endemic; IND - Indigenous; CR - Critically Endangered; LC - Least concern; VU - Vulnerable; EN - Endangered; NT - Near Threatened
Freshwater crabs
Altogether, four freshwater crab species were recorded from the site. Out of these, three
species have been recorded in previous studies from Kambarawa Oya (Bahir & Yeo, 2005;
PMDSC, 2019). All four species are endemic to Sri Lanka while two species (Oziothelphusa
minneriyaensis and Oziotelphusa stricta) are listed as nationally threatened (MOE, 2012).
Therefore, Kambarawa Oya and its seasonal tributaries provide habitats necessary for the
survival of freshwater crab species.
18
Land Snails
During this study 19 species of snails were recorded in the study area including 18 land snail
and one aquatic snail species. One species (Micraulax coeloconus), recorded in the area by
a previous study was not recorded during this study (PMDSC, 2019). Out of the 18 land snail
species recorded in this study, 15 are listed as threatened and endemic to Sri Lanka including
three species (Allopeas marine, Glessula pallens and Micraulax coeloconus) that are listed
as Nationally Critically Endangered.
Dragonflies
During this study, 23 dragonflies and damselflies were recorded in the study area. Two
species (Libellago adami and Onychothemis tonkinensis), which was recorded by a previous
study was not recorded during this survey (PMDSC, 2019). The dragonflies and damselflies
recorded include five species that are listed as Nationally threatened (Endangered- Libellago
greeni, Gomphidia pearsoni, Onychothemis tonkinensis; Vulnerable - Libellago adami,
Orthetrum chrysis, Trithemis festiva, Zygonyx iris). Further one species (Gomphidia
pearsoni) listed as Globally Endangered was also recorded at the study site.
Butterflies
Total number of 57 butterfly species was recorded during the present survey. This included
four species that are endemic to Sri Lanka as well as seven species listed as nationally
threatened (Critically Endangered - Graphium antiphates, Kallima philarchus, Libythea celtis;
Endangered - Graphium nomius, Papilio crino, Eurema ormistoni, Ariadne merione).
Freshwater fish
Kambarawa Oya is a perennial stream comprising of substrate types such as bedrock, large
boulders or pebbles creating a diverse array of microhabitats such as rapidly flowing, slow
flowing sections as well as deep water pools. Therefore, Kambarawa Oya supports a rich
assemblage of freshwater fish species. During the present survey, 24 freshwater fish species
were recorded including 14 species that are endemic to Sri Lanka and four species listed as
nationally threatened (Critically Endangered - Dawkinsia srilankensis, Labuka insularis and
Systomus martenstyni; Vulnerable species - Garra ceylonensis, and Pethia melanomaculata)
Only a single species (Osphronemus goramy) of exotic fish were recorded. Out of the 14
species of endemics, four (Dawkinsia srilankensis, Labuka insularis, Systomus martenstyni
and Systomus ‘Richmondi') are considered as range restricted species as these species are
only recorded in streams located in the Knuckles range. Another Critically Endangered
species, Labeo fisheri has been recorded by previous researchers (NARA 2017; Sudasinghe
et al. 2018) in the Kambarawa Oya near the Kambarawa village, which has been inundated
by the Moragahakanda reservoir. This location is located about 2km downstream from the
study site. Even though this species was not recorded during the present study the habitat
conditions conducive for this fish has been recorded along the Kambarawa Oya from the high
flood level to a point about 250m beyond the causeway established during the illegal road
construction. Another noteworthy observation was the occurrence of number of fish species,
which do not naturally inhabit rapidly flowing streams such as Channa striata, Etroplus
suratensis and Osphronemus goramy.
Amphibians
Total of eight amphibian species were recorded during the present survey. Two species,
which recorded by a previous study (PMDSC, 2019) was not recorded during this survey.
The eight species recorded included five species that are endemic to Sri Lanka of which two
(Endangered - Pseudophilautus cavirostris; Vulnerable - Lankanectes corrugatus) are listed
as nationally threatened. The coomon toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus was the commonest
species recorded as it was seen all along the newly constructed road. Rest of the species
19
weas recorded in streams or stream banks. Pseudophilautus cavirostris, considered as a
canopy species descending to ground level during the rainy season for breeding. Therefore,
removal of canopy or sub-canopy trees on the banks of the streams will result in loss of
habitat of this endangered species. The amphibian diversity was found to be low as the
survey was carried out during the peak dry period (mid-March) and most of the amphibians
may have been restricted to wet areas or have gone in to burrows. Therefore, the actual
amphibian diversity in this area is likely to be higher than what was recorded.
Reptiles
Total number of 16 species was recorded during the present survey. Five species recorded
during a previous study (PMDSC, 2019) was not observed during this survey. Out of the 16
species recorded, 12 are endemic to the island while three species are listed as nationally
threatened (Critically Endangered - Calliophis haematoetron; Vulnerable - Lankascincus
gansi and Cnemaspis podihuna). The endemic species recorded are either arboreal (Calotes
ceylonensis, Calotes liolepis, Cnemaspis podihuna, Hemidactylus depressus, Dasia
halianus, and Trimeresurus trigonocephalus) or found on the forest floor among decaying
leaf litter (Otocryptis nigristigma, Eutropis madarazi, Lankascincus fallax, Lankascincus
gansi, and Calliophis haematoetron). These species are directly affected by the forest
clearance for the illegal road construction. Further, Hemidactylus depressus was observed
inside the engine section of the abandoned truck at the middle of the island.
Birds
Total of 80 bird species was recorded during the present survey. This included six species
of forest migrants, 14 species listed as endemic species in Sri Lanka and one species listed
as nationally threatened (Vulnerable - Geokichla spiloptera). It is noteworthy that 42 % of the
endemic birds of Sri Lanka was observed at this site. Among the recorded bird species,
Indian Pygmy Woodpecker (Picoides nanus); Lesser Sri Lanka Flameback (Dinopium
psarodes), Brown-headed Barbet (Psilopogon zeylanicus), Sri Lanka Yellow-fronted Barbet
(Psilopogon flavifrons), Sri Lanka Barbet (Psilopogon rubricapillus), Coppersmith Barbet
(Psilopogon haemacephalus), Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill (Ocyceros gingalensis), Sri Lanka
Hanging-parrot (Loriculus beryllinus), Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri), Common
Myna (Acridotheres tristis), Common Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa) are primarily forest
species and depend on the forest trees for their breeding (use tree-holes for nesting). Other
than these species recorded kites and eagles (Haliastur spp., Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus,
Spilornis cheela, Ictinaetus malaiensis and Nisaetus cirrhatus) also build their nest on the
trees that make up the forest canopy. Already the abandoned truck at the middle of the island
is being used by animals and a nest of the Tickell’s Blue-flycatcher (Cyornis tickelliae) was
observed on the footboard of the truck.
Mammals
Total of 24 mammal species including four species that are endemic to Sri Lanka was
recorded in the study area. Even though Panthera pardus was not recorded during the
present survey, a laborer has reported seeing pug marks of a leopard just after the road was
construct (in the January 2019). Further, nine species of mammals listed as nationally
threatened (Critically Endangered - Paradoxurus montanus; Endangered - Elephas
maximus, Prionailurus rubiginosus, Prionailurus viverrinus, Panthera pardus, and
Semnopithecus vetulus; Vulnerable - Hipposideros galeritus, Pipistrellus coromandra, and
Lutra lutra) was recorded in the area. There were signs to indicate that elephants have started
using the causeway constructed as part of the illegal road construction to cross the
Kambarawa Oya.
20
2.5 Critical habitats
Altogether 33 species of plants and 80 species of fauna that were recorded in the affected
area can be considered as potential critical habitat triggers as per the Critical habitat criteria
defined by the International Finance Corporation (IFC, 2012ab) (see Table 10 and Annex
04). Out of these 108 (32 floral species and 76 faunal species) species trigger critical habitat
as they are endemic species and nine (one flora and eight fauna) species trigger critical
habitat as they are listed as globally Endangered. The highest number of critical faunal
species are represented by Land and aquatic snails (16 spp.), Freshwater fishes (15 spp.),
birds (14 spp.) and reptiles (12 spp.)
Table 10. Number of species triggering critical habitat criteria among the recorded faunal
groups.
Faunal group No of Critical species Endemic
GRL
CR EN
Crabs 4 4 0 0
Land & Aquatic snails 16 15 0 0
Dragonflies 5 4 0 1
Butterflies 6 4 0 0
Freshwater fish 15 14 0 2
Amphibians 5 5 0 1
Reptiles 12 12 0 0
Birds 20 14 0 0
Mammals 9 4 0 4
Total 92 76 0 8
Abbreviations used: GRL - Global Red List; CR - Critically Endangered; EN - Endangered
The affected area comes under the Nawaneliya-Beligoda forest that has been declared
(gazette has issued) by the Extraordinary Gazette No. 1628/30 a Reserve Forest (equivalent
to IUCN protected area category IV), under the Forest Ordinance as amended, on
18.11.2009. Therefore, according to criteria 6, the area impacted can be classified as a
critical habitat as the illegal road construction has taken place inside a protected area. Further
the area qualifies as a critical habitat also under criteria 7, since the area supports high
species diversity (215 floral species and 262 faunal species) of which a large proportion
22.64 % are made up of endemic species (108 endemics). However, it should be noted that
the area affected by the illegal road construction comprise less than 1% of the natural extent
of occurrence (EOO) of the recorded critical species even though these species meet the
critical habitat criteria the site does not qualify as a critical habitat under the criteria 1. Even
though the area does not comprise of a significant part of the EOO of critical species, field
observations indicate that the illegal road construction has had a significant effect on the
habitat of these critical species.
21
Begonia cordifolia Vulnerable Diospyros ebenoides, Endemic and Endangered
Cryptocoryne beckettii, Endemic and Vulnerable Gymnostachyum ceylanicum, Endemic and Endangered
Dichaetaria wightii, Vulnerable Dalzellia ceylanica, Vulnerable
Geophila repens var asiatica, Vulnerable Munronia pinnata, Endangered
Figure 05. Some of the recorded significant plant species.
22
Dawkinsia srilankensis, Endemic and Critically Endangered
Systomus martenstyni, Endemic and Critically Endangered
Hydrophylax gracilis, Endemic Pseudophilautus cavirostris, Endemic and Endangered
Lankascincus fallax, Endemic Calotes ceylonensis, Endemic and Near Threatened
Otocryptis nigristigma, Endemic Manis crassicaudata, globally Endangered
Figure 06. Some of the significant faunal species.
23
2.6 Environmental Impact due to the illegal road construction
2.6.1 Physical impact
Cuttings and embankments change the landscape topography, and often induce large-scale
changes in hydrology. Cuttings may increase soil erosion and drain aquifers. Embankments
may change the water regime producing either drier or wetter conditions. These changes will
affect vegetation, e.g. in wetlands and riparian habitats.
a) Damage to the forest litter layer (organic matter /composts) along the cleared
road.
From each of the eight 5x50m2 sampling plots litter samples were collected from two
1x1 m2 sub-plots. The total weight of the litter collected form the 16 sub-plots was
9kg. Therefore, the mean value per 1m2 was 0.56 kg. The total surface area of the
forest ground cleared is 4990.723 m2. Therefore, the total weight of the litter that has
been removed is 2807.28 kg (see table 11).
Table 11. Measurements taken to calculate total removal of litter weight.
Stream Bank
Section Soil cut height (h) in meters
Width of road (w) in meters
Section length (l) in meters
h2 (m)
w2 (m)
h2+w2 Hypotenuse (sw)
Total (m2)
Litter weight (kg)
Left 0-150m* 1 5 150 1 25 26 5.10 764.85 430.23
Left 150-200m 1 5 50 1 25 26 5.10 254.95 143.41
Left 200-300m 1 5 100 1 25 26 5.10 509.90 286.82
Left 300-350m 0.5 5 50 0.25 25 25.25 5.10 251.25 141.33
Left 350-450m 0.5 5 100 0.25 25 25.25 5.10 502.49 282.65
Left 450-500m 1 5 50 1 25 26 5.10 254.95 143.41
Left
500-535m**
2 5 35 4 25 29
5.10
188.48 106.02
Right 0-50m# 0 5 50 0 25 25 5 250.00 140.62
Right 50-100m 0 5 50 0 25 25 5 250.00 140.62
Right 100-130m 0 5 50 0 25 25 5 250.00 140.62
Right 130-150m 1.5 5 20 2.25 25 27.25 5.22 104.40 58.73
Right 150-200m 1.5 5 50 2.25 25 27.25 5.22 261.01 146.85
Right 200-300m 1.5 5 100 2.25 25 27.25 5.22 522.01 293.63
Right 300-350m 1.5 5 50 2.25 25 27.25 5.22 261.01 146.82
Right
350-435m##
1.5 5 70 2.25 25 27.25 5.22 365.41 205.54
total 975
4,990.
72 2,807.
28
* starting point -near proposed bridge
** end point - near Kambarawa Oya left bank near causeway
# starting point - from Kambarawa Oya right bank near causeway
## end point - near right bank edge of proposed bridge
b) Damage to the top soil along the cleared road
Due to the illegal construction of the road a total of 2,325 cubic meter (m3) soil has been removed from the site (see Table 12).
24
Table 12. Measurements taken to calculate total removal of soil volume.
Stream
Bank
Section Soil cut
height (h) in meter
Width of road
(w) in meters
Section length
(l) in meters
Soil Volume (m3)
Left 0-150m* 1 5 150 375
Left 150-200m 1 5 50 125
Left 200-300m 1 5 100 250
Left 300-350m 0.5 5 50 62.5
Left 350-450m 0.5 5 100 125
Left 450-500m 1 5 50 125
Left 500-535m** 2 5 35 175
Right 0-50m# 0 5 50 0
Right 50-100m 0 5 50 0
Right 100-130m 0 5 50 0
Right 130-150m 1.5 5 20 75
Right 150-200m 1.5 5 50 187.5
Right 200-300m 1.5 5 100 375
Right 300-350m 1.5 5 50 187.5
Right 350-435m## 1.5 5 70 262.5
Total
975 2,325
* starting point -near proposed bridge
** end point - near Kambarawa Oya left bank near causeway
# starting point - from Kambarawa Oya right bank near causeway
## end point - near right bank edge of proposed bridge
c) Damage to the seasonal stream beds that passes through the cleared road.
Altogether three seasonal and two perennial streams have been damaged due to the illegal road construction (see table 13 and Figure 07).
Table 13. Measurements of the damaged streams.
Bank Stream no
GPS coordinates
Steam width
Damaged stream length
Left 1 07° 36' 50.43"N; 80°46'26.25"E 3m 6m
Left 2 07° 36' 47.4" NL; 80° 46' 23.2" EL 4m 10m
Left 3 07° 36' 46.6" NL; 80° 46' 23.1" EL 3m 4m
Left 4 07° 36' 41.6"NL; 80° 46' 22.9" EL 10m 6m
Right 5 07° 36' 47.2" NL; 80° 46' 29.3" EL 10m 12m
25
Stream no 01 Stream no 02
Stream no 03 Stream no 04
Kambarawa Oya left bank Stream no 05
Figure 07. Disturbed steams and Kambarawa river bank.
d) Damage to banks of main perennial stream (Kambarawa Oya).
The final 35 m of the illegally constructed road has caused considerable damage to
the left bank of Kambarawa Oya. Therefore, 210m2 of the surface area of Kambarawa
Oya has been damaged and the left bank of the stream has been excavated deeply
facilitate the vehicles to move though the Kambarawa Oya. The present angle of the
stream bank exceeds a 45° angle and during the rainy season this part will become
heavily eroded due to water flow along the newly built road as well as heavy flow of
the Kambarawa Oya during rainy season. During the road construction bank
vegetation as well as rock boulders which strengthen the bank has been removed,
which will further aggravate this situation. Therefore, immediate action needs to be
taken for restore this stream bank (Figure 08).
26
2.6.2 Slope unsatbility
Number of unstable slopes are created due along the illegally constructed road that will
result in heavy erosion during the rainy season (figure 08).
