Environment Friendly Life Styles a Dialogue With Ancient India

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Introduction

The very fact that the Earth once supported about four billion species of life, and that thenumber today has come down to only four million species shows how life is being extinguishedrapidly (Singh,1995:174). There is no guarantee that the remainder of it too, will not disappearsoon. It has become necessary on the part of human beings to work for the survival of allliving beings because their own survival is dependent on coexistence.

Swami Vivekananda observed: The problem of life is becoming deeper and broader everydayas the world moves on. The watch word and the essence have been preached in the days ofyore when the Vedantic truth of solidarity of all life was first discovered. One atom in thisuniverse cannot move without dragging the whole world along with it1. Hence, what we needtoday for survival is synthesis, the ecological perspective, and the holistic view besidesdeveloping a sincere appreciation of interdependence. The achievement of this may befacilitated through a dialogue with ancient India which is the aim of this article. It also tries tobring a few salient points in order to influence an environment-friendly lifestyle to savefurther degradation of natural resources.

The main emphasis of ancient Indian concepts in this regard is on the inherent balance ofnature. The five primary elements namely earth, water, fire, air and space together with floraand fauna form a network of interrelations which ultimately culminates in giving rise to agrand harmony among everything. The Mahabharata says that the coexistence of wild beastsand the forests is necessary for the welfare of both. The presence of tigers protects the forestfrom being destroyed by people, while the forest protects the tigers by allowing them to livein its interiors in peace2. The present-day concern of ecologists starts with the assumptionthat we have to take care of the environment as it affects our living. On the other hand, theancient concern of Indians started with the assumption that they were a part of a largerexistence (Misra, 1992:57). The Vedas and the Upanishads, the Puranas, and classical literatureclearly enunciate this viewpoint. This worldview prompted them to treat the environment with

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with AncientIndia

C. Panduranga Bhatta

1 Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. III, P. 269.2 Mahabharata, Ashvamedha Parva, Chapter, 92.

C. Panduranga Bhatta is Professor at the Department of Business Ethics and Communication, IndianInstitute of Management Calcutta, Kolkata, E-mail: [email protected]

Research Paper

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India 104

reverence and also created an awareness in them that the great forces of nature-the earth, thesky, the air, the water, and fire - as well as various orders of life including plants, trees, forestsand animals are all bound to each other within the great rhythms of nature. They were alsoaware of the positive effect of pure air, water and natural plants, trees etc., on the human mindand hence took much interest in preserving them3.

Further, the trusting kinship between human beings, birds, beasts, plants and trees, and aconviction in their mutual interdependence mark the authentic ancient Indian approach towardsenvironment. Ancient Indians were deistic towards nature, holding it in a deep sense ofrespect and worship (Kunhan Raja C, 1957:136-146).

The Vedic seers perceived the value of maintaining a harmonious relationship between theneeds of human beings and the spectacular diversity of the universe. To them, nature was notonly a mother to sustain their life; it was the abode of divinity. They did not believe thathumans role on Earth was to exploit nature for their own selfish purposes. Nor did theybelieve in the view that the true end of humans was essentially to dominate and control natureby all possible means. On the contrary, sanctity of life to them included not only the individualefforts to seek salvation but also to achieve it by developing a sacred attitude towards natureand its manifestations. This is evidenced in the sacred concept of deva-yajna in which humanbeings are asked to worship the Gods who are personifications of various natural phenomena.They had great love and regard for the five primary elements namely, (1) the earth, (2) thewater, (3) the fire, (4) the air and (5) the space, collectively called pancha-mahabhutas. Theancient Indian view of the five elements acknowledges that they are essential for peace,happiness and tranquillity in the universe and for the flowering and development of humanity.

Inconsiderate consumption and the accelerated exploitation of natural resources anddestruction of the precious environment cannot go on forever. The resources of the earthhave to be protected and sustained not only for humankind, but also for other species; andnot only for this generation, but for generations to follow. To sustain the resources of theEarth, the approach must not be centered on any one species like the human being, butshould encompass the entire life-support system. According to the Vedas, the Earth is hometo a very large family of living organisms. The earth is looked upon as a gigantic super-organism which is living, dynamic, evolving and continuing. Ancient Indians concern startedwith the assumption that humankind is part of a larger existence. Nature worship found inancient Indian literature is only a quest for fullness, a quest for integration of the part with thewhole. The fullness of life is visualized sometimes through the kinship image, the earth as themother, the sky as the father, the vegetation as brother or sister. The splendor of the moon, thestars, the rising sun, the winds, the sky, the vegetation, the animals, birds, rivers, trees andmountains together form the beauty of the natural creation in its entirety. The man, universeand God were generally regarded as the three main themes of mans religio-philosophicalspeculations. The three ancient civilizations had their respective watch words. The watchword of the ancient Western thought was I (aham); that of the ancient Chinese thought was

3 Atharva Veda, V. XXI.



We (vayam); and that of the ancient Indian thought was All (vishvam) (Dandekar,1979).Ancient Indian thought does not consider man as standing apart from the universe, muchless as enjoying any preponderance in it. The human being is looked upon just as one of themany forms in which the Supreme Being is manifested in this universe. Ancient Indiansrealized that in so many ways the various species of animals and birds enter into our lives andwe have obligations towards them. When this awareness is keenly felt, every act becomes anexpression of harmony. One should look upon the entire creation with a unified vision anon-differentiating, distinction-less vision. Out of compassion, one seeks to promote thewelfare of the world by setting up the right norms of action. The delicate and holistic balancethat exists in nature has to be respected and maintained. We should care for the well-being ofthe planet as a whole, together with all its inhabitants (including humans) and non-livingresources.

