Ensuring elderly mobility:

Environmental and safety issues

ROYA BAMZAR

Doctoral Thesis in Planning and Decision Analysis

Stockholm, Sweden, 2017

KTH Royal Institute of Technology

School of Architecture and the Built Environment

Department of Urban Planning and Environment

Division of Urban and Regional Studies

SE-100 44 Stockholm

Sweden

Ensuring elderly mobility: environmental and safety issues

Photo Credits: © Queensland Health

TRITA-SOM 2017-01

ISRN KTH/SoM/2017-01/SE

ISBN 978-91-7729-394-1

KTH Royal Institute of Technology

School of Architecture and the Built Environment

Department of Urban Planning and Environment

Division of Urban and Regional Studies

SE-100 44 Stockholm

Sweden

Akademisk avhandling som med tillstånd av Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan

framlägges till offentlig granskning för avläggande av doktorsexamen

tisdagen den 13 juni 2016, klockan 14:00 i F3, Lindstedtsvägen 26, Sing-

Sing, floor 2, KTH.

© ROYA BAMZAR, June 2017

Tryck: Universitetsservice US-AB

i

Abstract

The aim of this thesis is to provide a better understanding of the issues of safe mobility for

the elderly population in Sweden. This is achieved first by assessing the geography and

patterns of elderly falls at the county level and then by conducting a detailed survey with

residents in senior housing to investigate the relationship between indoor and/or outdoor

environmental characteristics and elderly safety. Safety is regarded as a multidimensional

concept that involves risk of falls, crime victimization and elderly people’s perception of

their overall safety. Using a case study approach, the study also assesses the types of outdoor

places where most crimes against the elderly take place and the types of places most feared

by them. The study adapts a set of qualitative and quantitative methods to capture the nature

of the phenomena; trends, patterns and frameworks that support the analysis and implications

of the results for both research and practice. The findings show that elderly falls in Sweden

vary geographically and exhibit gender, age, environmental, and socio-economic differences.

The mobility of the older population is influenced by their perceived safety in indoor and

outdoor environments. Certain features of apartment layout and furniture arrangement are

identified as potential causes of falls. Older adults’ perception of safety exhibits a distance-

decay effect from their senior housing building. Distance decay indicates that safety is

deemed highest closest to their homes and decreases as the distance increases. There are

indications that older adults take longer routes and increase their mobility because they are

fearful at certain spots in their neighbourhood. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the

results and implications for both research and policy making at the local and county levels.

iii

Sammanfattning

Syftet med denna avhandling är att ge en djupare förståelse för problemen associerade med

att möjliggöra säker rörlighet för äldre i Sverige. Detta uppnås genom att först utvärdera

geografi och mönster för äldres fallolyckor på regional nivå och sedan genom en detaljerad

undersökning i äldreboenden för att undersöka förhållandet mellan befintliga egenskaper hos

inomhusmiljön och/eller utomhusmiljön och deras relation till äldres säkerhet. Säkerhet

betraktas som ett flerdimensionellt koncept som innebär risk för fall, brott och de äldres egna

uppfattning om deras övergripande säkerhet. Studien använder sig av en fallstudie för att

även analysera de olika typerna av utomhusplatser där de flesta brott mot äldre sker och de

typer av platser som de är mest rädda för . Studien använder en uppsättning kvalitativa och

kvantitativa metoder för att fånga upp fenomen, trender, mönster och ramverk som stöder

analysen och konsekvenserna av resultaten för både forskning och praktik. Resultaten visar

att äldres fallolyckor i Sverige varierar geografiskt med skillnader baserat på kön, ålder,

närmiljö och socioekonomiska variationer. Mobiliteten hos den äldre befolkningen påverkas

av deras upplevda säkerhet i inomhus- och utomhusmiljöer. Särskilda egenskaper i

lägenhetens planarkitektur, inredning och möblering identifieras som potentiella orsaker till

fall. Äldres uppfattning av säkerhet visar på så kallad ”distance decay” från deras hem. Det

betyder att den uppfattadetryggheten är högst närmast hemmet och minskar när avståndet

ökar. Det finns indikationer på att äldre tar omvägar och går längre sträckor eftersom de är

rädda för vissa ställen i deras grannskap. Avhandlingen avslutas med en diskussion om

resultaten och konsekvenserna för både forskning och policy på lokal och länsnivå.

v

Acknowledgment

This thesis would have been impossible without the time, support, and dedication of my

supervisor, Vania Ceccato, who has always been there for my questions and queries, and

provided me with detailed feedbacks from the very beginning. Vania, our friendly chats in

your office have boosted me up to take the next step, and brightened the path. I have made

significant use of your knowledge in dissimilar stages of this project.