Left bank road erosion Cleared and disturbed area between road and Kambarawa left bank
Cleared area at the left bank road side. Boulder and pebbles aggregation to build causeway
River flow change due to boulder and pebbles aggregation
Soil erosion at the steep area on the right bank road
Figure 08. Disturbed habitats
27
2.7 Biological impact
The road construction fragments the natural habitats into two patches as well as act as a
barrier to species with low mobility and therefore disrupts the connectivity between the two
sides. This can have two primary effects on species; firstly, it can reduce the carrying capacity
of the habitat and therefore result in a population reduction of critical species. Second, it can
prevent free movement of less mobile species within the affected area.
2.7.1 Loss of plant species
Since the area affected by the illegal road construction has been cleared of vegetation totally
plant species present in the area adjacent to the cleared area was used as a proxy to
estimate the damage to the vegetation. The present investigation documented 212 plant
species belonging to 69 plant families (Annex 01) in the plots laid adjacent to area affected
by road construction. Important plant categories among them included; 150 medicinal plants,
31 endemic plants, 59 nationally threatened plants and 8 globally threatened plants. With
respect to trees having a large dimeter and merchantable timber value, 87 trees were found
in the 2,000 sq. m area sampled (5mx50m plots 8 nos.). Based on this value the loss of an
estimated number of 217 trees would have resulted due to the clearing of 4990 sq. m for
road construction (Annex 02).
2.7.2 Loss of canopy cover
Canopy cover of larger trees is an important structural element of the forest environment.
Sustainability of biodiversity, shading, protection of soil, wind cover, maintenance of
hydrological characteristics and temperature are some of the important attributes that depend
on canopy cover. Estimation of loss of canopy cover indicated that 5,744 sq. m of canopy
cover has been lost within sampling area alone (Annexes) and therefore, the total loss of
canopy covers due to the illegal road construction has been estimated to be around 14334
sq. m.
2.7.3 Loss of timber volume
Estimation of merchantable timber volume of reference plots show that 154 cubic meters of
wood has been lost due to the forest clearance and the loss of timber in the entire damaged
area of 4990 sq. m is estimated to be around 356 cubic meters of wood (see Table 11 and
Annex 02).
2.7.4 Loss of carbon storage
According to the published values, the mean value of total carbon accumulated in woody
vegetation in tropical dry deciduous forest is 131.38 Mg/ha and therefore the removal of
vegetation in an area of 4990 sq. m (Table 11) for road construction would have resulted in
the loss of 65.6 Mt of forest carbon.
2.8 Impact on faunal groups and habitats
The direct impact of road construction on fauna is the physical change in land cover along
the route as natural habitats are replaced or altered by transport infrastructure. The impact
of this net loss of natural habitat is made worse by disturbance and isolation effects that lead
to an inevitable change in the distribution of species in the landscape.
The barrier effect created by the road is probably the greatest negative ecological impact.
The dispersal ability of individual organisms is one of the key factors in species survival. The
ability to move around a landscape in search of food, shelter or to mate, are negatively
impacted by barriers that cause habitat isolation. Impacts on individuals affect population
dynamics and often threaten species survival.
28
As mentioned in the methodology, impact on faunal groups was documented. The high
impact was caused to aquatic and land snail population as well as their habitats. Also a high
impact has been made on habitats of amphibians and reptiles (see table 14).
Table 14. Impact Matrix for assessed Animal groups in cleared areas in due to road construction in Nawaneliya-Beligoda reserve forest (1- very low; 2- low; 3- Moderate; 4- High;
5- very high).
Group Total Impact area (m2)
Impact
To population To habitat
Gastropod (Freshwater) 525 m2 4 4
Gastropod (Terrestrial) 5135 m2 5 4
Dragonflies 5660 m2 1 3
Butterflies 5660 m2 1 2
Fishes 525 m2 2 3
Amphibians* 5660 m2 3 4
Reptiles 5135 m2 3 4
Birds 5660 m2 1 3
Mammals 5135 m2 1 3
* both frogs and toads
2.9 Cost estimation/valuation
2.9.1 Estimates based on Benefit Transfer
As presented in the methods section, due to time and financial constraints we relied on the
benefit transfer method in this valuation as against the use of primary valuation techniques.
We have used 20 studies of ecosystem service values of tropical forests of Asia from The
Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) database (Van der Ploeg, and de Groot,
2010). This suggests the Ecosystem Services of tropical forest patch in Asia can be
estimated as $ 7,667 per hectare per year, which would translate to $ 8,919 in 2019 value
when 2010 figures are adjusted for inflation. This will be approximately LKR 1,570,000.00
per hectare of forest per year. It is suggested that the contractor pay Forest Department the
twenty times of the annual damage that they have done taking continuity of ecosystem
services at least for 20 more years in a protected forest. This will come to LKR 31,400,000.00.
In addition, the contractor is expected to undertake biodiversity offsetting as described in the
section below.
2.9.2 Estimates based on Field data
With available data the team attempted ‘back of the envelope’ type calculations with available information to derive some of the values specific to the Beligoda site. Results are presented
below. Out of these estimated values, most are expected to cover in the above LKR 1.57
million/ha/yr derived through benefit transfer methods. However, it captures only sustainable
harvesting of timber, not the clear felled timber. Therefore, taking note of the estimated timer
value is needed. Furthermore, as the clear fell timber provides only a onetime ‘benefit’, which
hinder continuous accrual of ecosystem services by the forest. Hence, use of these values
has to be done with caution.
2.9.3 Value of lost forest organic matter
It is estimated that 2,807.28 kg of organic matter has been lost based on the field sampling.
Assuming it as value equivalent to that of compost; A 20kg bag of 'Mihisaru' compost is sold
at LKR. 450.00. Therefore, lost organic matter can be valued as LKR 63,159.00.
29
2.9.4 Value of lost timber
According to our estimate 356 cu.m of merchantable timber has been lost due to the road
construction. Therefore, the loss has been calculated based on general price of
merchantable timber in Sri Lanka (medium grade timber) LKR. 32,000.00 per cubic meter
(highly variable). Thus the loss of merchantable timber has been valued at LKR
11,392,000.00.
2.9.5 Value of soil
The site has good engineering quality soil and an estimated 2,325 cu.m has been lost due to
road construction. Usual price of one cube of soil is LKR. 4,000.00, which is about 2.83 cubic
meters. Hence value of the soil lost has been estimated to be around LKR. 3,284,000.00.
2.9.6 Value of lost forest carbon
Estimated lost carbon 65.6 MT. carbon price in 2016 to be 28.7 pound per ton. Hence 1,863
pounds (LKR 413,586.00).
https://www.researchgate.net/post/What_is_the_present_price_of_carbon_credit_in_
forestry _sector)
2.10 Biodiversity Offset to compensate for the long term damage
Ecological compensation implies that specified natural habitats and their qualities, such as
riparian or old-growth forests, should be developed elsewhere when they are impacted by
the destructions. When compensation is implemented, the measures should balance the
ecological damage, aiming for a 'no net loss' situation that benefits both habitats and their
associated species. Ecological compensation may be defined as creating, restoring or
enhancing nature qualities in order to counterbalance ecological damage caused by
infrastructure developments.
We considered biodiversity offset as the way to compensate for the damage done by this
illegal clearance of high value forest as a migratory measure. We recommend establishing
and maintaining an area that is ten times in extent compared to the area damaged, at a site
designated by the Forest Department ideally in the same watershed.
As the direct and immediate damage done to the Beligoda forest is around 1 ha, it is
recommended that the contractor shall undertake 10 ha of ecological restoration of degraded
forest. The appropriate cost for such restoration can be taken from the ongoing restoration
effort by IUCN and Biodiversity Sri Lanka together with the Forest Department in Kanneliya
forest reserve which is approximately LKR 30 million to restore 10 ha for a 5-year period.
30
3. RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 Legal enforcement
Prevention of further damage to the Nawaneliya-Beligoda Reserve Forest by strictly imposing adherence of the developers to the provisions of the Forest Ordinance (as amended) as well as regular monitoring by relevant authorities. Failure to do so should result in immediate cancellation of all permits to operate within protected areas.
Imposition of fines (as defined by the Forest Ordinance) in lieu of the damage already caused to the Reserve Forest by the actions of the developers in violation of forest protection laws.
3.2 Damage & restoration
Contractor pay LKR 31,400,000.00 as part of damage made as a cash payment on
top of all the recommendation that they have to comply.
As directed by the Forest Department, the Contractor shall undertake ecological
restoration of 10 ha of degraded forest in the same or a neighbouring watershed and
maintain them for a period of five years. The appropriate cost for such restoration is
estimated at LKR 30,000,000.00.
In addition, the estimated cost for rehabilitation of damage area due to road
construction SLR 12,500,000.00 has to be payed by contractor (See Table 17). Some
of the activates related with rehabilitation also need to be carried out by contractor
(See Table 17).
Therefore, the total damage cost payable by the contactor to the Government
of Sri Lanka comes to SLR 73,900,000.00.
31
4. RESTORATION PLAN
4.1 Remove the abandoned truck from the island
Forest birds and other faunal species are already using the truck that has been abandoned
in the island as a breeding place and hiding place. Further, weeds have started establishing
inside the trailer (Figure 09 to 11). It is strongly recommended that the contractor should
remove this truck before the restoration work is initiated. This could be done by using the
illegally constructed road, which was used to bring the truck to the point where it has been
abandoned. It should also be stressed that no attempt should be made to evacuate the truck
using the stream as this would result in great deal of damage to this sensitive stream
ecosystem. However, it should be noted that the left bank of the Kambarawa Oya where a
steep slope has been cleared during the road construction has eroded considerably due to
the rain and this section needs to be renovated before evacuating the truck. Removal of the
truck has to be done with minimum disturbance to the environment. Once the truck has been
removed the physical restoration work can be started.
Figure 09. Abandoned truck in the island
Figure 10. Bird nest on the footboard Figure 11. Weeds grown in the truck bucket.
32
4.2 Restoration approaches (Soil stabilization and Runoff water control)
The disturbed forest area is about 1km in length, 4m in width and vegetation has been
disturbed in 3m-5m wide buffer strip on either side of the road during land preparation for the
road. This has resulted in accumulation of wooden debris, removed soil and dislodged rocks
on the right side of the road facing the Kambarawa Oya. Land preparation for the road has
resulted in soil erosion and gully formation in the exposed areas, which is serious issue that
needs to be addressed immediately during the land restoration process. Stabilization of
slopes and restoration of the topsoil layer are essential steps towards facilitation of forest
recovery. Therefore, following interventions are strongly recommended when restoring the
damaged environment.
A. Diversion of runoff water using brushwood barriers.
Applicable sections of the road: This should be carried out in 10m segments continuously
from the beginning to the end of the illegally constructed road on both sides of the road where
applicable except in places where the slope exceeds 30-degrees.
Method of implementation: Diversion of runoff can be achieved by laying fascine (rough
bundle of brushwood or other wood material packed to achieve a radius of 15cm-20cm using
sticks that are approximately 5m in length) blocks to intercept the surface runoff. Brushwood
material is locally available. Such brushwood piles can be used to arrest soil erosion
significantly in the damaged slopes with a slope angle less than 30 degrees. The suggested
layout of such brushwood barriers along the road cut surface is shown in Figure 12 to 14.
Figure 12: Proposed arrangement of brushwood barriers along the road.
Figure 13: An example field situation where brushwood runoff barriers have used for erosion control (source: www.salixrw.com).
33
Figure 14: Typical sloppy areas (right bank), suitable for application of the above
stabilization methodology.
B. Establishment of stone/boulder walls to Stabilize damaged riverbanks.
Applicable sections of the road: Steep sections on the right hand side of the cleared road
where the slope angles exceed 30-degrees and a length of less than 20m.
Method of implementation: This method should be applied to slopes having a slope angle
in excess of 30 degrees where. A stone wall about 50 cm deep and extending about 50 cm
above the soil surface is established at 1 m intervals and the space between the rock wall is
filled with soil and covered with stone layer so that the soil is not exposed to water flowing
along the slope which will stabilize the slope as well as prevent erosion of soil that would
eventually flow in to the Kambarawa Oya and reduce its water quality. Finally, the bank of
the Kambarawa Oya, in such sections should be stabilized using a gabion wall (refer figure
17 for an illustration of such a slope stabilization. This type of semi-permanent structures are
necessary to stabilize steep slopes covered by loose soil in order to control gully erosion
when exposed to heavy rains. This structure is ideal for the steep sections between the road
and the Kambarawa Oya (Figure 15-17).
34
Figure 15: Cross section of proposed stone/boulder walls.
Figure 16: Suggested structural features of stone/boulder walls.
35
Figure 17. Cross section of proposed stone/boulder walls for Kamabarawa river left bank restoration.
Figure 18: The steep road meeting the Kambarawa stream-left bank (The place proposed to above river bank stabilization).
4.1
36
4.3 Stabilization of damaged stream beds
Number of natural drainage paths in the area has been damaged due to the construction of
the road (Table 13). During the next rainy season, the area where the streambed has been
damaged will be subjected to heavy soil erosion. Therefore, these stream beds must be
restored immediately to facilitate the water flow in these streams.
Before the restoration is undertaken, a cross section of the stream should be surveyed to
elucidate the original shape and path of the stream. Then the streambed should be stabilized
using compacted earth followed by rubble pitching to restore the former cross section of the
natural stream as depicted in the illustrative sketch in Figure 19 & 20. Rubble pitching could
be carried out using 6"-9" random rubble masonry with rubble interspersing.
For those streams having a deep cross section (stream number 4 and 5 in Table 13) and
when the stream bank is approximately vertical the banks should be stabilized using gabion
blocks or rock filled wall instead of rubble pitching. See Figure 21 for an illustrative sketch of
the cross section for streams with deep sections.
Figure 19. Cross section of compacted earth and carry out rubble/pebbles pitching to carve out (streams 1 to 3).
37
Figure 20. Demonstration of steam bed restoration at road crossing sites (compacted earth and carry out rubble/pebbles pitching to carve out)
Figure 21. Diagrammatic cross section to illustrate the restoration of streams with deep sections (stream 4 and 5).
38
4.4 Stabilization of leaning trees
Several leaning and unstable trees have been observed along the cleared road. This has
resulted due to damage to their root system during land preparation for road construction.
Therefore, these trees are not in upright position. Often, 50% of the structural roots are
damaged and exposed in road cut vertical surface. Mature trees are unlikely to develop the
root structure needed to keep the tree erect, but several trees which are at early growing
stages can develop structural roots if a supportive soil substrate is made available. Further,
these actions are essential for several reasons. First, the trees with damaged root system
are unstable and therefore topple over creating a safety risk. Second, this would affect the
slope stability, possibly leading to erosion and even minor slope failures. Finally, damaged
roots, cracks, and exposed wood serves as an entry point for insects and disease causing
pathogens. The larger the damage to the root, likelihood of regeneration is less, posing a
greater risk to the tree. As the degree of leaning of the tree increase the probability of toppling
increases as the tree grows larger. However, following interventions are proposed for several
selected trees to minimize the risk of these trees from toppling over.
a. Reduction of crown weight and improve the structural balance of leaning trees; Prune
hanging branches, damaged or dead wood. Reduce weight of the crown on the side
towards the tree is leaning. This is proposed for trees b, d, f, g, and h (see Figure 22).
b. Re-establish soil cover around the root system of those selected leaning trees. Make
sure that at least 2m radius from the root base is re-filled with compacted soil in the
road cut area. Further, a boulder wall can be erected as a supportive structure in
those soil filled sections to prevent the soil form getting washed out. This action is
recommended for trees a to h (see Figure 22).
a. Gleniea unijuga 07˚ 36’ 50.7” NL; 80˚ 46’ 25.8” EL
b. Mesua ferrea 07˚ 36’ 49.9” NL; 80˚ 46’ 25.3” EL
c. Mesua ferrea 07˚ 36’ 49.5” NL; 80˚ 46’ 24.8” EL
39
d. Mytragyna parvifolia 07˚ 36’ 48.3” NL; 80˚ 46’ 24.0” EL
e. Dimocarpus longan 07˚ 36’ 48.1” NL; 80˚ 46’ 23.9” EL
f. Dimocarpus longan 07˚ 36’ 44.1” NL; 80˚ 46’ 22.4” EL
g. Drypetes gardneri 07˚ 36’ 44.6” NL; 80˚ 46’ 24.8” EL
h. Mesua ferrea 07˚ 36’ 48.2”NL; 80˚ 46’ 29.0” EL
Proposed interventions for restoring leaning trees.