Nature Worship and Prayers for a Peaceful Environment

To the ancient Indian psyche conquest over nature is a self-defeating goal; it is harmony andmore than harmony, it is humble submission to the infinite in the finite, which is the cherishedgoal. They offered many prayers for a peaceful environment. The Atharva-Veda calls out forpeace in the hymn given below:

Now let the earth be in peace and

the air, the sky, the waters, the herbs, the trees be in peace.

Let the gods give us peace and Peace comes from these calls for peace.

With these peace calls that assuage everything,

I give peace to the terrible here,

to the cruel here, to the evil,

let them now be quiet, mean well,

let everything be good to us

(Translated into English)4.

According to the Ishavasya Upanishad, the entire universe and everything in it, animate andinanimate belongs to God. We should not covet anything. We should treat everything aroundus reverently, as custodians. We should enjoy but neither hoard nor kill5. Upanishadic sagesfirmly believed that our duty is to follow the eternal law of Nature without any violation andif we do so Nature will honour us with bounty. The following hymn given below explains thisidea in a telling manner.

4 Atharva Veda, V.19-9.5 Ishavasya Upanishad, I.1.



For one that lives according to Eternal law,The winds are full of sweetness.The rivers pour sweets.So many plants be full of sweetness for us.Sweet be the night and sweet the dawns.Sweet be our Father Heaven to us.May the forest trees be full of sweets for us.And full of sweetness the Sun,May the kine be full of sweetness(Translated into English)6.

The ancient Indians sought fellowship with every living being and the same is expressed inthe following hymn of the Yajurveda:

May all beings look on me with the eye of a friend,May I look on all beings with the eye of a friend,May we look on one another with the eye of a friend (Translated into English)7.

Yajurveda states that service to animals is a heavenly activity. No person should kill animalshelpful to all; by serving them one should obtain happiness (Translated into English)8

Another popular Vedic prayer quoted below prays for universal happiness based on genuinecompassion:

sarve bhavantu sukhinah sarve santu niramayah/sarve bhadrani pasyantu md kascit duhkhabhag bhavet / /

May everyone in this world be happy,May everyone be free from diseases,May everyone see prosperity,May none come to grief (Swami Yatiswarananda, 1971:232)

The ancient Indians considered the terrestrial earth as mother. The Atharvaveda has a wholeprayer named Prithivi-Sukta in praise of earth9. The earth is seen here as the abode of a familyof all beings-human as well as others. She nourishes us all, but when angered by misdeeds ofher children punishes them with disaster. Verse 11 in the Sukta, is given below:

6 Rig Veda, I.90.6-8.7 Yajur Veda, 34.8 Yajur Veda, 13. 47.9 Atharva Veda, XII,1, 1-63.



O Mother Earth! Sacred are thy hills, snowy mountains, anddeep forests. Be kind to us and bestow upon us happiness. Mayyou be fertile, arable, and nourisher of all. May you continue tosupport people of all races and nations. May you protect usfrom your anger (natural disasters). And may no one exploit andsubjugate your children (Translated into English).

According to ancient Indian thought tradition all human beings must discharge five piousobligations called rinas. Among these obligations deva-rina and bhuta-rina are directlyrelated to environment and hence they are discussed below (Bhatta, 2000a:29-32).

Deva-Rina: The first obligation is called deva-rina which human beings owe to the Gods(devas), who control nature and its various phenomena. Offerings to the Gods (deva-yajna)are made through sacrifices (yajnas) and prayers (prarthanas) to express ones gratitude forthe great gifts of nature such as water, light and air.

Bhuta-Rina: Human beings have a duty towards all those who contribute directly or evenindirectly, even an atom and they owe a debt to all sub-human species (bhuta-rina) whichcontribute to the quality of life. They have to discharge this debt by observing bhuta-yajna.Bhuta-yajna is a sacrifice mainly to the animals and birds. It is recommended chiefly onhumanitarian grounds. The animals and birds too contribute to humans welfare and thereforehumans too should feed them. The directions to give food to dogs and birds both in themorning and evening in a ceremony known as vaishvadeva is the outcome of the noblesentiment of universal kindness and charity.

According to ancient Indian scriptures the food to be offered should be sprinkled over withghee or with curds or milk but not with oil or salt. Thus, offering food that is mixed up withinferior food to birds and insects is prohibited. It is said that even when one is not going to eaton a particular day one must offer vaishvadeva. If one could afford no food, one must offerfruits, roots or in the least, water. These scriptures condemn to hell one, who takes ones ownmeal without offering vaishvadeva, when one is not in distress or difficulty. It may be mentionedhere that rice flour is used for making designs called rangoli in front of houses in the morning.This practice is prevalent in many parts of India even to this day. This is to feed small insectssuch as ants everyday. But now a days, without knowing the grand philosophy existingbehind this custom, people are using coloured chemical powders to make the designs, but theinsect may not get any benefit out of this instead they may die if they partake of suchchemicals.