My gratitude goes to Inga Britt Werner for her insightful comments, valuable guidance, and

suggestions. I am also thankful to Stefan Lundberg and Tigran Haas for their comments on

the initial version of the thesis. I am very grateful to Peter Brokking, Veronika Nagapetan,

and Susan Hellström.

I wish sincerely to express my gratitude to Lars Erik Lundberg Scholarship Foundation that

made it financially possible to accomplish this work. This work would not have been possible

without the continuous support of the people there. My sincere appreciation goes to Lottie

Dyrssen Fred, who have been always helpful. I am also thankful to the Board of Direction

and the Expert Committee: Professor Folke Björk, Marie Strid, and Bengt Nyman.

I am also thankful to Micasa, particularly Maria Ehn, and Raija-Liisa Rapeli Siren, that

helped me to conduct the survey and fieldwork. I wish to thank those lovely people in

Hässelgården senior housing. I am also thankful to Hossein Shahrokni who helped me in

translating the survey in Swedish. A special acknowledgment goes to Asifa Iqbal, a true

friend, for her support in every way.

I have some special people to thank who have the greatest direct and indirect contributions

to this work. My deepest thanks go to Yaghoob, the only one who has been always there.

Thank you for your unconditional love, and understanding, but also for helping with the

figures, and the final preparation of this work. I had a cute companion in my belly when I

was conducting the survey and the fieldwork of this thesis. My beloved Nousha, thanks for

all your laughs and cries that made me feel relieved from all the pressure. I can never thank

Mahshid Motazedi, a great friend, for her extra help, care, and understanding. I wish to thank

a lifelong friendship. My thanks are due to Shiva, for all her inspirations in my life. Thanks

to Dawood & Anoosh as an amazing source of support. Last but not the least, thanks to my

beloved parents, and my siblings Ramak, Reza, and Ramin for their constant support and

encouragement.

با عشق به مادر و پدرم برای بخشش بی دریغ زندگیشان .

vii

List of Articles

I Bamzar, R. & Ceccato, V. (2015). The nature and the geography of elderly falls in

Sweden. Geojournal, 80(2):279-299

II Bamzar, R., & Ceccato, V. (2016). The regional ecology of elderly falls in Sweden.

GeoJournal, 81(1), 23-36.

III Bamzar, R. (2016). Assessing safety quality in senior housing indoor environments:

A Swedish case study (Submitted in Journal of Housing and Built environment)

IV Ceccato, V., & Bamzar, R. (2016). Elderly victimization and fear of crime in public

spaces. International criminal justice review, 26(2), 115-133.

ix

Declaration of contribution

Article I: Roya Bamzar conducted the literature review, the analysis and wrote draft versions

and was responsible for the final version of the article. Vania Ceccato suggested the topic,

structured the article and revised the analysis and the article.

Article II: Roya Bamzar conducted the literature review, the analysis and wrote draft

versions and was responsible for the final version of the article. Vania Ceccato suggested the

topic, structured the article and revised the analysis and the article.

Article III: Roya Bamzar conducted the literature review, checklist design, survey and

fieldwork, and wrote a draft and the final version of the article. Vania Ceccato contributed to

the elaboration of the checklist design and read the final draft.

Article IV: Vania Ceccato defined the objectives of the study, structured the article, was

responsible for the final analysis and published version of the article. Roya Bamzar conducted

the survey and fieldwork and performed the initial analysis.