Figure 22. Leaning trees along the illegally constructed road
4.5 Proposed vegetative restoration interventions
Vegetative restoration is proposed under two components.
a. On-site planting of trees (road cut area and buffer strip)
b. Off-site planting of trees as environmental damage compensation mechanism.
A whole range of services can be affected when ecosystems become degraded; decline of
water quality and quantity, siltation of the stream, loss of biodiversity and loss of soil fertility.
The deterioration of such services will be felt most acutely at local level, but it might also
have implications in a wider area including the Moragahakanda reservoir. The proposed
vegetative restoration activity will be a complementary activity for the proposed structural
rehabilitation efforts. Further, this activity is developed based on the ecosystem approach
and landscape restoration concepts, which are usually applied where forest or agro forests
are depleted and the quality of ecosystem services affected. It doesn’t aim to re-establish
historical vegetation of the area, but rather, it aims to strengthen the resilience of landscape
40
in the affected area. Restoration of the vegetation cover of the area affected by road
construction will facilitate the colonization of these areas by indigenous trees species, soil
conservation and effective drainage.
a. Rehabilitation strategy - On-site planting of trees in the area damaged by illegal road
construction.
Since the area damaged due to the road construction has a relatively good canopy shade in
most places direct planting of forest trees is possible. Considering a 3m-4m gap between
planted trees in an area of approximately 6000sq.m, about 500 plants (a random mix from
the species mentioned table 16) will be needed. Run off control by brushwood and
accumulation of forest compost will support growth of these plants.
b. Rehabilitation strategy - Off-site planting of trees as a means of ecological
compensation for the damage caused by construction of an illegal road
This measure has been proposed as means of compensatng (off-site establishment of near
natural forests in 10ha area) for the habitat loss and degradation that have resulted due to
the illegal construction of the road. Ecological compensation implies that specific natural
habitats and their qualities in an area impacted by a project is developed elsewhere. When
compensation is implemented, the measures should balance the ecological damage and
benefit both habitats and their associated species. Ecological compensation aims to integrate
nature conservation aspects into project planning and decision-making, and to pursue a 'no
net loss' solution once development is approved. Further, it should be noted that ecological
compensation is a 'last resort' solution and should be considered only considered when
planning and mitigation measures are not able to avoid/ prevent damage. Ecological
compensation should not be considered as an enabling activity to allow developers to
damage the environment by buying-off environmental objections (https://
handbookwildlifetraffic.info/ch-8-ecological-compensation/8-1-the-concept-of-ecological-
compensation/accessed 04/05/2019). Considering the present scenario, it is proposed to
establish 10ha of near natural forest consisting ~625 trees planted at 4m gap. Ideally, a
degraded land can be selected in upper Kambarawa area and pay for restoring and
maintaining the same for at least for five years under the Forest Department oversight.
4.6 General approach for field level planting operations (on-site & off-site)
The following is an account of proposed general steps to be followed for planting and after
care operations for both on-site planting and off-site planting.
Step 1: Site assessment and enlisting of potential plant species
The purpose of the site assessment is to identify the basic bio-physical features of the land
plots and constraints posed by a site with respect to successfully establishing the target plant
species. The site assessment is focused on several key characteristics such as landscape
type/extent, soil suitability, hydrology, access and current human dimensions. One of the key
activities of this event is selection of plants appropriate to each site(s) individual physical
characteristics. The selection of appropriate plants for a site is based on: a careful
assessment of the site’s physical characteristics that will influence the establishment and
growth of the plants, plant species that maximize soil conservation and watershed
performance.
Rule of thumb in estimating the quantities of planting materials
a. Different species will be planted approximately at recommended planting gaps and
plants will be a random mixture roughly following the planting gaps.
41
b. The existing scattered trees in habitats like secondary forests, degraded forests and
scrublands need to be taken into account in quantifying new planting material. Also,
suitable planting gap also need to be assessed with respect to species/life forms; for
large trees a gap of 5-6m and for small trees a gap of 3-4m is used generally. Hence
the available ‘empty’ spaces for planting, and required quantity of plants need to be matched as per field circumstances. Open areas can be identified for planting trees
at regular distance. Habitat features like soil moisture levels and shading also should
be considered.
c. No plants need to be selected for planting in private lands since that might lead to
disputes with the local community
In selecting plants, it is suggested to consider the following positive features.
1. Drought resistance and climatic fitness.
2. Value as a feeding material to sustain indigenous macro fauna.
3. Ability to attract seed dispersal agents (birds and bats) bringing seeds from nearby
natural forests. This will promote ‘bird mediated’ regeneration and also boost the biodiversity of the site, in time to come.
4. Ability to fixe Nitrogen and improve soil fertility.
5. Ability to serve as a key stone species providing opportunities for many animal
species to rest, breed, feed and hide.
6. Ability to survive under the prevailing situation based on performance in on-site
trials or in natural regeneration.
7. Disease resistance.
8. Ability to produce a dense canopy.
9. Not palatable to browsing animals.
10. Already thriving in nearby habitats.
11. Requires little maintenance
12. High level of natural regeneration.
13. Life span of over 20 years.
14. Resistance to strong dry winds.
15. Fast rate of growth.
Following is a selection suitable trees for the cleared area where there is adequate shade.
*R- species for riverine areas.
42
Table 16. Plant list for restoration work.
Species Common name For forest
area
For riverine
forest area
1 Mangifera zeylanica Etamba + -
2 Mesua ferrea Naa + +
3 Terminalia arjuna Kumbuk - +
4 Diospyros ebenum Karuwala + -
5 Diospyros ovalifolia Kunumella
6 Pongamia pinnata Karanda + -
7 Neolitsea cassia Kududaula + -
8 Haldina cordifolia Kolon + -
9 Chloroxylon swietenia Burutha + -
10 Filicium decipiens Pihimbiya + -
11 Schleichera oleosa Kon + -
12 Madhuca longifolia Mee + +
13 Hydnocarpus venenata Maku + -
14 Albizia odoratissima Kabalmaara + -
15 Vitex altissima Milla + -
16 Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Wewarana + -
17 Grewia helicterifolia Boradamani + -
18 Pterospermum suberifolium Welan + -
19 Chukrasia tabularis Hulanhik + -
20 Ficus racemosa Attikka + -
21 Myristica ceylanica Malaboda - +
22 Syzygium cumini Dan + -
23 Syzygium zeylanicum Yakadamaran - +
24 Bridelia retusa Ketakela + -
25 Margaritaria indicus Karau - +
26 Nauclea orientalis Bakmee - +
The same species can be used for off-site planting works if the site selected has similar
habitat characteristics to that of the affected area.
Step-2: Planting of nurse crops (applicable for sites allocated for ecological compensation forestry)
In sites where there is no adequate canopy shade, it is necessary to introduce temporary
shade crops. Once the site is selected, initially it is very important to weed out the invasive
plants and protect the land from re-invasion. This has to be continued throughout the
restoration process until adequate shade is developed. Under brushing of vegetation is
enough, without land clearance exposing topsoil risking further soil erosion. Practically, total
eradication of invasive plants may not be possible but can be managed until canopy cover is
developed with nurse crops. Gliricidia, Kududaula (Neolitsea cassia), Kenda (Macaranga
peltata) and Gedumba (Trema orientalis) are the best nurse crops for this climatic zone.
Gliricidia can be planted using 1.5m long sticks (4cm-5cm diameter), which are locally
available in plenty; suggested planting gap is 3mx3m but may vary depending on topographic
conditions of the site. More than 50% canopy cover of the land can be achieved in two years’ time with Gliricidia. However, it is recommended that plants species that attract birds and
pioneer species can be introduced to the site a year after planting of Gliricidia sticks to grow
under Gliricidia shade. Inter planting among Gliricidia (midpoint within 3mx3m Gliricidia
sticks) can be done with Kududaula (Neolitsea cassia), Kenda (Macaranga peltata) and
43
Gedumba (Trema orientalis) which are also locally available and grows easily on degraded
lands. Such species can be deployed randomly. In 3-5 years’ time, native plant species will appear in partly restored sites with adequate shade. Fruit eating birds will bring in various
kinds of seeds of forest plants and such sources are within their range. It is not at all
necessary to introduce forest plants if native forest plants are naturally colonising the spaces
between shade trees. Usually establishment of inviting conditions for bird life will add more
forest plants. In case forest tree species are not appearing in those gaps, planting has to be
done using species listed in table 16.
It should be noted that in some sites where land has steep slopes and already highly eroded
needs to be treated with contour planting approach. Here Gliricidia needs to be planted in
rows at 50cm distances and the gap between two contour planting lines should be around
4m. Pioneer plants can be planted in between those lines once adequate shaded is
developed.
The general direction of forest development is that once the native forest plants get
established over the years, pioneer plants and Gliricidia gradually disappear from the area
paving way for near natural forests.
Step 3: Plant procurement and temporary maintenance
After selection of plant species as appropriate for each site, a source of planting material
should be identified and plants should be ordered with adequate lead-time to collect and
grow plant material. It is ideal to have well-seasoned poly bag potted plants in conformity
with the standards maintained by relevant government institutions (Department of Agriculture
and Forest Department). Plants need to be healthy and in case of poly bag potted plants, the
plant height needs to be minimum 1m. The procured plants have to be well maintained by
watering and giving physical protection until transferred to the field for planting. Some of the
factors to be considered in selecting the site for temporary maintenance of planting material
include the following:
a) There should be a reliable supply of quality water, ideally the site should be
located near a stream or well, or at a site where pumped water is available.
b) The site should be accessible even during rainy season, so that workers can
manage plants and transport planting material without any problem.
c) The plants should be protected from diseases, strong winds and from
livestock, and should receive sunlight, approx. 40%-50%, and should be on a
gentle slope to allow drainage.
Alternatively, plants can be raised in a local plant nursery and community member who are
experienced in raising plants can act as service providers who collect seeds and carry out
nursery planting works.
Step 4: Field planting
It is important to note that healthy seedlings cannot grow well or survive if not planted
properly. Always remember to plant as soon as possible after transporting to the planting
site. Do not plant trees too close to buildings, irrigation structures and power lines. Water the
plants just before transporting from the maintenance location to the planting site; this water
is to protect seedlings from drying up during the transportation. In this regard, it is better to
field plant seedlings when it has rained for at least 2-3 days or when the soil is moderately
soaked with water. Plants grow well if the soil is soaked before planting or if the rain continues
two weeks after planting. Therefore, end of October is the best period to start planting. Poly
bag potted plants can be planted spaced as appropriate depending on respective species.
44
Planting holes should be dug before rainy season commences, if possible, since water
collects in it and makes the survival easy even under low rainfall conditions. Dig a hole having
dimensions of 30 cm x 30 cm for each poly bag potted plant. However, the size of the hole
will also depend on the size of the seedling. Then fill ¼th of hole with soil, and soil
amendments can also be added to improve site conditions. However, it is generally desirable
to plant into native soils. Organic matter can also be blended into existing soil to improve soil
fertility and drainage. Ideally, a mixture of 50% topsoil, 25% sand and 25% manure will
provide better growing conditions. When installing the poly bag potted seedling, it is
necessary to remove the polythene bag by tearing it while holding the seedling up-right. Then
put the seedling in the hole and cover it with the soil or soil mixture. Remember to place the
seedlings in the hole without removing the pot soil or bending roots, and then press down
the soil nicely. Use the hands to firm the soil carefully around the roots and make sure the
seedlings are placed in the ground at the same level. When the hole is filled, tread gently
with feet to firm the soil. Firm it into the shape of a well or basin so that it catches rainwater
and holds the water added to it. It is necessary to water the seedlings immediately after
planting. If there any herbivores in the area, build a fence of sticks or thorns around the
seedling to protect the plant from being damaged by such animals. Some tree species will
need support. If a tree seems too weak or not very straight, place a strong stick in the ground
close to the seedling and tie it. After planting, the soil surface of the planting holes needs to
be covered with some organic materials (dry grass/leaves/twigs) to avoid evaporation or to
help the plant retain water.
When planting stems/cuttings:
a) Cut a stem from the mature branches of a tree/shrub
b) Put a mark to show the upper side.
c) Store the cuttings in the shade and water a little to quicken sprouting.
d) Plant the cuttings with the upper mark showing, without delay.
Suggested rule of thumb for field planting works
a. Planting needs to be done at the on-set of the rainy period.
b. Planting gaps should be maintained as appropriate and it is necessary to consider
the existing nearby plants and maintain the gaps accordingly. Traditional knowledge
of local community can help much in this regard and the views of local community
need to be accommodated.
c. Before starting the planting activity pay attention to ensure resources required for
planting works. The basic tools needed for planting works include Mammoty,
Crowbar, Knives (large), Spade, Baskets, Rake, empty tins with small holes in the
bottom (to substitute for a watering can), and kitchen knives for root pruning. If
sufficient funds are available proper watering cans and wheelbarrows should be
procured.
Step 5: Maintenance
Once planting work is done, the restoration site should be maintained on a regular basis to
ensure the success of the site for at least 5 years. The frequency of maintenance activities
required depends on the specific circumstance of each site - location, the type of plants
installed, the complexity of the site, the invasive species present, and other factors. In
general, maintenance will be required once a month for at least the first 5 years following
planting. Maintenance activities should include replacing dead plants, possibly irrigating
some plants, maintaining the tree shelters in an upright position, action against anti-social
45
behavior of local people, wild animal/cattle damage to the plants, and removal of invasive/
weedy plants. Care should be taken to avoid damaging naturally regenerating native tree
and shrub seedlings during maintenance. Fostering natural recruitment will aid in rapid
habitat development.
Step 6: Monitoring
Monitoring of the re-vegetation site is a useful tool to evaluate restoration progress. Specific
activities/observations that can be included in monitoring work are;
a) Percentage survival of installed plants
b) Percentage cover
c) Tree height
d) Natural recruitment of native and non-native, woody vegetation
e) Plant health parameters
f) Photo-documentation of time line
g) Re-establishment of invasive plants
However, prior to the start of site monitoring, a monitoring plan should be developed that may
include a monitoring timeline, a monitoring protocol, and specific target activities for
monitoring each habitat component.
46
4.7 Cost for restoration plan
Main activity Sub activity Description Time frame Implementation
Responsibility
Monitoring responsibility
Estimated budget (LKR)
1 Preparing for the restoration
and monitoring of the site impacted by the illegal road construction
1.Etsablishment of the RM committee
2.Establishment of
Restoration Monitoring team (RMT) and defining the scope of work
3.Assignment of specific
restoration activities to the parties identified foe carrying out restoration work
Committee comprising of MMDE/ UECP/ PMU/ FD/ DWC/ CEA is established RMT comprising of independent technical experts established and heir ToR agreed with Meeting convened for all actors involved in the restoration work and their tasks are defined and agreed
First two weeks First month First month
MMDE PMU 0.5 m
2 Removal of the abandoned
truck from the island
Strengthening the road section up to the island in order to facilitate this
This should be done with minimum damage to the environment.
Within a week before restoration work commences
Contactor RMT Direct contractors cost
3 Restoration of the physical environment (Soil stabilization and Runoff water control)
A. Diversion of runoff water using brushwood barriers.
First three months Contactor or hired party
RMT Contractors cost or 0.5 m if done through a hired party
B. Establishment of stone/boulder walls to
First three months Contactor or hired party
RMT Contractors cost or 0.5 m if done
47
Main activity Sub activity Description Time frame Implementation
Responsibility
Monitoring responsibility
Estimated budget (LKR)
stabilize steep slopes and stream bank
through a hired party
4 Stabilization of damaged stream beds
First three month Contactor RMT Contractors cost or 1 m if done through a hired party
5 Stabilization of leaning trees
First three month Contactor RMT Contractors cost or 1 m if done through a hired party
5 Restoration of the vegetation in the area damaged by road construction
Identifying planning locations and number of trees and type of trees required
First three month Contactor RMT 0.5 m
Acquiring planting material and establishment of a nursery
First three month FD RMT 0.5 m
Field planting First three month RMT 1 m
Maintenance with gap filling
Two Years FD RMT 2 m
6 Monitoring Refer column 5 for the activities that will be monitored by the RMT
Reporting twice a year to the restoration monitoring committee
Two Years 5 m
48
Main activity Sub activity Description Time frame Implementation
Responsibility
Monitoring responsibility
Estimated budget (LKR)
7 Restoring 10 ha of degraded forest as compensation
Site selection Preparing a restoration plan Acquiring planting material Field planting Gap Filling Monitoring
Five years FD RMT 30 m
49
5. REFERENCES
1. Anon, (2015), EIAR - EIA Study of Modifications to Configurations of Moragahakanda-
Kaluganga Projects Proposed Upper Elehara Canal (Uec), Canal From Mannakkattiya
Tank To Mahakanadarawa Tank And Kaluganga-Moragahakanda Link Canal Project;
Mahaweli Authority Of Srilanka; Mahaweli Consultancy Bureau (Private) Limited.