Ancient Indian thinkers encouraged the construction of tanks near pasture lands so thatcattle coming to graze may quench their thirst; took care not to stone up all the four sides butleave at least one side as an earthen ramp for animals; put up brick pillars to help cattle scratchtheir neck and backs, and so forth. The scriptures broadly classify dharma as ista and purta.Ista comprises those duties that spiritually elevate the individual. The purta partakes of thecharacter of social duties; to dig wells, tanks, to erect places of common worship, to plant



trees, and see that no trees are cut, to lay pathways and roads, to look after orphanages, toprovide resting places for the tired wayfarer, and so on (Naganathan, 2004:25-27).

Sense of Oneness and the Theory of Divine Presence

Animals have always been a central element in the holistic perception of nature in ancientIndia. In its mythology every God and Goddess is depicted with a particular animal as his orher carrier. The bull, the eagle, the lion, the elephant, the swan, the cow, the mouse and so onare the carriers of various Gods and Goddesses (Swami Harshananda, 1982). The pointconveyed here is that the animals are not to be looked upon as creatures to be cruellyexploited but as partners with human beings in the journey of life. Even if one does not haveany overflowing love for the frog, at least ones self-love should dictate that ones survival istied up with the survival of the frog.

The distinction between the living and the non-living ceases to exist for a human being whohas attained the ultimate vision of Reality. This is the experience of saints, sages and mysticsof all countries and creeds. The pivotal teachings of the Upanishads like sarvam khalvidambrahma - all that exists is verily the Brahman, isavasyam idam sarvam - everything isenveloped by the ultimate Reality speak of this truth. In the world of scientific discovery, thisancient truth is being recognized and supported in many different ways, through many kindsof experiments with the non-living like metals, and the world of plant-life. Swami Vivekanandaobserves; in science everyday they are coming to a similar broad view of matter. You speakof matter, the whole universe as one mass, one ocean of matter, in which you and I, the sunand the moon, and everything else are but the names of different little whirlpools and nothingmore.. It is one unchangeable, unbroken, homogeneous Atman10.

The Bhagavad-Gita describes the whole universe as a wheel of sacrifice which operates onthe ethical principle of mutual interdependence among its constituents11. It looks uponhumankind just as part and parcel of the universe, as if it is one of the many forms in which theSupreme Being is manifested in this universe. In the divine form (vishvarupa) of Lord Krishna,Arjuna saw the whole universe with its many divisions drawn together into one. The cosmiclife is manifesting itself as the human beings, as animals, as birds, as the vegetable kingdomand other species12. Among the mountains, the Himalayas are the greatest, leaving its beholdersawestruck and the Lord identifies himself with the Himalayas. Ashvattha is the Pipal tree andit yields no edible fruit and nothing in this tree is in any way useful to humans. Still it has everbeen associated with the worship of the divine as Lord Krishna identifies himself with it13.

The best of the cows, horses and the best of the elephants are manifestations of the divineglory of the Lord. The serpent is a venomous creature but the Lord speaks of the poisonoussnake Vasuki as His own glory. The Nagas are non-poisonous snakes and the Lord rests onAnanta and hence it has divine presence14. The lion is the lord of beasts and he is majestic10 Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. III, P. 241.11 Bhagavad Gita, III, 14-15.12 Bhagavad Gita, X. 20-41.13 Bhagavad Gita, X. 26.14 Ibid. X.29.



and magnanimous in his own way. Because of his power he has become the vehicle of thecosmic mother. Vainateya is another name for Garuda and Lords glory is found in this birdalso. All the four elements-earth, water, fire and air are in fact purifiers and among them air isall pervading and is capable of purifying earth, water and fire too. It makes fire burn; itconverts impure water into vapour and reinstates it as pure rain water. The smell produced byearth and earthly things are purified and made odourless by air. The glory of the Lord revealsitself through this great purifier as He identifies himself with it15. Finally, Lord Krishna saysthat there is no being, whether moving or nonmoving in which he is not present. TheVishnupurana says that the whole world constituted of all beings is an expansion of LordVishnu. It says that the humans, animals, birds, trees and crawling creatures are forms of LordVishnu. The whole creation comprising the nonmoving and the moving should be looked asone self, for Lord Vishnu takes the form of the entire universe. According to it the whole worldis but a manifestation of Vishnu who is identical with all beings. The true worship of Vishnu isthe perception of the sameness. It says that, equal consideration of all is the worship of LordVishnu16.

Ethical and Legal Practices for Protecting the Environment

The Vedas instruct people not to kill animals like bullocks useful for agriculture or like cowswhich give us milk and all other helpful animals. The ancient Indian medical system namelyAyurveda, regards the presence of animals, birds and other creatures as necessary for ahealing and balanced environment According to Carakasamhita the destruction of forests ismost dangerous for the nation and for human beings17. According to it, the vegetable kingdomhas a direct relationship with the well being of the society. According to Susrutasamhita aphysician must not render any medical aid to hunters, bird-catchers and others. According tothese writers, vegetable life and animals must be protected because they are useful tomankind.18

The belief that a God dwelt in a tree or that the tree was the spirit naturally made the cuttingdown of trees a very undesirable act. The healing power of plants and their utility in curinghuman diseases were known to people during the Vedic age. Manu was of the opinion thataccording to the usefulness of the several kinds of trees graded fines were to be imposed forinjuring them. According to Vasistha not even the king should be allowed to injure trees thatbore fruits and flowers19.