2. Anon, (2017), Addendum to EIA - "Supplementary Information Related To Infrastructure
Design Changes For The Upper Elahera Canal Project, Volume 1: Eia Updates For
Tranche 1 And Tranche 2 Components"; Program Management, Design and Supervision
Consultant of Mahweli Water Security Investment Program.
3. Anon, (2018), Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants of Sri Lanka, Ayurveda Medicinal Plant
Database, University of Ruhuna, Barberyns Institute of Ayurveda and Alternative Medicine
(IAAM) & Barberyn Ayurveda Resort [http://www.instituteofayurveda.org /plants
/plants_list.php?s= Scientific _name] accessed 20 /05 /2018.
4. Ashton, P.M., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Zoyza, N., Dassanayake, M.D., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., &
Wijesundara, S. (1997). A field guide to the common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. WHT
Publications & Pvt, Sri Lanka.
5. Bahir, M.M. and D. C. J. Yeo (2005) a revision of the genus Oziotelphusa müller, 1887
(Crustacea: Decapoda: Parathelphusidae), with descriptions of eight new species. THE
RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY. Supplement No. 12: 77–120
6. Bedjanic, M., Conniff, K. and Wijeyeratne, G. de S. (2007) A photographic Guide to the
Dragonflies of Sri Lanka. Jetwing Eco Holidays, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 248pp.
7. Dasgupta, P. (2008) Nature in Economics. Environment Resource Economy. 39: 1–7.
8. Dassanayake, M.D., & Clayton, W.D. (1996 - 2000). A revised hand book to the Flora of
Ceylon, X - XIV, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
9. Dassanayake, M.D., & Fosberg, F.R. (1980 - 1991). A revised hand book to the Flora of
Ceylon, I - VII, Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi.
10. Dassanayake, M.D., Fosberg, F.R., & Clayton, W.D. (1994-1995). A revised hand book to
the Flora of Ceylon, VIII- IX, Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi.
11. Gandhi, D.S. & Sundarapandian, S., (2017), Large-scale carbon stock assessment of
woody vegetation in tropical dry deciduous forest of Sathanur reserve forest, Eastern
Ghats, India, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189: 187.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5899-1.
12. Gouldling, C.J., (1979), Cubic spline curves and calculation of volume of sectionally
measured trees, New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, Vol.9(1): 89-99.
13. Goonatilake, S. de A. (2007) Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretary of
Ministry of Environment and Natural Recourses. (Sinhala book). 133pp.
14. Grimmet t R, Inskipp C. and Inskipp T. (2016) Birds of the Indian subcontinent. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press
15. Inflation calculation https://www.dollartimes.com/inflation/inflation.php?amount
=60000&year=2010 accessed 13th May 2019 at 7.30am
16. International Finance Corporation (2012a) Performance Standard 6 – Biodiversity
Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources, Washington,
D.C
50
17. International Finance Corporation (2012b) Guidance Note 6 – Biodiversity Conservation
and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources, Washington, D.C
18. Kotagama, H. B, Vidanage, S. P. and Batagoda B. M. S. (2005). A field Manual for
Environmental Valuation in Sri Lanka, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources.
19. Kotagama, S. and S de A Goonatilake (2017) Pictorial Pocket Guide to the Mammals of
Sri Lanka (3rd revised & expanded). Field ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. 154pp.
20. McKenney, B.A and Kiesecker, J.M. (2010) Policy Development for Biodiversity Offsets: A
Review of Offset, Frameworks, Environmental Management 45:165–176. DOI
10.1007/s00267-009-9396-3.
21. Manamendra-arachchi K & R Pethiyagoda (2006) Sri Lankave Ubayajeeveen. Wildlife
Heritage Trust (Pvt) Limited, Colombo, Sri Lanka. (Sinhala text). 400pp.
22. MOE (2012) The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna
and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry
of Mahaweli Development and Environment. xxi + 284 pp.
23. MoMD&E (2016). National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan 2016-2022. Colombo, Sri
Lanka:
24. Naggs, F. and Raheem, D. (2000) Land snail diversity in Sri Lanka. The Natural History
Museum, London. 214 pp.
25. NARA (2017) Report on Labeo fisheri in Mahaweli River System. Prepared for Department
of Wildlife Conservation. The National Aquatic Resources Research and Development
Agency (NARA), Sri Lanka. Unpublished.
26. Pearce, D and Moran, D. (1995), The Economic Value of Biodiversity, IUCN, Earchscan
Piblications Ltd. London.
27. Peiris, A. Naggs, F., Preece, R.C., Taylor, H., and White T.S. (2014) An Illustrated guide
to the Freshwater Mollusca of Sri Lanka. The Natural History Museum, London. 8 pp.
28. PMDSC, (2019) Preliminary Environment Incident Report -KMTC. On Contractor’s Noncompliance by Damaging Critical Habitat Beyond Section “f”. Prepared for Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment. Unpublished report.
29. Somaweera, R. (2006) Sri Lankave Sarpayan. Wildlife Heritage Trust (Private) Company
Limited, Colombo, Sri Lanka. (Sinhala text). 297pp.
30. Somaweera, R. and Somaweera, N. (2009) Lizards of Sri Lanka, A colour guide with Field
Keys. Andreas S. Brahm, Heddernheimer Landstre. Germany. 303pp.
31. Sudasinghe, H., Ranasinghe, R.H.T., Goonatilake, S. de A. and M. Meegaskumbura
(2018) A review of the genus Labeo (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) in Sri Lanka. Zootaxa. 4486
(3): 201–235.
32. Van der Ploeg, S. and R.S. de Groot (2010) The TEEB Valuation Database – a searchable
database of 1310 estimates of monetary values of ecosystem services. Foundation for
Sustainable Development, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
33. van der Poorten, N. & van der Poorten, G. (2018). Field Guide to the Butterflies of Sri
Lanka. Fauna of Sri Lanka. London Books. 250pp.
51
ANNEXES
Annex 1: List of plants recorded in and around cleared forest area
Family Botanical name Local name Medicinal
(M) SpS NRL GRL
1. Acanthaceae Crossandra infundibuliformis
IND LC
2. Acanthaceae Strobilanthes sexennis
IND LC
3. Acanthaceae Gymnostachyum ceylanicum
END EN
4. Achariaceae Hydnocarpus venenata
Makul M END LC
5. Anacardiaceae Mangifera zeylanica Etamba END LC VU
6. Anacardiaceae Nothopegia beddomei
Balal M IND LC
7. Anacardiaceae Semecarpus nigro-viridis
Badulla M END LC VU
8. Annonaceae Artabotrys zeylanicus M IND LC
9. Annonaceae Miliusa indica Kikilimessa IND LC
10. Annonaceae Mitrephora heyneana IND NT
11. Annonaceae Polyalthia korinti M IND LC
12. Annonaceae Uvaria sphenocarpa END LC
13. Annonaceae Xylopia nigricans M END NT
14. Apiaceae Centella asiatica Gotukola M IND LC
15. Apocyanaceae Alstonia scholaris Ginikuru M IND LC LCi
16. Apocyanaceae Anodendron paniculatum
M IND VU
17. Apocyanaceae Carissa spinarum Karamba M IND LC
18. Apocyanaceae Hemidesmus indicus Heen-iramusu M IND LC
19. Apocyanaceae Willughbeia cirrhifera
END VU VU
20. Araceae Colocasia esculenta Gahala M IND LC LC
21. Araceae Cryptocoryne beckettii
Athiudayan M END VU
22. Araceae Cryptocoryne parva Athiudayan M END EN
23. Arecaceae Calamus thwaitesii Wewel IND VU
24. Asteraceae Chromolaena odorata
Podi singno maran
M IND
25. Asteraceae Elephantopus scaber Eth adi M IND LC
26. Asteraceae Mikania cordata Gampalu M EXO NE
27. Asteraceae Vernonia cinerea Monarakudumbiya M IND LC
28. Begoniaceae Begonia cordifolia Embala M IND VU
29. Bignoniaceae Stereospermum colais
M IND LC
30. Calophyllaceae Calophyllum tomentosum
M END VU
31. Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa M IND LC
32. Cannabaceae Celtis philippensis Medithala M IND LC
33. Cannabaceae Trema orientalis Gedumba M IND LC
34. Capparaceae Capparis rotundifolia Balalpahuru IND LC
35. Celastraceae Euonymus walkeri END LC VU
36. Celastraceae Salacia oblonga IND EN
37. Celastraceae Salacia reticulata M IND EN
38. Cleomaceae Cleome monophylla IND LC
39. Clusiaceae Garcinia morella Gokatu M IND NT
40. Clusiaceae Garcinia quaesita Goraka M END LC
41. Clusiaceae Garcinia spicata IND NT
42. Clusiaceae Garcinia terpnophylla
END EN
52
Family Botanical name Local name Medicinal (M)
SpS NRL GRL
43. Combretaceae Combretum albidum M IND NT
44. Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna Kumbuk M IND LC
45. Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa Gira-pala M IND LC LC
46. Connaraceae Rourea minor Radaliya M IND LC
47. Convolvulaceae Argyreia populifolia Girithilla M END LC
48. Cornaceae Alangium salviifolium M IND NT
49. Cycadaceae Cycas nathorstii Madu M IND VU VU
50. Cyperaceae Carex leucantha IND VU
51. Cyperaceae Cyperus difformis IND LC LC
52. Cyperaceae Cyperus exaltatus IND LC
53. Cyperaceae Cyperus iria Wel-hiri M IND LC
54. Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Kaladuru M IND LC LC
55. Cyperaceae Fimbristylis cinnamometorum
IND LC
56. Cyperaceae Fimbristylis miliacea Mudu-hal-pan M IND LC
57. Cyperaceae Fuirena capitata IND LC
58. Cyperaceae Fuirena ciliaris IND LC LC
59. Dichapetalaceae Dichapetalum gelonioides
IND LC
60. Dioscoreacea Dioscorea trimeni Katuala M END EN
61. Dioscoreacea Trichopus zeylanicus binpol M IND VU
62. Ebenaceae Diospyros affinis M IND NT
63. Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenoides
Habaraliya END EN EN
64. Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenum Karuwala IND EN DD
65. Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa Elathimbiri M IND NT
66. Ebenaceae Diospyros ovalifolia Kunumella M IND LC
67. Ebenaceae Diospyros sylvatica M IND VU
68. Elaeagnaceae Elaegnus latifolia Wel-Embilla M IND LC
69. Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum zeylanicum
END LC
70. Euphorbiaceae Agrostistachys indica IND LC
71. Euphorbiaceae Croton laccifer Keppetiya M IND LC
72. Euphorbiaceae Dimorphocalyx glabellus
Weliwenna M IND LC
73. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta Bu-dada-kiriya M IND LC
74. Euphorbiaceae Homonoia riparia IND NT
75. Euphorbiaceae Macaranga peltata Kenda M IND LC
76. Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippensis Nolabe M IND LC
77. Euphorbiaceae Mallotus resinosus END LC
78. Euphorbiaceae Mallotus rhamnifolius M IND LC
79. Fabaceae Acacia caesia M IND LC
80. Fabaceae Acacia pennata Rathkihiri M IND LC
81. Fabaceae Albizia odoratissima Kabalmaara M IND LC
82. Fabaceae Clitoria ternatea Katarodu M IND LC
83. Fabaceae Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo
M IND LC
84. Fabaceae Derris parviflora Kala M END LC
85. Fabaceae Desmodium heterophyllum
Maha-undupiyaliya
M IND LC
86. Fabaceae Desmodium triflorum Heen-undupiyaliya
M IND LC
87. Fabaceae Entada pusaetha Pus M IND LC
88. Fabaceae Mimosa pudica Nidi-kumba M EXO NE
89. Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Karanda M IND LC
90. Hypoxidaceae Molineria trichocarpa M IND VU
91. Lamiaceae Callicarpa tomentosa M IND LC
92. Lamiaceae Clerodendrum infortunatum
M IND LC
53
Family Botanical name Local name Medicinal (M)
SpS NRL GRL
93. Lamiaceae Leucas zeylanica Geta-Thumba M IND LC
94. Lamiaceae Ocimum americanum Heen-tala M IND LC
95. Lamiaceae Ocimum gratissimum Gas-tala M IND LC
96. Lamiaceae Premna tomentosa IND LC
97. Lamiaceae Scutellaria violacea IND LC
98. Lamiaceae Vitex altissima Milla M IND NT
99. Lauraceae Alseodaphne semecarpifolia
Wewarana M IND VU
100. Lauraceae Neolitsea cassia Kududaula M IND LC
101. Loganiaceae Strychnos trichocalyx
END VU
102. Malpighiaceae Hiptage benghalensis Puwak-Gediya-wel
M IND LC
103. Malvaceae Abutilon indicum Walanoda M IND LC
104. Malvaceae Grewia carpinifolia M IND LC
105. Malvaceae Grewia helicterifolia Boradamani M IND LC
106. Malvaceae Grewia orientalis IND LC
107. Malvaceae Helicteres isora M IND NT
108. Malvaceae Pterospermum suberifolium
Welan M IND LC
109. Malvaceae Pterygota thwaitesii Nava M END VU
110. Malvaceae Sida acuta Bvila M IND LC
111. Malvaceae Urena lobata Patta-epala M IND LC
112. Melastomataceae Memecylon angustifolium
IND EN
113. Melastomataceae Memecylon capitellatum
M END LC
114. Meliaceae Chukrasia tabularis Hiri-kita M IND NT LC
115. Meliaceae Dysoxylum ficiforme IND NT VU
116. Meliaceae Munronia pinnata Binkohomba M IND EN
117. Menspermaceae Cissampelos pareira Diya-Mitta M IND LC
118. Menspermaceae Hypserpa nitida M IND EN
119. Menspermaceae Pachygone ovata Niliwel IND VU
120. Menspermaceae Stephania japonica IND VU
121. Moraceae Artocarpus gomezianus
M IND NT
122. Moraceae Ficus hispida M IND LC
123. Moraceae Ficus nervosa M IND LC
124. Moraceae Ficus racemosa Attikka M IND LC
125. Moraceae Ficus virens M IND LC
126. Moraceae Plecospermum spinosum
M IND VU
127. Moraceae Streblus asper Gongotu M IND LC
128. Moraceae Streblus taxoides M IND LC
129. Myristicaceae Myristica ceylanica IND VU VU
130. Myrtaceae Eugena willdenowii END LC
131. Myrtaceae Syzygium amphoraecarpus
Waljambu M END NT
132. Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini Dan M IND LC
133. Myrtaceae Syzygium zeylanicum Yakadamaran M IND LC
134. Ochnaceae Gomphia serrata M IND LC
135. Oleaceae Chionanthus zeylanica
M IND LC
136. Oleaceae Jasminum angustifolium
M IND LC
137. Onagraceae Ludwigia perennis Piduruwella IND LC LC
138. Orchidaceae Cymbidium aloifolium IND LC
139. Orchidaceae Dendrobium aphyllum
Balunaguta IND LC
54
Family Botanical name Local name Medicinal (M)
SpS NRL GRL
140. Pandanaceae Pandanus ceylanicus
Wetake M END VU
141. Phyllanthaceae Antidesma alexiteria M IND LC
142. Phyllanthaceae Aporusa acuminata IND LC
143. Phyllanthaceae Blachia umbellata M IND LC
144. Phyllanthaceae Bridelia retusa Ketakela M IND LC
145. Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu M END LC
146. Phyllanthaceae Margaritaria indicus Karau M IND VU
147. Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus amarus Pitawakka M IND LC
148. Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus myrtifolius
Gangawerella END VU
149. Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus polyphyllus
Kuratiya M IND LC
150. Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus urinaria Rat-pitawakka M IND LC
151. Phyllanthaceae Suregada lanceolata IND LC
152. Picrodendraceae Mischodon zeylanicus
Thammenna M IND LC
153. Piperaceae Piper sylvestre Mala-Miris-wel M IND LC
154. Poaceae Alloteropsis cimicina BundEN-tana IND LC
155. Poaceae Bothriochloa pertusa IND LC
156. Poaceae Chrysopogon aciculatus
Tuttiri M IND LC
157. Poaceae Cyrtococcum trigonum
IND LC
158. Poaceae Dichaetaria wightii IND VU
159. Poaceae Digitaria ciliaris Guru-tana M IND LC
160. Poaceae Digitaria longiflora IND LC
161. Poaceae Echinochloa colona Giri-tana M IND LC
162. Poaceae Echinochloa crusgalli Maratu M IND LC
163. Poaceae Eleusine indica Bela-tana M IND LC
164. Poaceae Eragrostis atrovirens IND LC
165. Poaceae Eragrostis unioloides IND LC
166. Poaceae Isachne globosa Bata-della M IND LC
167. Poaceae Ischaemum rugosum Kudu-kedu M IND LC
168. Poaceae Oplismenus compositus
IND LC
169. Poaceae Panicum gardneri IND LC
170. Poaceae Panicum maximum Ginithana M EXO NE
171. Poaceae Panicum repens Etora M IND LC
172. Poaceae Paspalidium flavidum Ha-tana M IND LC
173. Podostemaceae Dalzellia ceylanica IND VU
174. Polypodiaceae Drynaria quercifolia Beduru M IND LC
175. Primulaceae Ardisia pauciflora Baludan IND NT
176. Pteridaceae Pteris ensiformis IND LC
177. Putranjivaceae Drypetes gardneri Etaweera M END NT
178. Putranjivaceae Drypetes sepiaria Weera M IND LC
179. Putranjivaceae Putranjiva roxburghii IND LC
180. Rhamnaceae Ventilago madraspatana
Wembadanga M IND LC
181. Rhamnaceae Ziziphus oenoplia M IND LC
182. Rhizophoraceae Carallia brachiata Davata M IND NT
183. Rhizophoraceae Cassipourea ceylanica
M IND LC
184. Rubiaceae Aidia gardneri END VU
185. Rubiaceae Benkara malabarica IND LC
186. Rubiaceae Canthium coromandelicum
Kara M IND LC
187. Rubiaceae Discospermum sphaerocarpum
IND LC
55
Family Botanical name Local name Medicinal (M)
SpS NRL GRL
188. Rubiaceae Geophila repens var asiatica
M IND VU
189. Rubiaceae Haldina cordifolia Kolon M IND LC
190. Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea Rathmal M IND LC
191. Rubiaceae Ixora pavetta M IND LC
192. Rubiaceae Nauclea orientalis Bakmee M IND LC
193. Rubiaceae Wendlandia bicuspidata
Wanaidala M END LC
194. Rutaceae Atalantia ceylanica Yakdehi M IND LC
195. Rutaceae Chloroxylon swietena Burutha M IND VU
196. Rutaceae Glycosmis mauritiana Dodampana IND LC
197. Rutaceae Micromelum
minutum
M END LC
198. Rubiaceae Mitragyna parvifolia var parvifolia
Hekolon M IND LC
199. Rutaceae Zanthoxylum rhesta M IND EN
200. Salicaceae Casearia zeylanica M IND LC
201. Salicaceae Flacourtia indica M IND LC
202. Salicaceae Scolopia pusilla M END LC
203. Sapindaceae Allophylus cobbe Kobbe M IND LC
204. Sapindaceae Dimocarpus longan Mora M IND LC
205. Sapindaceae Filicium decipiens Pihimbiya M IND LC
206. Sapindaceae Lepisanthes erecta IND VU
207. Sapindaceae Gleniea unijuga Wal-Mora END LC
208. Sapindaceae Lepisanthes senegalensis
M IND LC
209. Sapindaceae Schleichera oleosa Kon M IND LC
210. Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia Mee M IND NT
211. Tetramelaceae Tetrameles nudiflora Hema M IND LC LR/cd
212. Ulmaceae Holoptelea integrifolia M IND NT
213. Verbanaceae Lantana camara Hinguru M EXO NE
214. Violaceae Rinorea virgata IND VU
215. Vitaceae Leea indica Burulla M IND LC
56
Annex 2: Large trees (DBH 20cm or above) enumerated.