It may be pointed out here that Kautilya, the author of Arthashastra knew that every creaturehas its own role to play in maintaining the environment. According to him, notified carnivorousand herbivorous animals, birds and aquatic animals as well as animals in the notified areas areneither to be caught and killed nor molested. A young one, in any area shall not be killed orinjured according to Kautilya. This reveals Kautilyas concern to ensure the preservation of15 Ibid. X.31.16 Vishnu Purana, I. 17. 82-85.17 Charaka Samhita, 3.II.18 Susruta Samhita, II.5.19 Vasistha Smriti, XIX, 11-12.



all species. Kautilya lays down that for injuring such trees as were situated in city parks andbore flower, fruits and yield shade, punishments were to vary according to the part of the treesdamaged. He firmly believed that human beings have no right to use animals for their luxury,because he states that skin, hair, bones and other things are to be collected from dead animals.According to him causing pain or killing animals is a cognizable offence20

Trees played a considerable part in the administration of ancient Indian kingdoms. The practiceof planting saplings of shady fruit trees along public roads, and laying out gardens for publicuse, dates back to remote antiquity. The practice had a religious sanction and public gardenswere solemnly consecrated. The planting of trees has been proclaimed as conducive to greatmerit21. Trees came to be regarded as so important that their felling or deforestation withoutreason and permission was looked upon as a penal offence. Sage Patanjalis Yogasutra containsmany ethical guidelines related to environment. Yoga means discipline and control over bodyand mind, through physical practices, and ethical code of conduct.

The latter has eight formal disciplines of which, the first two (yamas and niyamas) have directrelevance to the environment and the ethics of using natural resources. Yamas are essentiallymoral commandments or ethical guidelines, which deal with underlying principles governingour relation with other human beings, other species in the biosphere and our surroundings.Yama deals with what human beings should refrain from doing to the environment. The firstyama is ahimsa, i.e. non violence against all living creatures and all non-living materials in thebiosphere (Iyengar, 2005:27).

It also includes shunning violence in thought, word, and deed. Pollution of air, water and landis also violence because it affects not only the life of other human beings but of all othercreations. The second yama is satya, i.e., truth. One truth is that all living creatures are a partof one living universal family (vasudhaiva kutumbakam), and all have equal rights. Anothertruth is that human beings have no right to harm any animate or inanimate creation for theirown greed. The third yama is asteya, i.e., not stealing or using materials by illegitimate means.For its own good and welfare, humankind must avoid vandalism and wanton destruction ofecological assets. The last yama is aparigraha, i.e., not coveting wealth or pleasures whichare unnecessary, or belong to others, or amassing wealth and worldly possessions beyondones requirement.

The five niyamas are self-based codes of conduct. The first niyama is shaucha, i.e., cleanlinessboth in ones person and in ones surroundings. The mind must become clean of lust (kama),and greed (lobha). The second niyama is santosha i.e., contentment which pertains to theuse of materials and other facilities afforded by the biosphere to satisfy essential needs andcomforts. The third niyama is tapas i.e., austerity and penance. It involves living frugally andjust comfortably, and doing penance for any dereliction of yamas and niyamas. The fourthniyama is swadhyaya i.e., study of the self. This leads to the study of oneself and enlightensone about the interconnectedness and interdependence of the entire world besides pointingout ones place in the biosphere, and the duties and responsibilities of a matured human

20 Arthashastra, III.19.21 Mastya Purana, Chap, 154, Verses 511-12, Chap. 59, Verses 17-20, Agni Purana Chap. 70, Verses 1-9.



being. The fifth niyama is ishwara pranidhana, i.e., surrender to the Almighty prayer,meditation, and dedication of all action unto the universal spirit. Once it happens, humanbeings will control themselves from indulging in any anti-environmental activity (Khoshoo,1995:21-23).

Supremely aware of the complexity of the moral problem of action, the Mahabharata comes upwith more than one supreme moral principle, paramadharmas that should guide humanaction. One of these is anrsamsya often extolled as paramodharma in the epic. Anrsamsyais to be distinguished from ahimsa which is another central idea in the Mahabharata.Anrsamsya means good-will, a fellow feeling, a deep sense of the other. Self restraint inconduct is an essential element of culture (Lath, 1990:113ff). Atmaupamya, finding out what isright and what is wrong by putting oneself in the others position is considered to be thehighest type of yoga.

The unity between the principles of truth and non-violence was preached in ancient literatureand a verse in the Mahabharata declares that speaking the truth is no doubt good, but whatis more important is to put the principle of truth into practice by doing good to all beings22.Again at another place it says that truth is what is good to all beings.23 Truth is what resultsinto the good of all. Where there is conflict, there is a need to reconcile in such a way thatgood is maximized and violence is avoided (Nadkarni, 2006).

A verse in the Panchatantra says that since dharma is said by the wise to be grounded onahimsa (abstaining from injuring or destroying life) one should protect even a louse, a bugetc.24 The Panchatantra also raises questions against the person who kills animals on religiousground and it asks if by cutting trees for making sacrificial posts and shedding a profusion ofblood one can get to heaven, who will go to hell? It also says he who kills even carnivorousanimals is said to be a cruel man and goes to the horrible hell, what to say then of him who killsharmless ones.

Non-Violent Attitude Towards the Environment in Buddhism

Lord Buddha was compassionate and he was averse to causing the slightest injury to anyliving being. In addition to non-killing he stressed the harmony of interdependence betweenhumans and the environment. He was against the sacrifices in which animals were killedbecause he did not value the happiness which was sought at the price of others sufferings25.According to him that sacrifice is glorious in which the cows and the goats are not killed, andeven the grass is not cut.26

The middle path propagated by Lord Buddha is the harmonious development of the multipledimensions of the human personality which lies between the two extremes, viz. vile pleasure-

22 Mahabharata, Shantiparva 3.29.13.23 Mahabharata, Vanaparva 209.4.24 Panchatantra, III. 104.25 Buddhacharitam, IX. 64.26 Diggha Nikaya Kutadanta Sutta, I.5.



seeking and extreme asceticism. Here the emphasis is on: purity of conduct, truthfulness, loveand benevolence, charity and kindness and mercy to all living beings.

Lord Buddha taught non-violence and the avoidance of destruction, not only as regards ourfellow human beings but also plants, trees, and even inanimate objects. He taught that allthings are endowed with the Buddha-nature, in other words, they are a part of the entirecosmos and therefore share the nature of the Buddha (Inoue, 1997:93)

Lord Buddha often spoke about four states of mind. In Pali, the language of the Buddhistscriptures, these four states are known as Brahma-vihara . This term may be rendered by:excellent, lofty or sublime states of mind; or alternatively, by: Brahma-like, god-like or divineabodes (Bhatta, 2000b:184-88)).

They are considered to be the ideal social attitudes which are the foundations of ethicalmodes of conduct towards living beings. These four sublime states are:

1. Metta (Maitri): loving-kindness towards all; loving kindness is the wish that all sentientbeings, without any exception, be happy.

2. Karuna: compassion; compassion is the wish for all sentient beings to be free fromsuffering.

3. Mudita: sympathetic joy is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness andvirtues of all sentient beings.

4. Upekkha (Upeksha): equanimity means not to distinguish between friend, enemy orstranger, but regard every sentient being as equal.

These four attitudes are said to be excellent or sublime because they are the right or ideal wayof conduct towards living beings. They should become ones inseparable companions, andone should be mindful of them in all ones common activities. They should be non-exclusiveand impartial, not bound by selective preferences or prejudices.

A very significant concept in Mahayana Buddhism related to environmental ethics and valuesis the concept of Bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas are motivated by pure compassion and love.Their goal is to achieve the highest level of being: that of a Buddha. Bodhisattva is a Sanskritterm which translates as: Bodhi [enlightenment] and sattva [being]. And their reason forbecoming a Buddha is to help others. The Bodhisattva will undergo any type of suffering tohelp another sentient being, whether a tiny insect or a huge mammal. Lord Buddha said: I willbecome a savior to all those beings; I will release them from all their sufferings. The Jatakasillustrate how a Bodhisattva practices the virtue of non-killing. This active concern of thesaint for the well being and emancipation of the living beings in general and the men andwomen of the world in particular is noteworthy in the context of environment-friendly lifestyles.

A Bodhisattvas prayer is very significant in this regard and the same is given below:

For as long as space enduresand for as long as living beings remain,



until then may I too abideto dispel the misery of the world (Translated into English)27

According to Buddhism all forms of life on Earth are interdependent, and their existences areinextricably interwoven. For example every life form depends on the sun for energy andwarmth. Plants depend on sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and chlorophyll to synthesizeorganic matter and produce oxygen. Most animals use that oxygen and some of them dependon plants for food. The web of life naturally includes human beings, since they are oneelement in the whole (Inoue,1997:21).

Environment-Friendly Policies of an Exemplary King of Ancient India

The ancient Indian king Ashoka is one of the greatest figures in the political history ofhumankind and his messages recorded in his inscriptions are noteworthy from the point ofview of present-day environmental problems. Ashoka stressed on the ethical teachings ofBuddha, self-control and loving service to all living beings. These he popularized throughouthis vast empire by engraving them on stone pillars and by illustrating them in his own conduct.In his dhamma policy he gave priority to ahimsa, namely non-violence, non-injury to humanbeings and animals and abstention from war.

Ashoka forbade slaughtering of animals for sacrifices and food and prohibited his court fromhunting expeditions on the necessity of treating all living beings with kindness and compassion.He gave importance to ecology and public services in order to avoid unnecessary sufferingsto people and animals.

Ashokas dhamma aims at universal good and is more humanitarian than a religious movement.His ethics include several elements which de facto effect a reduction of exploitation anddestruction of the environment, namely, non-injury to animals, and benevolence andcompassion towards all sentient beings. It is stated in the Rock Edit I that: No living beingshould be slaughtered for sacrifice. Many hundreds of thousands of living beings wereformerly killed every day in the royal kitchen. But now only three living creatures i.e. twopeacocks and one animal are killed for the sake of curry. Even this animal is not regularly killed.These three living beings shall not be slaughtered in the future.