Transect Tree no.
Family Botanical name Local name SpS NRL GRL DBH cm
DBH m
Tree Canopy Crown Merchantable Small end
Log cross section
Log cross section
Merchantable
Height (m)
Radius (m)
Cover sq.m
Stem height(m)
Radius (m)
Area large end
Area small end
Wood volume cu.m
1 1 Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenum Karuwala IND EN DD 47 0.24 20.00 6.00 113.14 15.00 0.16 0.17 0.08 1.88
1 2 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 25 0.13 17.00 6.00 113.14 12.75 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.45
1 3 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 23 0.12 12.00 4.00 50.29 9.00 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.27
1 4 Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenum Karuwala IND EN DD 22 0.11 24.00 3.00 28.29 18.00 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.49
1 5 Picrodendraceae Mischodon zeylanicus
Thammenna IND LC 27 0.14 23.00 3.00 28.29 17.25 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.71
1 6 Anacardiaceae Mangifera zeylanica
Etamba END LC VU 77 0.39 32.00 5.00 78.57 24.00 0.26 0.47 0.21 8.07
1 7 Meliaceae Chukrasia tabularis
Hulan-hik IND NT LC 30 0.15 22.00 2.50 19.64 16.50 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.84
1 8 Putranjivaceae Drypetes sepiaria Weera IND LC 41 0.21 21.00 3.50 38.50 15.75 0.14 0.13 0.06 1.50
2 1 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa Kalukudumberia IND NT 42 0.21 28.00 3.50 38.50 21.00 0.14 0.14 0.06 2.10
2 2 Rutaceae Chloroxylon swietenia
Burutha IND VU 43 0.22 20.00 4.00 50.29 15.00 0.14 0.15 0.06 1.57
2 3 Lauraceae Alseodaphne semecarpifolia
Wewarana IND VU 28 0.14 20.00 4.00 50.29 15.00 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.67
2 4 Ebenaceae Diospyros ovalifolia
IND LC 25 0.13 14.00 2.00 12.57 10.50 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.37
2 5 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 24 0.12 15.00 2.00 12.57 11.25 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.37
2 6 Lamiaceae Premna tomentosa
IND LC 29 0.15 19.00 3.00 28.29 14.25 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.68
2 7 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa Like kaluwara IND NT 26 0.13 18.00 4.50 63.64 13.50 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.52
2 8 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa Like kaluwara IND NT 30 0.15 25.00 4.00 50.29 18.75 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.96
2 9 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa Like kaluwara IND NT 24 0.12 18.00 4.50 63.64 13.50 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.44
2 10 Sapindaceae Dimocarpus longan
Mora IND LC 29 0.15 18.00 4.00 50.29 13.50 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.64
2 11 Sapindaceae Dimocarpus longan
Mora IND LC 31 0.16 20.00 4.00 50.29 15.00 0.10 0.08 0.03 0.82
2 12 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa Like kaluwara IND NT 23 0.12 23.00 2.00 12.57 17.25 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.52
57
Transect Tree no.
Family Botanical name Local name SpS NRL GRL DBH cm
DBH m
Tree Canopy Crown Merchantable Small end
Log cross section
Log cross section
Merchantable
Height (m)
Radius (m)
Cover sq.m
Stem height(m)
Radius (m)
Area large end
Area small end
Wood volume cu.m
2 13 Sapindaceae Dimocarpus longan
Mora IND LC 27 0.14 22.00 5.00 78.57 16.50 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.68
2 14 Sapindaceae Dimocarpus longan
IND LC 29 0.15 22.00 6.00 113.14 16.50 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.79
3 1 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa Like kaluwara IND NT 25 0.13 18.00 4.00 50.29 13.50 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.48
3 2 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 37 0.19 13.00 4.00 50.29 9.75 0.12 0.11 0.05 0.76
3 3 Sapindaceae Schleichera oleosa
Kon IND LC 116 0.58 33.00 8.00 201.14 24.75 0.39 1.06 0.47 18.90
3 4 Euphorbiaceae Dimorphocalyx glabellus
Weliwenna IND LC 20 0.10 8.00 3.50 38.50 6.00 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.14
3 5 Tetramelaceae Tetrameles nudiflora
Hema IND LC LR/cd 87 0.44 32.00 7.00 154.00 no timber value
3 6 Annonaceae Xylopia nigricans END NT 37 0.19 25.00 6.00 113.14 18.75 0.12 0.11 0.05 1.46
3 7 Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia Mee IND NT 43 0.22 30.00 5.00 78.57 22.50 0.14 0.15 0.06 2.36
3 8 Sapindaceae Schleichera oleosa
Kon IND LC 58 0.29 30.00 7.00 154.00 22.50 0.19 0.26 0.12 4.30
4 1 Bignoniaceae Stereospermum colais
Dunumadala IND LC 31 0.16 22.00 2.00 12.57 16.50 0.10 0.08 0.03 0.90
4 2 Malvaceae Grewia helicterifolia
Boradamaniya IND LC 25 0.13 18.00 2.00 12.57 13.50 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.48
4 3 Sapindaceae Dimocarpus longan
Mora IND LC 22 0.11 18.00 4.00 50.29 13.50 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.37
4 4 Tetramelaceae Tetrameles nudiflora
Hema IND LC LR/cd 31 0.16 16.00 3.00 28.29 no timber value
4 5 Rubiaceae Haldina cordifolia Kolon IND LC 33 0.17 18.00 3.50 38.50 13.50 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.83
4 6 Rubiaceae Haldina cordifolia Kolon IND LC 26 0.13 18.00 4.00 50.29 13.50 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.52
4 7 Tetramelaceae Tetrameles nudiflora
Hema IND LC LR/cd 21 0.11 12.00 3.00 28.29 no timber value
4 8 Fabaceae Albizia odoratissima
Kabalmaara IND LC 39 0.20 25.00 5.00 78.57 18.75 0.13 0.12 0.05 1.62
5 1 Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Karanda IND LC 33 0.17 20.00 7.00 154.00 15.00 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.93
5 2 Putranjivaceae Drypetes sepiaria Etaweera IND LC 28 0.14 19.00 6.00 113.14 14.25 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.63
5 3 Rutaceae Chloroxylon swietenia
Burutha IND VU 44 0.22 28.00 4.00 50.29 21.00 0.15 0.15 0.07 2.31
58
Transect Tree no.
Family Botanical name Local name SpS NRL GRL DBH cm
DBH m
Tree Canopy Crown Merchantable Small end
Log cross section
Log cross section
Merchantable
Height (m)
Radius (m)
Cover sq.m
Stem height(m)
Radius (m)
Area large end
Area small end
Wood volume cu.m
5 4 Sapindaceae Dimocarpus longan
Mora IND LC 36 0.18 25.00 7.00 154.00 18.75 0.12 0.10 0.05 1.38
5 5 Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Karanda IND LC 39 0.20 20.00 6.00 113.14 15.00 0.13 0.12 0.05 1.29
5 6 Putranjivaceae Drypetes sepiaria Etaweera IND LC 33 0.17 18.00 4.50 63.64 13.50 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.83
5 7 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 24 0.12 14.00 1.50 7.07 10.50 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.34
5 8 Picrodendraceae Mischodon zeylanicus
Thammenna IND LC 32 0.16 20.00 3.50 38.50 15.00 0.11 0.08 0.04 0.87
5 9 Putranjivaceae Drypetes sepiaria Etaweera IND LC 20 0.10 15.00 3.00 28.29 11.25 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.26
5 10 Euphorbiaceae Dimorphocalyx glabellus
Weliwenna IND LC 22 0.11 13.00 3.00 28.29 9.75 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.27
5 11 Putranjivaceae Drypetes sepiaria Etaweera IND LC 43 0.22 15.00 5.00 78.57 11.25 0.14 0.15 0.06 1.18
5 12 Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Karanda IND LC 48 0.24 22.00 8.00 201.14 16.50 0.16 0.18 0.08 2.16
6 1 Rubiaceae Nauclea orientalis Bakmee IND LC 41 0.21 22.00 4.00 50.29 16.50 0.14 0.13 0.06 1.57
6 2 Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna Kumbuk IND LC 35 0.18 15.00 4.00 50.29 11.25 0.12 0.10 0.04 0.78
6 3 Achariaceae Hydnocarpus venenata
Makulu END LC 36 0.18 16.00 3.00 28.29 12.00 0.12 0.10 0.05 0.88
6 4 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 35 0.18 22.00 6.00 113.14 16.50 0.12 0.10 0.04 1.15
6 5 Anacardiaceae Mangifera zeylanica
Etamba END LC VU 35 0.18 25.00 7.00 154.00 18.75 0.12 0.10 0.04 1.30
6 6 Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Karanda IND LC 29 0.15 22.00 6.00 113.14 16.50 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.79
6 7 Malvaceae Pterospermum suberifolium
Welan IND LC 33 0.17 18.00 5.00 78.57 13.50 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.83
6 8 Sapindaceae Filicium decipiens Pihimbiya IND LC 20 0.10 18.00 4.00 50.29 13.50 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.31
6 9 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 21 0.11 23.00 5.00 78.57 17.25 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.43
6 10 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 93 0.47 38.00 8.00 201.14 28.50 0.31 0.68 0.30 13.99
6 11 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 23 0.12 20.00 5.00 78.57 15.00 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.45
6 12 Anacardiaceae Mangifera zeylanica
Etamba END LC VU 119 0.60 38.00 10.00 314.29 28.50 0.40 1.11 0.49 22.90
6 13 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 25 0.13 21.00 4.00 50.29 15.75 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.56
6 14 Annonaceae Polyalthia korinti IND LC 21 0.11 23.00 3.50 38.50 17.25 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.43
7 1 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 32 0.16 23.00 3.00 28.29 17.25 0.11 0.08 0.04 1.00
59
Transect Tree no.