Ashoka shows global and universal thoughts as he orders in one of his inscriptions toprovide medical treatment and grant the right to shade and water to humans and animalsbelonging to the neighbouring states or kingdoms. It is recorded in his Rock Edict II thatKing Piyadassi, the Beloved of Gods, (Ashoka) has arranged for medical treatment of bothhumans and animals all over his empire and in the territories beyond the borders as those ofthe Chola, Pandya, the Satiyaputra and the Keralaputra up to Tampraparni and those of theGreek king Aniyoka and also his neighbours. He has arranged also for planting medicinalherbs, roots and fruit-yielding trees. Wells have also been dug and trees have been planted

27 Bodhisattvacaryavatara of Santideva, a seminal ninth-century text on the perfections of giving, ethics,patience, effort, meditation, and wisdom.



on the roads for the enjoyments of animals and men. After the dreaded war of Kalinga therewas a change of heart in Ashoka and he repented for his extremely painful and deplorableaction in which humans and animals numbering one hundred thousand were captured aliveand several hundred thousands of them died during, and as a result of the war. Ashokabecame devoted to an intense practice of pious actions. The Shar-i-Kuna Edict of Ashokastates that ten years (since the coronation) having been completed king Piyadassi (Ashoka)proclaimed piety (truth) to people. No animal or bird is killed for feeding the king and peoplehave also given up the same. Hunters and fishermen have stopped killing. (Bhatta, 2000c:25-27).

According to the Pillar Edict V twentysix years after Ashokas coronation the following speciesof animals were declared to be protected from slaughter. They are: parrots, mainas, ruddygeese, wild geese, waterborne birds, bats, queen ants, terra pins, boneless fish, skate fish,tortoises, porcupines, leaf-hares, twelve-antler stags, free roaming bulls, cats and rats etc.,rhinoceroses, while pigeons, village pigeons and all the quadrupeds which are neither usefulnor edible. Pregnant she-goats, ewes and cows, should not be killed. Also their young ones,less than six months old should not be killed. This reveals Ashokas concern to ensure thepreservation of all species. Further the inscription states that cocks are not to be caponed.Husks containing living beings should not be burnt. Forests should not be burnt withoutpurpose or just to destroy living beings. Living beings must not be fed to living beings. Fishshould neither be killed nor sold on the three days of every three-month period, the full-moonday in the month of Tishya (Jan-Feb), the fourteenth, the fifteenth of every bright fortnightand the first of the dark fortnight in each case and in every fast day. These and other speciesof animals should not be killed in the forests and the fishermens localities. It is to be notedhere that Tishya also called Pushya was the birth star of Ashoka. Bulls and other animals arenot to be castrated on those days, also on the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth days of thefortnight and on the days of Tishya and Punarvasu, on the three days of every three-monthlyperiod and on every auspicious day. Horses and bullocks should not be branded on thosedays.

The wonderful results achieved through the persuasive efforts of Ashoka are recorded in theRock Edict IV; For hundreds of years in the past the killing of living beings, cruelty to them,etc. increasedbut now as a result of both precept and practice on the part of the king, thepractice of dharma has increased Abstention from the killing of living beings, non-violenceand similar other acts of dharma have developed. The Beloved of Gods will encourage theirfurther development. His sons, grandsons and great grandsons will exert similarly and instructthe people for all time. Ashokas message recorded in his inscriptions advocate the cause ofsympathetic understanding of the environment leading a life of harmony and rapport.

Inculcating a Humane Approach through Literary Characters

Ancient Indians lived in close proximity with nature. They were very much impressed by thevastness, brilliance, compassion, and bounty of nature. Sanskrit poetry was a product of



those who lived amidst hills, lakes, animals, trees and flowers and had all the time the fullimpact of Nature in its beauty, severity and sublimity. (Raghavan, 1972: 9ff). Sanskrit poetryfrom the very beginning has had a close integration and identification with Nature. Eventhough poetry is regarded first and foremost as a means of securing a spell of detachmentfrom common life there is no doubt that it has many lessons for us and their value is great. Apoet is bound to express or suggest a number of thoughts and ideas on different subjects anddifferent aspects of life. It is possible to know from the poets characters, and their thoughtsand actions, how his mind works, what thoughts and ideas he appears to prefer, his outlookon life and the values he accepts; in other words, the thoughts expressed by a poet are a clueto his philosophy of life. The thoughts related to values of life have no relation to particulartimes or circumstances and they are universal. The poets have a definite message to give tothe world. Their business is to sum up the immediate past in the terms of the present, at thesame time they occasionally inform the present with hints of the future.28

The great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa was a powerful advocate of discipline in individual andpublic life. He emphasizes compassion, tolerance and reverence for life in all forms. Caring forplants and animals is strongly advocated in the works of Kalidasa. At times he expresses theidea that the overall actions of sentient beings are playing the main role in creating thepleasant or unpleasant world. In one of his dramas viz. Abhijnana Shakuntala, king Dushyantaasks, Is it that my sins have checked the flowering of the plants?29

Kalidasa does not appreciate the teasing of animals. In Abhijnana Sakuntala, the son ofDushyanta viz Sarvadamana violates the practice of forbearance by teasing the cub of a lion.The hermitage is a refuge of animals and hence he was rebuked by some female anchorite forthe offence30.