Family Botanical name Local name SpS NRL GRL DBH cm
DBH m
Tree Canopy Crown Merchantable Small end
Log cross section
Log cross section
Merchantable
Height (m)
Radius (m)
Cover sq.m
Stem height(m)
Radius (m)
Area large end
Area small end
Wood volume cu.m
7 2 Picrodendraceae Mischodon zeylanicus
Thammenna IND LC 45 0.23 27.00 4.00 50.29 20.25 0.15 0.16 0.07 2.33
7 3 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 62 0.31 33.00 6.00 113.14 24.75 0.21 0.30 0.13 5.40
7 4 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 56 0.28 30.00 6.50 132.79 22.50 0.19 0.25 0.11 4.00
7 5 Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenum Kaluwara IND EN DD 26 0.13 18.00 3.00 28.29 13.50 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.52
7 6 Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus
Galmaratu END LC 20 0.10 16.00 3.00 28.29 12.00 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.27
7 7 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa IND NT 21 0.11 15.00 4.00 50.29 11.25 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.28
7 8 Putranjivaceae Drypetes sepiaria Weera IND LC 34 0.17 20.00 4.00 50.29 15.00 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.98
7 9 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa IND NT 20 0.10 21.00 3.00 28.29 15.75 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.36
7 10 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa IND NT 20 0.10 18.00 3.00 28.29 13.50 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.31
7 11 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa IND NT 25 0.13 14.00 3.00 28.29 10.50 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.37
7 12 Ebenaceae Diospyros oocarpa IND NT 24 0.12 16.00 3.00 28.29 12.00 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.39
7 13 Picrodendraceae Mischodon zeylanicus
Thammenna IND LC 29 0.15 18.00 3.50 38.50 13.50 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.64
7 14 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 46 0.23 28.00 5.00 78.57 21.00 0.15 0.17 0.07 2.52
7 15 Phyllanthaceae Antidesma alexiteria
IND LC 32 0.16 28.00 5.00 78.57 21.00 0.11 0.08 0.04 1.22
8 1 Euphorbiaceae Macaranga peltata Kenda IND LC 21 0.11 14.00 2.00 12.57 10.50 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.26
8 2 Euphorbiaceae Macaranga peltata Kenda IND LC 20 0.10 15.00 2.00 12.57 11.25 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.26
8 3 Euphorbiaceae Macaranga peltata Kenda IND LC 24 0.12 20.00 2.50 19.64 15.00 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.49
8 4 Euphorbiaceae Macaranga peltata Kenda IND LC 20 0.10 23.00 1.50 7.07 17.25 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.39
8 5 Euphorbiaceae Macaranga peltata Kenda IND LC 20 0.10 22.00 2.00 12.57 16.50 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.37
8 6 Lauraceae Neolitsea cassia Kududaula IND LC 22 0.11 20.00 2.00 12.57 15.00 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.41
8 7 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 25 0.13 35.00 6.00 113.14 26.25 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.93
8 8 Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea Naa IND LC 42 0.21 22.00 4.00 50.29 16.50 0.14 0.14 0.06 1.65
Total >> 5744.36 Total >> 142.67
No.of trees 87
Ovarall >>
18464.52 Ovarall >> 458.58
60
Annex 3: List of fauna at the study area
Freshwater crabs
No Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total Upstream Coursway Downstream
1 Gecarcinucidae Ceylonthelphusa sp.* END NK NK 1*
2 Gecarcinucidae Mahatha adonis END NT LC 1 1 1 0
3 Gecarcinucidae Oziothelphusa minneriyaensis*
END EN LC 1*
4 Gecarcinucidae Oziotelphusa stricta* END EN VU 1*
Land snails
No Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1 Ariophantidae Cryptozona bistrialis IND LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 Ariophantidae Macrachlamy vilipensa
IND DD 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
3 Ariophantidae Euplecta layardi END EN 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
4 Ariophantidae Euplecta colletti END EN 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
5 Bulimininae Mirus panos END EN 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 Camaenidae Beddomea tifasciatus END VU 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
7 Cyclophoridae Theobaldius bairdi END VU 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
8 Cyclophoridae Theobaldius cratera END DD 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
9 Cyclophoridae Cyclophorus ceylanicus
END VU 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 Cyclophoridae Cyclophorus involvulus
IND EN 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 Cyclophoridae Aulopoma grande END VU 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
12 Cyclophoridae Aulopoma itieri END EN 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
13 Cyclophoridae Micraulax coeloconus *
IND CR 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14 Cyclophoridae Pterocyclus cumingi * IND NT 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15 Glessulidae Glessula ceylanica END EN 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
16 Glessulidae Glessula pallens END CR 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
17 Glessulidae Glessula lankana * END EN 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
18 Paludomidae Paludomus sp. END 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
19 Subulinidae Allopeas marine END CR 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
20 Streptaxidae Indoartemon layardianus
END VU 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
61
Dragonflies
No Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1 Calopterygidae Neurobasis chinensis Oriental green-wing
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
2 Calopterygidae Vestalis apicalis Black-tipped flashwing
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
3 Cholorocyphidae Libellago adami * Adam's Gem END VU NE 1*
4 Cholorocyphidae Libellago greeni Green's Gem END EN NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
5 Euphaeidae Euphaea splendens Shining Gossamerwing
END NT NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
6 Platycnemididae Copera marginipes Yellow Featherleg
IND LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
7 Aeshnidae Anax indicus Elephant Emperor
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
8 Gomphidae Paragomphus campestris
Lowland Hooktail
END NE NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
9 Gomphidae Gomphidia pearsoni Rivulte Tiger END EN EN 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 Gomphidae Ictinogomphus rapax Rapacious Flangetail
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
11 Libellulidae Orthetrum chrysis Spine-tufted Skimmer
IND VU LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
12 Libellulidae Orthetrum pruinosum Pink Skimmer IND NT LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
13 Libellulidae Orthetrum sabina Green Skimmer IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
14 Libellulidae Brachythemis contaminata
Asian Groundling
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
15 Libellulidae Diplacodes trivialis Blue Percher IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
16 Libellulidae Neurothemis tullia Pied Parasol IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
17 Libellulidae Trithemis aurora Crimson Dropwing
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
18 Libellulidae Trithemis festiva Indigo Dropwing IND VU LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
19 Libellulidae Onychothemis tonkinensis*
Aggressive riverhawk
IND EN NE 1*
20 Libellulidae Rhyothemis variegata Varigated Flutter
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
21 Libellulidae Pantala flavescens Wandering Glider
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
22 Libellulidae Tholymis tillarga Foggy-winged Twister
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
23 Libellulidae Zygonyx iris Sri Lanka Cascader
IND VU LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
62
Butterflies No Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1 Papilionidae Graphium agamemnon
Green jay / Tailed jay
Kola papilia IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
2 Papilionidae Graphium antiphates Five bar swordtail
Pancha Iri kaga-waligaya
IND EN NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
3 Papilionidae Graphium doson Common jay podu papilia IND LC NE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
4 Papilionidae Graphium nomius Spot swordtail Thith kaga-waligaya
IND VU NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 Papilionidae Graphium teredon Blue bottle Nil papilia IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 Papilionidae Pachliopta aristolochiae
Common rose Podu rosa papilia
IND LC NE 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 Papilionidae Pachliopta hector Crimson rose Maha rosa papilia
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
8 Papilionidae Papilio crino Banded peacock
Monara papilia IND VU NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
9 Papilionidae Papilio polymnestor Blue mormon Maha nilaya IND LC NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
10 Papilionidae Papilio polytes Common mormon
Kalu papilia IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 Papilionidae Troides darsius Common birdwing / Ceylon birdwing
Maha kurulu piya papiliya
END LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
12 Pieridae Appias albina Common albatross
Podu sudana IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
13 Pieridae Appias galane Sri Lanka albatross
Kuda sudana END LC NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
14 Pieridae Catopsilia pomona Lemon emigrant Kaha piyasariya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
15 Pieridae Catopsilia pyranthe Mottled emigrant / African emigrant
Thith-piya piyasariya
IND LC NE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
16 Pieridae Delias eucharis Jezebel Podu Maha-sudda
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
17 Pieridae Eurema hecabe Common grass yellow
Maha kahakolaya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
18 Pieridae Eurema ormistoni One-spot grass yellow
Kela kahakolaya
END VU NE 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
19 Pieridae Hebomoia glaucippe Great orange tip / Giant orange tip
Yoda sudana IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
63
20 Pieridae Leptosia nina Psyche Kalu-thith sudda
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
21 Nymphalidae Ariadne merione Common castor Podu pathan-sariya
IND VU NE 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
22 Nymphalidae Charaxes solon * Black rajah Kalu raja-kumaraya
IND NT NE 1*
23 Nymphalidae Cirrochroa thais Tamil yeoman / Yeoman
Kela raththiya IND LC NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
24 Nymphalidae Cupha erymanthis Rustic Raththiya IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
25 Nymphalidae Dophla evelina Red spot duke Rathu-thith Kumaraya
IND LC NE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
26 Nymphalidae Euploea core Common crow Podu kaka-kotithiyaya
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
27 Nymphalidae Euploea klugii Brown king crow
Raja kaka-kotithiya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
28 Nymphalidae Junonia lemonias Lemon pansy Dumburuwan alankarikya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
29 Nymphalidae Kallima philarchus Blue oakleaf Nil kela-kolaya
END EN NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
30 Nymphalidae Libythea celtis Beak Dumburu-thuduwa
IND EN NE 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
31 Nymphalidae Melanitis leda Common evening brown
Podu dumburuwa
IND LC NE 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
32 Nymphalidae Melanitis phedima Dark evening brown
Anduru dumburuwa
IND NT NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
33 Nymphalidae Moduza procris Commander Maha selaruwa
IND LC NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
34 Nymphalidae Neptis hylas Common sailor Gomara selaruwa
IND LC NE 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
35 Nymphalidae Neptis jumbah Chestnut-streaked sailor
Thambala-iri selaruwa
IND LC NE 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
36 Nymphalidae Orsotriaena medus Medus Brown /Nigger
Maha-iri panduru-dumburuwa
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
37 Nymphalidae Pantoporia hordonia Common lasker Kaha selaruwa IND NT NE 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
38 Nymphalidae Parantica aglea Glassy tiger Suduwan nil-kotithiya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
39 Nymphalidae Phalantha phantha Leopard Podu thith-thambiliya
IND LC NE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
40 Nymphalidae Polyura athamas Nawab Kaha kumaraya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
64
41 Nymphalidae Tirumala limniace Blue tiger Podu nil-kotithiya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
42 Nymphalidae Tirumala septentrionis*
Dark blue tiger Anduruwan nil-kotithiya
IND NT NE 1*
43 Nymphalidae Ypthima ceylonica White four-ring Podu heen-dumburuwa
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
44 Lycaenidae Actyolepis puspa Common Hedge Blue
Mal Panduru-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
45 Lycaenidae Amblypodia anita Purple leafblue Dam gas-nilaya
IND NT NE 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
46 Lycaenidae Anthene lycaenina Pointed Ciliate Blue
Ul Kirana-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
47 Lycaenidae Caleta decidia Angled Pierrot Gomara Mal-nilaya
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
48 Lycaenidae Catochrysops strabo Forger-me-not Kela Mal-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
49 Lycaenidae Chilades lajus Lime Blue Podu Panu-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
50 Lycaenidae Curetis thetis Indian sunbeam Maha hiru-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
51 Lycaenidae Discolampa ethion Banded Blue Pierrot
Iri Mal-nilaya IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
52 Lycaenidae Jamides bochus Dark Cerulean Anduruwan Seru-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
53 Lycaenidae Jamides celeno Common Cerulean
Podu Seru-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
54 Lycaenidae Neopithicops zalmora Quaker Maha thith Dumburu-nilaya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
55 Lycaenidae Rathinda amor Monkey-puzzle Visituru vanduru nilaya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
56 Hesperiidae Badamia exclamationis
Brown Awl Guruleesa IND LC NE 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
57 Hesperiidae Hasora taminatus White banded Awl
Sudu-irileesa IND NT NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Freshwater fish
NO Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total Upstream Coursway Downstream
1 Cyprinidae Amblypharyngodon grandisquamis
Large Silver carplet
Gangiliya END LC NE 1 0 1 0
2 Cyprinidae Dawkinsia singhala Filamented Barb
Dankola Pethiya
END LC NE 1 1 1 1
65
3 Cyprinidae Dawkinsia srilankensis
Blotched filamented barb
Mal Pethiya END CR NE 1 1 1 1
4 Cyprinidae Devario malabaricus Giant Danio Dankola Sayala / Rat kailaya
IND LC LC 1 1 1 1
5 Cyprinidae Garra ceylonensis Stone sucker Gal panderuwa / Gal Pandiya
END VU NE 1 1 1 1
6 Cyprinidae Labuka insularis Knuckles labuca Dumbara karaedaya
END CR NE 1 1 1 0
7 Cyprinidae Pethia melanomaculata
Tic tac-toe barb Depulliya / Tithpethiya
END VU NE 1 0 1 1
8 Cyprinidae Puntius bimaculatus Redside barb Ipili Kadaya IND LC LC 1 0 1 1
9 Cyprinidae Puntius dorsalis Longsnouted bard
Bimtholla IND LC LC 1 0 1 1
10 Cyprinidae Puntius thermalis Swamp barb Kota Pethiya END LC NE 1 0 1 1
11 Cyprinidae Rasbora dandia Striped rasbora / Common rasbora
Dandiya / Kehel Dandiya
IND LC NE 1 1 1 1
12 Cyprinidae Rasbora microcephalus
Thin line Rasbora
Caveri Randiya
IND LC NE 1 1 1 1
13 Cyprinidae Systomus martenstyni Martenstyni's barb
Dumbara Pethiya
END CR EN 1 1 1 1
14 Cyprinidae Systomus sp. ‘Richmondi'
Richmond barb Rathu waral pethiya
END NE NE 1 1 1 1
15 Cyprinidae Tor khudree Mahseer Lehella / Horapolaya
IND NT EN 1 1 1 1
16 Nemacheilidae Schistura notostigma Banded mountain loach
Puwak Badilla / Kandukara Ahirava
END NT NE 1 1 1 0
17 Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys thermalis
Common spiny loach
Thith Ahirawa IND LC LC 1 0 1 1
18 Bagridae Mystus nanus Striped dwarf catfish
Iri ankutta END LC NE 1 0 1 1
19 Siluridae Ompok ceylonensis Dryzone Butter catfish
Walapoththa END NE NE 1 0 1 0
20 Cichlidae Etroplus suratensis Pearl spot Koraliya IND LC LC 1 0 0 1
21 Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris Bar Eyed Goby Maha gan weligouva
IND LC LC 1 0 1 1
22 Osphronemidae Belontia signata Combtail Thalkossa / Kola modeya
END NT LR/cd 1 0 1 1
66
23 Osphronemidae Osphronemus goramy Gaint gourami Seppili/ Thithpili/ Yoda gurami
EXO NE NE 1 0 1 1
24 Channidae Channa kelaartii Brown snakehead
Paradel Kanaya
END LC NE 1 1 1 1
25 Channidae Channa striata Murrel Loola IND LC LC 1 0 1 1
Amphibians
Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1 Bufonidae Duttaphrynus melanostictus
Common house toad
Sulaba geai gemba
IND LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
2 Nyctibatrachidae Lankanectes corrugatus *
Corrugated water frog
Vakarali madiya
END VU LC 1*
3 Dicroglossidae Euphlyctis mudigere Skipper frog Utpatana madiya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
4 Dicroglossidae Minervarya shyadrensis
Common paddy field frog
Sulaba vel madiya
IND LC NE 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
5 Rhacophoridae Pseudophilautus cavirostris
Hollow snouted shrub frog
Hirigadu panduru mediya
END EN EN 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
6 Rhacophoridae Polypedates cruciger* Common hour-glass tree frog
Sulaba pahimbu gas madiya
END LC LC 1*
7 Ranidae Indosylvirana temporalis
Common wood frog
Sulaba bandi madiya
END NT NT 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
8 Ranidae Hydrophylax gracilis Sri Lanka wood frog
Lanka bandi madiya
END LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Reptiles
NO Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1 Crocodylidae Crocodylus porosus Mugger crocodile
Hala kimbula IND NT LR/cd 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
2 Agamidae Calotes ceylonensis Painted lip lizard
Thola-visituru katussa
END NT NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
3 Agamidae Calotes liolepis * Whistling lizard / Forest lizard
Sivuruhandena katussa
END NT NE 1*
4 Agamidae Calotes versicolor Common garden lizard
Gara katussa IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
5 Agamidae Otocryptis nigristigma Black spotted kangaroo lizard
Wiyali Pinum katussa
END LC NE 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
6 Gekkonidae Cnemaspis podihuna Dwarf day gecko
Kuda divasarihuna / Podi galhuna
END VU LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
67
7 Gekkonidae Hemidactylus depressus
Kandyan gecko Hali gehuna END LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
8 Gekkonidae Hemidactylus parvimaculatus
Spotted housegecko
Pulli gehuna IND LC NE 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
9 Scincidae Dasia halianus * Haly's treeskink Helige rukhiraluva
END NT NE 1*
10 Scincidae Eutropis carinata Common skink Sulaba hikanala
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
11 Scincidae Eutropis madarazi Spotted skink Pulli hikanala END VU NE 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
12 Scincidae Lankascincus fallax Common lankaskink
Sulaba lakhiraluva
END LC NE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
13 Scincidae Lankascincus gansi Gans's lankaskink
Gansge lakhiraluva
END VU NE 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
14 Varanidae Varanus bengalensis Land monitor Talagoya IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
15 Varanidae Varanus salvator Water monitor Kabaragoya IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
16 Pythonidae Python molurus Indian python Pimbura IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
17 Natricidae Xenochrophis asperrimus *
The checkered keelback
Diya polonga / Diya bariya
END LC NE 1*
18 Elapidae Calliophis haematoetron*
Bloody vented coral snake
Bada rathu depath kaluva
END CR NE 1*
19 Viperidae Daboia russelii Russell’s viper Tith polonga. IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
20 Viperidae Hypnale hypnale The Merrem’s hump nose viper
Polon thelissa IND LC NE 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
21 Viperidae Trimeresurus trigonocephalus *
Green pit viper Pala polonga END LC NE 1*
Birds
Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRl GRl Total P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1 Phasianidae Galloperdix bicalcarata
Sri Lanka Spurfowl
Sri Lanka Haban-kukula
END NT LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
2 Phasianidae Gallus lafayettii Sri Lanka Junglefowl
Sri Lanka Vali-kukla
END LC LC 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
3 Columbidae Chalcophaps indica Emerald Dove Neela-Kobeiyya
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
4 Columbidae Ducula aenea Green Imperial-pigeon
Nil Mahagoya BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
5 Columbidae Spilopelia suratensis Western Spotted Dove
Alu Kobeiyya BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
6 Columbidae Treron pompadora Sri Lanka Green-pigeon
Sri Lanka Batagoya
END LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
68
7 Picidae Picoides nanus Indian Pygmy Woodpecker
Bora Esasi Gomara-karela
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
8 Picidae Dinopium psarodes Lesser Sri Lanka Flameback
Sri Lanka Ginipita Pili-karela
END LC LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
9 Megalaimidae Psilopogon zeylanicus Brown-headed Barbet
Polos Kottoruwa
BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 Megalaimidae Psilopogon flavifrons Sri Lanka Yellow-fronted Barbet
Sri Lanka Kahamunath Kottoruwa
END LC LC 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
11 Megalaimidae Psilopogon rubricapillus
Sri Lanka Barbet
Sri Lanka Kottoruwa
END LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
12 Megalaimidae Psilopogon haemacephalus
Coppersmith Barbet
Rathlaye Kottoruwa
BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
13 Bucerotidae Ocyceros gingalensis Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill
Sri Lanka Alu Kandaththa
END LC LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
14 Alcedinidae Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher
Mal Pilihuduwa BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
15 Alcedinidae Pelargopsis capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher
Manathudu Maha-pilihuduwa
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
16 Alcedinidae Halcyon smyrnensis White-breasted Kingfisher
Gelasudu Madi-pilihuduwa
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
17 Meropidae Merops leschenaulti Chestnut-headed Bee-eater
Thambala-hisa Binguharaya
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
18 Cuculidae Clamator jacobinus Jacobin Cuckoo Gomara Kondakoha
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
19 Cuculidae Cacomantis sonneratii Banded Bay Cuckoo
Vayira Anukoha
BrR NT LC 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
20 Cuculidae Surniculus dicruroides Fork-tailed Drongo-cuckoo
Kawudukoha BrR NT LC 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
21 Cuculidae Phaenicophaeus viridirostris
Blue-faced Malkoha
Wathanil Malkoha
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
22 Cuculidae Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal Maha Ati-kukula
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23 Psittacidae Loriculus beryllinus Sri Lanka Hanging-parrot
Sri Lanka Giramaliththa
END LC LC 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
24 Psittacidae Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed Parakeet
Rana Girawa BrR LC LC 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
69
25 Apodidae Aerodramus unicolor Indian Swiftlet Indu Upa-thurithaya
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
26 Apodidae Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm-swift
Asia Thal-thurithaya
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
27 Hemiprocnidae Hemiprocne coronata Crested Treeswift
Silu Ruk-thurithaya
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
28 Strigidae Ketupa zeylonensis Brown Fish owl Bora Kewul-bakamoona
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
29 Podargidae Batrachostomus moniliger
Frogmouth Madi-muhuna BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
30 Charadriidae Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing
Rath-yatimal Kirella
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
31 Accipitridae Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite Bamunu Piyakussa
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
32 Accipitridae Haliaeetus leucogaster
White-bellied Sea-eagle
Kusa-ali Muhudukussa
BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
33 Accipitridae Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus
Grey-headed Fish eagle
Alu-his Masukussa
BrR NT NT 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
34 Accipitridae Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent-eagle
Silu Sarapakussa
BrR LC LC 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
35 Accipitridae Accipiter badius Shikra Kurulugoya BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
36 Accipitridae Ictinaetus malaiensis Black Eagle Kalukussa BrR NT LC 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
37 Accipitridae Nisaetus cirrhatus Changeable Hawk-eagle
Perali Kondakussa
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
38 Phalacrocoracidae Microcarbo niger Little Cormorant Punchi Diyakaputa
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
39 Ardeidae Ardeola grayii Indian Pond-heron
Kana-koka BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
40 Ardeidae Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Night-heron
Ra kana-koka BrR NT LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
41 Chloropseidae Chloropsis jerdoni Jerdon's Leafbird
Jerdon Kolarisiya
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
42 Laniidae Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike Bora Sabariththa
CWV NE LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
43 Oriolidae Oriolus xanthornus Black-hooded Oriole
Kahakurulla BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
44 Dicruidae Dicrurus paradiseus Greater Racket-tailed Drongo
Pithipeda Kawuda
BrR NT LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
45 Monarchidae Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Monarch
Kalu-gelasi Radamara
BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
46 Monarchidae Terpsiphone paradisi Indian Paradise-flycathcher
Asia Rahanmara
BrR/CWV LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
70
47 Campephagidae Lalage melanoptera Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike
Kalu-his Saratiththa
BrR LC LC 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
48 Campephagidae Pericrocotus cinnamomeus
Small Minivet Punchi Miniviththa
BrR LC LC 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
49 Vangidae Tephrodornis affinis Sri Lanka Wood-shrike
Sri Lanka Wana-saratiththa
END LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
50 Vangidae Hemipus picatus Bar-winged Flycatcher-shrike
Wairapiya Masi-saratiththa
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
51 Aegithinidae Aegithina tiphia Common Iora Podu Iorawa BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
52 Turdidae Geokichla spiloptera Sri Lanka Spot-winged Thrush
Sri Lanka Thithpiya Thirasikaya
END VU NT 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
53 Muscicapidae Cyornis tickelliae Tickell’s Blue-flycatcher
Layaran Nil-masimara
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
54 Muscicapidae Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie-robin
Polkichcha BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
55 Muscicapidae Kittacincla malabarica White-rumped Shama
Wana Polkichcha
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
56 Muscicapidae Saxicoloides fulicatus Indian Robin Kalukichcha BrR LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
57 Sturnidae Acridotheres tristis Common Myna Myna BrB LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
58 Sturnidae Gracula religiosa Common Hill Myna
Podu Salalihiniya
BrR LC LC 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
59 Sittidae Sitta frontalis Velvet-fronted Nuthatch
Villuda Yatikuriththa
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
60 Paridae Parus major Great Tit Maha Tikiriththa
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
61 Hirundinidae Cecropis hyperythra Sri Lanka Swallow
Sri Lanka Laklihiniya
END LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
62 Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus melanicterus
Sri Lanka Black-capped Bulbul
Sri Lanka Kalu Isasi Kondaya
END LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
63 Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul
Kondaya BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
64 Pycnonotidae Acritillas indica Yellow-browed Bulbul
Bamakaha Guluguduwa
BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
65 Pycnonotidae Hypsipetes leucocephalus
Black Bulbul Kalu Piri-kondaya
BrR LC LC 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
66 Cisticolidae Prinia sylvatica Jungle Prinia Wana Priniya BrR LC LC 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
67 Cisticolidae Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird
Battichcha BrR LC LC 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
71
68 Zosteropidae Zosterops palpebrosus
Oriental White-eye
Peradigu Sithasiya
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
69 Phylloscopidae Phylloscopus trochiloides
Greenish Warbler
Kolavan Gassraviya
CWV NE LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
70 Phylloscopidae Phylloscopus magnirostris
Large-billed Leaf-warbler
Mathudu Gassraviya
CWV NE LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
71 Timalidae Pomatorhinus melanurus
Sri Lanka Scimitar-babbler
Sri Lanka Da-demalichcha
END LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
72 Timalidae Rhopocichla atriceps Dark-fronted Babbler
Wathanduru Panduru-demalichcha
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
73 Pellorneidae Pellorneum fuscocapillus
Sri Lanka Brown-capped Babbler
Sri Lanka Boraga Piri-demalichcha
END LC LC 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
74 Dicaeidae Dicaeum erythrorhynchos
Pale-billed Flowerpecker
Lathudu Pililichcha
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
75 Nectariniidae Leptocoma zeylonica Purple-rumped Sunbird
Nithamba Dam Sutikka
BrR LC LC 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
76 Nectariniidae Cinnyris asiatica Purple Sunbird Dam Sutikka BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
77 Nectariniidae Cinnyris lotenius Loten’s Sunbird Digthudu Dam Sutikka
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
78 Motacillidae Dendronanthus indicus
Forest Wagtail Wana-halapenda
CWV NE LC 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
79 Motacillidae Motacilla cinerea Grey Wagtail Alu Halapenda CWV NE LC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
80 Estrididae Lonchura punctulata Scaly-breasted Munia
Laya Kayuru Weekurulla
BrR LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Mammals NO Family Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS NRL GRL Total P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1 Manidae Manis crassicaudata Pangolin Kaballewa IND NT EN 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
2 Hipposideridae Hipposideros galeritus Dekhan leaf-nosed bat
Kesdiga Pathnehe-vavula
IND VU LC 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
3 Pteropodidae Pteropus giganteus Flying fox Ma-vavula IND LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
4 Vespertillionidae Pipistrellus coromandra
Indian pipistrel Indu Koseta-vavula
IND VU LC 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
5 Cercopithecidae Macaca sinica Sri Lanka toque monkey
Sri Lanka Rilawa
END LC EN 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
6 Cercopithecidae Semnopithecus priam Grey langur Eli-wdura IND LC NT 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
7 Cercopithecidae Semnopithecus vetulus
Purple-faced leaf monkey
Sri Lanka Kalu-wandura
END EN EN 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
72
8 Felidae Panthera pardus Leopard Kotiya/ Diviya IND EN VU 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
9 Felidae Prionailurus rubiginosus
Rusty-spotted cat
Kola Diviya / Balal Diviya
IND EN NT 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
10 Felidae Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat Handun Diviya IND EN VU 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
11 Herpestidae Herpestes smithii Black-tipped or Ruddy mongoose
Rath Mugatiya / Hothambuwa
IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
12 Mustelidae Lutra lutra Otter Diya-balla IND VU NT 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
13 Viverridae Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
Palm civet Uguduwa IND LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
14 Viverridae Paradoxurus montanus
Sri Lanka Brown palm civet
Sri Lanka Sapumal Kalawedda
END CR NE 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
15 Elephantidae Elephas maximus Elephant Etha / Aliya IND EN EN 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
16 Cervidae Rusa unicolor Sambur Gõna IND NT VU 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
17 Cervidae Muntiacus malabaricus
Barking deer Olu Muwa / Weli Muwa
IND NT LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
18 Suidae Sus scrofa Wild boar Wal Ura IND LC LC 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
19 Tragulidae Moschiola meminna Sri Lanka mouse-deer
Sri Lanka Meminna
END LC LC 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
20 Hystricidae Hystrix indica Porcupine Ittewa IND LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
21 Muridae Rattus tanezumi Jungle rat Kele meeya IND NT LC 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
22 Sciuridae Funambulus palmarum
Palm squirrel Leena IND LC LC 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
23 Sciuridae Ratufa macroura Giant squirrel Dandu-leena IND LC NT 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
24 Leporidae Lepus nigricollis Black-naped hare
Wal Hawa IND LC LC 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
* species recorded by other surveys
73
Annex 4: Species that were considered for the Critical Habitat assessment based in
IFC gudeline
Flora
Family Botanical name SpS NRL GRL
Achariaceae Hydnocarpus venenata END LC
Anacardiaceae Mangifera zeylanica END LC VU
Anacardiaceae Semecarpus nigro-viridis END LC VU
Annonaceae Uvaria sphenocarpa END LC
Annonaceae Xylopia nigricans END NT
Apocyanaceae Willughbeia cirrhifera END VU VU
Araceae Cryptocoryne beckettii END VU
Araceae Cryptocoryne parva END EN
Calophyllaceae Calophyllum tomentosum END VU
Celastraceae Euonymus walkeri END LC VU
Celastraceae Salacia oblonga IND EN
Celastraceae Salacia reticulata IND EN
Clusiaceae Garcinia quaesita END LC
Clusiaceae Garcinia terpnophylla END EN
Convolvulaceae Argyreia populifolia END LC
Dioscoreacea Dioscorea trimENi END EN
Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenoides END EN EN
Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenum IND EN DD
Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum zeylanicum END LC
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus resinosus END LC
Fabaceae Derris parviflora END LC
Loganiaceae Strychnos trichocalyx END VU
Malvaceae Pterygota thwaitesii END VU
Melastomataceae Memecylon angustifolium IND EN
Melastomataceae Memecylon capitellatum END LC
Meliaceae Munronia pinnata IND EN
MENspermaceae Hypserpa nitida IND EN
74
Family Botanical name SpS NRL GRL
Myrtaceae EugENa willdenowii END LC
Myrtaceae Syzygium amphoraecarpus END NT
Pandanaceae Pandanus ceylanicus END VU
Phyllanthaceae Cleistanthus pallidus END LC
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus myrtifolius END VU
Putranjivaceae Drypetes gardneri END NT
Rubiaceae Aidia gardneri END VU
Rubiaceae Wendlandia bicuspidata END LC
Rutaceae Micromelum minutum END LC
Rutaceae Zanthoxylum rhesta IND EN
Salicaceae Scolopia pusilla END LC
Sapindaceae Gleniea unijuga END LC
Fauna
Family Scientific Name SpS NRL GRL
Crabs
Gecarcinucidae Ceylonthelphusa sp.* END NK NK
Gecarcinucidae Mahatha adonis END NT LC
Gecarcinucidae Oziothelphusa minneriyaensis** END EN LC
Gecarcinucidae Oziotelphusa stricta** END EN VU
Land and aquatic species
Ariophantidae Euplecta layardi END EN NE
Ariophantidae Euplecta colletti END EN NE
Bulimininae Mirus panos END EN NE
Camaenidae Beddomea tifasciatus END VU NE
Cyclophoridae Theobaldius bairdi END VU NE
Cyclophoridae Theobaldius cratera END DD NE
Cyclophoridae Cyclophorus ceylanicus END VU NE
Cyclophoridae Cyclophorus involvulus IND EN NE
Cyclophoridae Aulopoma grande END VU NE
75
Family Scientific Name SpS NRL GRL
Cyclophoridae Aulopoma itieri END EN NE
Glessulidae Glessula ceylanica END EN NE
Glessulidae Glessula pallens END CR NE
Glessulidae Glessula lankana * END EN NE
Paludomidae Paludomus sp. END NK NE
Subulinidae Allopeas marine END CR NE
Streptaxidae Indoartemon layardianus END VU NE
Dragonflies
Cholorocyphidae Libellago adami * END VU NE
Cholorocyphidae Libellago greeni END EN NE
Euphaeidae Euphaea splendens END NT NE
Gomphidae Paragomphus campestris END NE NE
Gomphidae Gomphidia pearsoni END EN EN
Butterflies
Papilionidae Troides darsius END LC LC
Pieridae Appias galane END LC NE
Pieridae Eurema ormistoni END VU NE
Nymphalidae Kallima philarchus END EN NE
Fish
Cyprinidae Amblypharyngodon grandisquamis END LC NE
Cyprinidae Dawkinsia singhala END LC NE
Cyprinidae Dawkinsia srilankensis END CR NE
Cyprinidae Garra ceylonensis END VU NE
Cyprinidae Labuka insularis END CR NE
Cyprinidae Pethia melanomaculata END VU NE
Cyprinidae Puntius thermalis END LC NE
Cyprinidae Systomus martenstyni END CR EN
Cyprinidae Systomus sp. ‘Richmondi' END NE NE
Cyprinidae Tor khudree IND NT EN
Nemacheilidae Schistura notostigma END NT NE
Bagridae Mystus nanus END LC NE
76
Family Scientific Name SpS NRL GRL
Siluridae Ompok ceylonensis END NE NE
Osphronemidae Belontia signata END NT LR/cd
Channidae Channa kelaartii END LC NE
Amphibians
Nyctibatrachidae Lankanectes corrugatus * END VU LC
Rhacophoridae Pseudophilautus cavirostris END EN EN
Rhacophoridae Polypedates cruciger* END LC LC
Ranidae Indosylvirana temporalis END NT NT
Ranidae Hydrophylax gracilis END LC LC
Reptiles
Agamidae Calotes ceylonensis END NT NE
Agamidae Calotes liolepis * END NT NE
Agamidae Otocryptis nigristigma END LC NE
Gekkonidae Cnemaspis podihuna END VU LC
Gekkonidae Hemidactylus depressus END LC LC
Scincidae Dasia halianus * END NT NE
Scincidae Eutropis madarazi END VU NE
Scincidae Lankascincus fallax END LC NE
Scincidae Lankascincus gansi END VU NE
Natricidae Xenochrophis asperrimus * END LC NE
Elapidae Calliophis haematoetron* END CR NE
Viperidae Trimeresurus trigonocephalus * END LC NE
Birds
Phasianidae Galloperdix bicalcarata END NT LC
Phasianidae Gallus lafayettii END LC LC
Columbidae Treron pompadora END LC LC
Picidae Dinopium psarodes END LC LC
Megalaimidae Psilopogon flavifrons END LC LC
Megalaimidae Psilopogon rubricapillus END LC LC
Bucerotidae Ocyceros gingalensis END LC LC
Psittacidae Loriculus beryllinus END LC LC
77
Family Scientific Name SpS NRL GRL
Vangidae Tephrodornis affinis END LC LC
Turdidae Geokichla spiloptera END VU NT
Hirundinidae Cecropis hyperythra END LC LC
Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus melanicterus END LC LC
Timalidae Pomatorhinus melanurus END LC LC
Pellorneidae Pellorneum fuscocapillus END LC LC
Mammals
Manidae Manis crassicaudata IND NT EN
Cercopithecidae Macaca sinica END LC EN
Cercopithecidae Semnopithecus vetulus END EN EN
Viverridae Paradoxurus montanus END CR NE
Elephantidae Elephas maximus IND EN EN
Tragulidae Moschiola meminna END LC LC
IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature IUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations. It provides public, private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress, economic development and nature conservation to take place together. Created in 1948, IUCN is now the world’s largest and most diverse environmental network, harnessing the knowledge, resources and reach of more than 1,300 Member organisations and some 16,000 experts. It is a leading provider of conservation data, assessments and analysis. Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices, tools and international standards. IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments, NGOs, scientists, businesses, local communities, indigenous peoples organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development. Working with many partners and supporters, IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of conservation projects worldwide. Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities, these projects work to reverse habitat loss, restore ecosystems and improve people’s well-being. IUCN has been working in Sri Lanka since 1988.