We learn from the works of Kalidasa that human life derives its value and significance onlywhen it is intimately associated with the life of nature. It is also learnt that the life of nature hasno significance or value when viewed in isolation, per se, and out of relation to human life(Bhat, 1982). Kalidasa never thinks of human beings and nature as being apart from oneanother. Violence to creatures was strictly forbidden in the hermitages. When king Dushyantain the famous play Abhijnana Sakuntala was about to shoot the deer in the hermitage ofKanva, the sages requested him earnestly to withdraw his arrow, as the deer belonged to thehermitage and he readily obliged them31. According to Kalidasa, it is the duty of a king toprevent the killing of animals. The same play says that its heroine Sakuntala never quenchedher thirst, before watering the plants well. In spite of fondness for personal decoration shenever plucked even a sprout. The description of Sakuntala leaving her surroundings in Kanvashermitage is one of the most moving scenes in the dramatic literature all over the world.Brought up from infancy on the lap of nature, she had a sisterly affection for the flora and

28 Sri Aurobindo Centenary Volume, No.3, p.217.29 Abhijnana Sakuntala, Act V.9.30 Arthasastra. VII. 18.31 Abhijnana Sakuntala, Act I.32 Ibid. IV.14.



fauna of the place. The strings which joined her heart to them seemed to burst as she saidgood-bye to them tearfully32.

Anasuya says that sage Kanva considered the trees of his penance grove dearer than Sakuntala.According to her, otherwise Kanva would not have engaged Sakuntala for watering the trees.Sakuntala says that she too has brotherly affection towards them and she subordinates herlove for ornaments to her affection for the trees.

She never picked up a bloom even for bedecking herself. It was a festival for her, when theyput forth fresh foliage and flowers. Sakuntala used to apply the sore healing oil of ingudi fruitsto the mouth of fawn pricked by the sharp points of kusha grass. When king Dushyanta asksSakuntala to convince him about her marriage with him, she tries to wake up his memory byreferring to the fawn Dirghapanga for whom she used to give water through her hands.33

Another character viz. Ayus killing a vulture and sage Chyavana taking a serious view of it asa transgression of the traditional law of the hermitage is described in Vikramorvashiya, anotherplay composed by Kalidasa. Sage Chyavana asks the female ascetic to take Ayus back to hisrelatives for this act of killing34.

In Bana Bhattas Kadambari sage Harita takes pity on the parrot that got injured by an arrowof a hunter and brings him to the hermitage, since it was not possible to put the parrot back inhis nest as the tree is difficult to be climbed by ascetics.35 He says that the parrot should stayin a hollow of some heritage tree, nourished with juices of fruits and collections of nivaragrain brought to him by the sons of the ascetics and by himself till it becomes fit to fly up intothe sky. He says further that when wings grow, and it is able to fly into the sky, the parrot maygo wherever he likes, or may continue to stay there, if he becomes so much attached to them.

Sanskrit poets and writers have cast their admiring eyes on trees. With a passion for learningthey have sought to derive lessons from them. For example, among the didactic verses we findwhat trees have to teach us. In the Abhijnana Sakuntala (V.12), Kalidasa observes that trees,laden with fruits, bend low; from this we learn that a good human being should not be puffedup with prosperity. Another didactic fable viz. the Hitopadesha points out that the tree doesnot withdraw its shade even from one who axes it. From this we should learn that we shouldnot refrain from doing good even to an enemy who seeks our shelter. The tree bears thescorching heat on its head, but assuages the fatigue of one who resorts to its shade36.

Trees become bent (i.e. humble) during the harvest of fruits; with newly-formed waters

The clouds hang very low; good men with (the acquisition of) wealth become meek; this is thenature of benevolent persons37.

33 Ibid. Act V.34 Vikramorvashiya, after verse no 10 in Act V.35 Kadambari of Banabhatta, MR Kale (Translated into English), P.63.36 Hitopadesha of Narayana Pandita.37 Abhijnana Sakuntala, V Act.



The big trees provide shade for others, but they stand in the sun. They produce fruits forothers and not for themselves (chayam anyasya). There is an elegant tribute paid to a tree inthe following verse occurring in the Panchatantra:

Deer recline in its shade;birds in multitudes gather to roost,darkening its dark-green canopy of leaves;troops of monkeys cling to the trunk;while hollows hum with insect-throngs;flowers are boldly kissed by honey-bees;Oh! What happiness its every limb showerson assemblages of various creatures.Such a tree deserves all praiseOthers only burden the Earth38

The whole life of the trees is to serve with their leaves, flowers, fruits, branches, roots, shade,fragrance, sap, bark, wood, and finally even their ashes and coal; they exist for the purpose ofothers (Prime, 1994:31). Trees show many sorts of kindness which are their daily sacrifice. Tofamilies they give fuel; to passers-by they give shade and a resting place; to birds they giveshelter; with their leaves, roots and bark they give medicines39.

Ancient Indians did not rest content with merely utilizing the object of nature such as treesand rivers for their comfort and convenience but they also tried to derive lessons from them.Some of the lessons that are learnt are given below:

The sun causes the group of sun-lotuses to expand without a solicitation; the moon, thoughunasked, causes the moon-lotuses to bloom; and the cloud yields water without being solicited;good people direct their efforts towards the good of others of their own accord.40

The rivers do not drink their own water; nor do the trees consume their own fruits; nor doclouds swallow the crops they water. Thus the wealth of good persons is only for helpingothers41.

The clouds take in salt water, but give us back the same having made it (pure and) sweet. Evenso, good persons listen to the foul words of the wicked and (in reply) utter only good words42.

38 Panchatantra, II.2.39 Varaha Purana, 162.41-42.40 Nitisataka, verse 73.41 Subhashita Ratan Bhandagara, P.18042 Ranchor Prime, 1994. Hinduism and Ecology: Seeds of Truth, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi.



Conclusion

The ancient Indian tradition of reverence for nature and all forms of life, vegetable or animal,represents a powerful tradition that needs to be re-nurtured and reapplied in our contemporarycontext. What is needed today is to remind ourselves that nature cannot be destroyed withouthumankind ultimately being destroyed itself.

Collectively humanity has chosen to pursue unbridled profit and pleasure, bereft of ethicaland moral sanctions. This would inevitably lead to pain, distress, disease, ignorance,unhappiness, conflict, and chaos. The brewing environmental crisis, which only a few haverealized while most merrily ignore, is but one terminal manifestation of the anti-ethical syndrome.Ancient concepts of development have been emphatic on minimizing our needs andconsciously limiting our wants only to what is essential for leading a healthy and comfortablelife, and on avoiding possessiveness and greed. This concept deplores self-indulgence andceaseless multiplication of wants, mainly for ethical reasons. An attitude of non-acquisitivenessis very congenial for ecological balance and environmental conservation, because those whofollow this ideal make minimum demands on the earths natural resources.

This attitude does not authorize human beings to lord over the earth and exploit it in awhimsical, selfish and anthropocentric manner. It advises humans to enjoy the world and theirlife, but within reasonable limits. Mahatma Gandhis famous saying that the earth has enoughto satisfy everyones need but not everyones greed sums up this attitude. The relentless andunscrupulous pursuit of wealth should not be the goal of human development. If we seekhuman development based on satisfying needs rather than wants, it may even promote amityapart from making the development process sustainable within the limits of earths resources(Khoshoo,1995:47).

The ancient Indian (Oriental) cosmology has the entire universe as its center, in contrast tothe anthropocentric (human-centered)) world-view characteristic of Occidental culture. TheOccidental cultural world-view sees the universe as revolving around human beings, whilethe Oriental cultural world-view sees human beings as no more than tiny grains of sand in thevast, limitless ocean of the cosmos. Some of the ancient prayers are significant for severalreasons. They pray for the welfare of all humanity, not of one individual family alone. Whatthey seek is plain material happiness and freedom from sorrow. Welfare sought here is holistic,including good health and security for all, and not material wealth as such.

Ancient India provides the most enlightened and realistic set of thoughts on the environment.It expresses a worldview which recognizes the spirituality inherent in Nature and stresses thatto survive, the human race must consider the holistic and harmonious relationship with theworld that it inhabits. Ancient Indian thinkers stress the sacredness of rivers, lakes, land andforests. They had realized, in their higher consciousness, that unless human beings are ableto protect the natural environment, it would simply collapse. It is necessary to restate theseideals in a new form in the context of our present-day technologies and make them moremeaningful within our contemporary framework. There is a need to incorporate these ancientenvironmental values in the formal and non-formal educational systems. There is also a need



for a coordinated programme of public awareness through every available medium to build uppublic opinion to renew these ancient concepts of environment-friendly lifestyles.

The hermitages of sages used to be in forests, where hunting and killing of animals wasstrictly forbidden even for kings. The concept and practice of protecting sacred groves andveneration of herbs and trees has survived to this date. The ancient concern for conservingbiodiversity is reflected also in the insistence on offering 21 varieties of leaves and 21 varietiesof flowers to God in any formal ritual worship. The emotional attachment to cow protectionand snake worship also has to be seen in this light.

Out of compassion, we must promote the welfare of the world by setting up the right norm ofaction. The delicate and holistic balance that exists in nature has to be respected and maintained.We should care for the well being of the planet as a whole, together with all its inhabitants(including human being) and nonliving resources. We must live in harmony with nature andeschewing violence to any form of life. Violence harms the sacred unity and causes thedisease and suffering of life out of balance. The heritage of the past of thousands of yearscodified in sacred scriptures and literary works is becoming more and more relevant today.Ancient Indians have advocated the cause of sympathetic understanding and love betweenhumans and nature leading to a life of harmony and rapport.

As the environmental crisis looms ominously, we should change our dominant self-centredlife style and a throw away culture to a more sustainable civilization that recognises thefundamental interconnectedness of all peoples and nature-a state of existence that ancientIndia has been trying to awaken humankind to for the past several thousand years.

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Environment Friendly Life Styles a Dialogue With Ancient India