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Sri Lanka Country Office No. 53 Horton Place Colombo 7 Sri Lanka Tel. +94 11 2682418, 2682488, 5734786 Fax +94 11 2682470
www.iucn.org/asia/countries/sri-lanka
IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka Country Office
Disturbed Stream Bed (Kanbarawa Oya)
Corrective Action Plan - December, 2019 KMTC Contract Package of UECP of MWSIP, Sri Lanka
Page 28 of 33
Annexure 3
Minutes of the meeting held on 12/07/2019, by Forest Department to define appropriate
implementation mechanism of EAR (IUCN; June, 2019) recommendations
Page 1 of 4
Discussion Notes
Subject:
The MWSIP facilitated Forest Department to convened a Discussion to Develop Implementing Mechanism of
Recommendations in the Ecological Assessment Report (IUCN; June, 2019) on Unauthorized Clearing of
Forest in Beligoda Forest Reserve Naula, Mathale
Venue: Conference Room of Conservator General of Forests ; Time: 1.30 PM Date: 12/07/2019
Participants:
Name Agency Name Agency
Mr. M. Senawirthne CF - EM & LR, FD Mr. M. J Brown CMS-PMDSC
Mr. P.A.G.S. Nandakumara CF - LE, FD Mr. M. A. A. M. Ananda CME-PMDSC
Ms. M. Amarasinhe SPMS-ADB,SLRM Mr. N Bandara PD-PMU, MWSIP
Mr. P. Attygalle IESMS-MWSIP Mr. P Moonamale ES-PMU, MWSIP
Key Matters/ Conclusions:
No. Key Matters/ Conclusions Responsibility
I Introduction
The CF - EM & LR, FD; welcomed the participants and briefed the objective of
the discussion as to;
Identification of the most effective method of low enforcement based on the
recommendations in the aforementioned IUCN report.
Furthermore, he emphasized that;
1) FD has obtained the cost of damage to ecosystem and method of
restoration from the IUCN (i.e. through June, 2019 report)
2) FD accepts the details furnished in the IUCN report as adequate and final.
The same report forms the basis for low enforcement against the breach of
Forest Ordinance (FO).
The CF - LE, FD; mentioned that the FD has two major approaches in
enforcement of the low for incidence of this nature;
1) Reach at amicable settlement if respondent party accept the breach of FO
and agree to (a) pay the damage cost, (b) restore the site ecologically and
reforest a land in similar eco zone, (c) pay the penalties impose on breach
of each clause in the FO by the unauthorized entry followed by land
clearing and ensure refraining from claiming ownership of the felled trees
2) File a court case against breaching of the FO
The PD-PMU stated that the PMU as Employer expects urgent implementation
of the recommended corrective actions in the IUCN report.
The CMS-PMDSC, confirming the FD’s view on the act, noted that the
Contractor is solely responsible for this act since he has gone beyond the land
Page 3 of 4
Corrective Action Plan - December, 2019 KMTC Contract Package of UECP of MWSIP, Sri Lanka
Page 29 of 33
Annexure 4
Minutes of the meeting held on 20/08/2019, by Forest Department to inform Contractor the procedure
of adopting legal action as per Forest Ordinance based on EAR (IUCN; June, 2019) recommendations
Page 1 of 3
Discussion Notes
Subject:
The MWSIP facilitated Forest Department to convened a Discussion with Contractor on their Request to
Amicably Settle the legal action on Unauthorized Clearing of Forest in Beligoda Forest Reserve Naula,
Mathale as per guidance of Forest Department
Venue: Conference Room of Conservator General of Forests ; Time: 1.30 PM Date: 20/08/2019
Participants:
Name Agency Name Agency
Mr. W. A. C. Weeragoda CGF, FD Mr. Qias Hai Tan DPM-Synohidro
Mr. M. Senawirthne CF - EM & LR, FD Mr. Heil Kumara EO- Synohidro
Mr. I Alawatta ACF - EM & LR, FD Dr. F. Nagrass Act. T.L-PMDSC
Ms. M. Amarasinhe SPMS-ADB,SLRM Dr. A. Kasige ES-PMDSC
Prof. D .Weerakoon IUCN (Team Leader/
Ecological Assessment)
Mr. N Bandara PD-PMU, MWSIP
Mr. S Gunathilake IUCN (Ecologist/ E.A.) Mr. P Moonamale ES-PMU, MWSIP
Key Matters/ Conclusions:
No. Key Matters/ Conclusions Responsibility
I Introduction
The CGF, FD; welcomed the participants and briefed the objective of the
discussion as to;
Guide the Contractor on the procedure to be followed for reaching at an
amicable settlement with the FD and
To consider acceptance of Contractor’s request for amicable settlement option based on their response as well as define time plan for paying penalties &
implementing restoration activities.
Furthermore, he emphasized that FD accepts the details furnished in the IUCN
report as adequate and final. The same report forms the basis for low
enforcement against the breach of Forest Ordinance (FO).
However, he invited the Contractor to raise if there are any clarifications and
invited IUCN representatives to present clarifications based on the report/
study findings.
The DPM-Synohidro raised clarifications and IUCN/ Others responded as
follows;
1) The basis of ecological assessment is arguable and proposed an opportunity
to hire an independent party to repeat the same assessment by Synohidro;
Page 2 of 3
Abbreviations:
FD-Forest Department, FO- Forest Ordinance, ADB-Asian Development Bank, SLRM-Sri Lanka Residence
Mission, MWSIP-Mahaweli Water Security Investment Program, PMU-Program Management Unit, PMDSC-
Program Management Design & Supervision Consultant, PD-Program Director, CF-Conservator of Forests, EM
& LR-Environment Management & Land Resources, LE-Low Enforcement, SPMS-Senior Project Management
IUCN briefed the method adopted for the assessment.
Then, FD reiterated that the report is considered as the final assessment
based on FD’s professional judgment on competency of IUCN for the study.
Synohidro agreed.
2) Calculation errors in deriving the “damage cost”;
IUCN clarified the basis adopted for the calculation of the damage cost as
presented in chapter 2.9 of the Ecological Assessment Report (IUCN, June
2019).
Synohidro agreed.
The FD described the procedure of amicable settlement is as follows;
1) Submit a letter of commitment by you to the FD (within 2 days) before
23/08/2019 stating that the Synohydro Corporation Limited agree to;
a) Pay the ecosystem damage cost (LKR 31,400,000.00) as per bullet point
1 in paragraph 3.2 of EAR (IUCN, June 2019),
b) Undertake the ecological restoration of degraded forest land in same
watershed and rehabilitation of the damaged area under the direct
supervision of FD officers as per bullet points 2 and 3 respectively in
paragraph 3.2 of EAR,
2) Submit a method statement for item “b” above (within 20 days) before 10/09/2019 to the FD (both Engineer & Employer will assist you in this regard
if deemed necessary by you),
3) Mobilize resources to implement method statement as recommends by the
FD under their direct supervision at your cost.
4) Furthermore, FD noted that failure to follow the agreed time line may
compel FD to take alternative legal action against Synohydro Corporation
Limited.
II Decision taken
1) DPM/ Synohydro Corporation Limited agreed to follow the procedure as
presented above and submit relevant documents in consultation with his top
management.
2) FD requested the MWSIP to assist in coordinating with the Contractor as and
when required. PD-PMU agreed to extend necessary assistance through PMU,
PIU or PMDSC.
3) ADB reconfirmed from the representatives of Synohydro the due
understanding of the procedure and acceptance to adhere to the same.
Synohydro
FD
FD
PMU-MWSIP
Corrective Action Plan - December, 2019 KMTC Contract Package of UECP of MWSIP, Sri Lanka
Page 30 of 33
Annexure 5
Minutes of the meeting held on 18/10/2019, between Forest Department and team of delegates of the
7th review mission of Asian Development Bank to discuss the progress of implementing corrective
actions against Unauthorized Clearing of Forest in Beligoda Forest Reserve Naula, Mathale by KMTC
Contractor
Page 1 of 2
Discussion Notes
Subject:
The PMU-MWSIP facilitated a Discussion between Forest Department and team of delegates of the 7th review
mission Asian Development Bank to discuss the progress of implementing corrective actions against
Unauthorized Clearing of Forest in Beligoda Forest Reserve Naula, Mathale by KMTC Contractor
Venue: Conference Room of Conservator General of Forests ; Time: 9.00 AM Date: 18/10/2019
Participants:
Name Agency Name Agency
Mr. W. A. C. Weeragoda CGF, FD Dr. A. Kasige ES-PMDSC
Mr. M. Senawirthne CF - EM & LR, FD Mr. P R Attygalle IESMS-MWSIP (ADB)
Mr. D H S Kumarasiri CF – SC & FPM, FD Mr. A H Sumanasena NC-WMPI-PMU, MWSIP
Ms. M. Amarasinhe SPMS-ADB,SLRM Mr. P Moonamale ES-PMU, MWSIP
Mr. S Gajasinghe SO-ADB,SLRM
Key Matters/ Conclusions:
No. Key Matters/ Conclusions Responsibility
I Introduction
The CGF, FD; welcomed the participants and briefed the objective of the
discussion as to clarify the decision making process for enforcement of legal
action against above violation by Synohidro Ltd (the Contractor of KMTC
Contract Package of UECP under the MWSIP) in the form of reaching the
respondent (Synohidro Ltd) at an amicable settlement with the FD and to find
how the process could be accelerated with enhancing assistance from the
MWSIP.
CGF mentioned that the legal process is administered as per provisions of the
Forest ordinance and relevant internal circulars of the Forest Department and
accordingly the decision has to be fair by FD and the respondent party.
ADB emphasized the need for accelerating the implementing corrective actions
as per the environmental compliance requirements of the ADB’s Safeguard
Policy Statement (2009).
The ADB inquired why the FD negotiate “amount of monetary compensation for
the ecological damage” as recommended in the IUCN report and having
Contractor’s acceptance at the previous meeting held with participation of
Contractor, Engineer (PMDSC) Employer (PMU), IUCN, ADB and FD (held on
20/08/2019).
FD noted that Contractor has pointed out existence of arithmetic errors in
damage cost calculation and therefore was given opportunity to submit in
writing to obtain clarification from IUCN to reach at a fair judgement.
N/A
Corrective Action Plan - December, 2019 KMTC Contract Package of UECP of MWSIP, Sri Lanka
Page 31 of 33
Annexure 6
Minutes of the Discussion and Site inspection held on 28/10/2019, by Forest Department at the Cleared
of Forest Area in Beligoda Forest Reserve Naula, Mathale
Page 1 of 2
Discussion Notes
Subject:
The Forest Department conducted a site inspection at the Cleared of Forest Area in Beligoda Forest Reserve
Naula, Mathale and a discussion followed by
Venue of Discussion: Knuckels Conservation Center, Ilukkumbura, Naula
Date: 28/10/2019 Time: 2.30 PM (After the Site Inspection started at 9.30 AM)
Participants: Refer Attachment 1 for List of Participants & Signature sheet
Key Matters/ Conclusions:
No. Key Matters/ Conclusions Responsibility
I Introduction
The CGF addressed the participants before starting the site inspection
emphasizing the objective of the session as to review the current status of the site
with inspecting whether any further unauthorized interventions and to conclude
time line for implementing Corrective Actions based on recommendations in the
IUCN (June, 2019) report. Please refer Attachment 2 for some pictures.
Followed by the site inspection a discussion was held with participation of Senior
Officials of Synihidro Ltd., PMDSC, PIU, PMU and Forest Department (including
Conservator General of Forests, Conservator of Forests (EM & LR) and Divisional
Forest Officer, Mathale) and reached at the below decisions;
N/A
II Decisions taken
1) Contractor’s appeal for reconsidering the “ecological damage cost calculation”: a) FD noted that the currently the site has reached to natural stabilization to
some extent and thus damage cost assessment at present would not be
comparable with that of just after the incident.
b) However, the FD mentioned that they would decide the amount the
contractor must pay as damage cost obtaining clarifications from IUCN
regarding Contractor’s concerns and inform by 15/11/2019 expecting Contractor to pay same by 30/11/2019.
2) Damaged site restoration:
FD noted since site has reached to natural stabilization to some extent and also
the IUCN also has emphasized need of reviewing the site condition in advance
of preparing implementation plan for structural mitigations for site restoration
at present, they recommend following steps and all agreed;
a) Organize a site visit with IUCN together with Contractor and relevant
parties to review and prepare updated site restoration action plan
enabling Contractor to submit a Proposal for damaged site restoration by
11/11/2019.
FD
PMU
Attachment 1
List of Participants
Name Institute & Designation
1 W.A.G Weeragoda CGF/FD
2 Mhinda Senavirathna CF/FD
3 H.M.A.B Herath DFO/Matale
4 P. Moonamale Env.Sp. PMU.MWSIP
5 Senavirathna Bandara UECP-PIU/DPD
6 S.S Kusaolla UECP-PIU/ SEO
7 R.M. Premawardena PMDSC/EMS
8 N.T Kumara Sinohydro/ EO
9 Qiao Mai Tao Sinohydro/DPM
10 K. Illukka Forester/ FD
11 W.W.M.S.K. Weerasinghe BFO/ FD
12 B.S. Kabeel BR.WM.OF- UECP
13 S.A.S Wihesinghe RPSI
14 J.M.P Sanjeewa PMU
15 N.A.P.P Waruna KMTC
16 P.C Bandara PMDSC
17 Y.I.S wickramasinghe Driver
18 A.P.Q.A Banadara Driver
19 G.U.A Nishantha FA/Forest
20 A.H.S Karunasena FA/Forest
21 K.G FA/Forest
22 A.M Upali Ranbandara FEA/Knuckles
23 G.G Jayakodi RFO/Naula
Page 1 of 1
Attachment 2: Pictures of the session
Discussion at Contractor’s camp to start visit Walking in to the damaged trace (LBS)
Discussion in the damaged site (LBS) The location after removal of the truck
View of RBS branch of Kambarawa stream Discussion at Knuckles conservation center