1

Table of Contents Chapter I ........................................................................................................................................... 3

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 5

2. Aim and objectives ................................................................................................................... 6

3. Theoretical background ............................................................................................................ 8

4. The context of the study ......................................................................................................... 14

5. Data and method .................................................................................................................... 16

6. Research summary ................................................................................................................. 21

Paper I ........................................................................................................................................... 21

Paper II .......................................................................................................................................... 22

Paper III......................................................................................................................................... 23

Paper IV ........................................................................................................................................ 24

7. Discussions of the results and future work............................................................................. 25

8. Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 27

9. Conclusion and Recommendations ........................................................................................ 28

10. References .............................................................................................................................. 32

Chapter II ........................................................................................................................................ 39

Papers

2

3

Chapter I

4

5

1. Introduction

Mobility is essential for individuals to fulfil their basic needs. Being mobile means being able

to maintain general independence and to have good health and quality of life. As individuals

become older, a decline in mobility commonly occurs. Genetic predisposition, environmental

barriers and physical and mental impairment increase the likelihood of mobility decline in

old age (Rantakokko, Mänty, & Rantanen, 2013). Therefore, the safe mobility of seniors

depends largely on their individual characteristics and the environment where they spent time

in.

Older adults spend most of their time (about three quarters of their daytime) at home and in

their immediate environments (Oswald & Wahl, 2005). They are also more interested in

living a long time in the same place (Andersson & Abramsson, 2012; Sandstedt & Abramsson

2012). Environmental characteristics such as a pleasant view, accessibility to cultural

interests in the surrounding areas and place attachment (e.g. feeling comfortable at home or

feeling familiar with a certain place) promote well-being among the elderly (Oswald, Jopp,

Rott, & Wahl 2010), and contribute to higher mobility. Thus, the importance of housing and

neighbourhood characteristics for the wellbeing of older adults has been highlighted in the

literature (Wahl, 2001; Wahl & Oswald, 2010).

6

Concerns for older individuals’ safety while walking have been long raised in the

international literature (Carp, 1971). Besides that, experience of some incidents is directly

linked to mobility restriction, of which, falls are the most well-known one. A simple fall may

lead to a prolonged immobility and inactivity for an older adult (Anders, Dapp, Laub, &

Renteln-Kruse, 2007). On the other hand, being subjected to a crim, and the fear of being the

victim of it can also affect older adults’ daily life and mobility. Studies suggest that physical

attributes of the built environment may increase the risk of fall, crime victimization, and fear

of crime (Campbell & Robertson, 2006; Newman and Franck, 1982; Clemente & Kleiman,

1976). Thus, understanding the nature and the pattern of elderly falls as well as their

experience of crime victimization and fear of crime in relation to their environment may

contribute to the safer mobility. The environment is defined here as the physical and social

objects, circumstances, and conditions by which older adults are surrounded in their daily

living. Furthermore, safety here refers to the state of being free from the occurrence of any

risk, injuries, and danger.

2. Aim and objectives

The aim of the thesis is to gain a better understanding of the nature of safe mobility for the

older population in Sweden. The study sets out to investigate the issues related to the safe

mobility of older adults in their living environment at two scales: macro and micro. The

macro level analysis helps provide an overall view of the fall-related issues among older

adults across Sweden at the county level. The micro level analysis facilitates the

understanding of local (housing/residential and neighbourhood level) issues regarding

mobility of older adults and their environment. Both analytical levels are utilized to assess

the interplay between individuals (older adults) and the environment (both indoor and

outdoor) in terms of risk of fall, victimisation, use of space and perceived safety. The thesis

consists of four articles with a set of research questions as described below (Table 1).

7

Table 1-Main research questions of articles.

First, at the macro level, the geography of seniors’ falls in Sweden is assessed in relation to

the presence of temporal variations and housing type (Article I). Then, the associations

between elderly falls and a selection of attributes relevant to (1) socio-economic status, (2)

elderly care services provided by municipalities, and (3) level of accessibility to basic

services are also examined (Article II).

Next, at micro level, a detailed survey is conducted with residents of Hässelgården senior

housing (as a case study). The latter study investigates the relationship between the physical

features of the indoor environment of the older adults and their use of space, experience of

falls, and safety perception (Article III). Moreover, the types of outdoor places where most

crimes against the elderly happen and the types of places most feared by them are investigated

(Article IV).

Main research questions Articles

I II III IV

leve

l

What is the geography of elderly fall in Sweden, by type of fall?

Which are the underlying environmental factors correlates behind elderly

fall at county level?

Ma

cro

Are elderly falls related to socio demographic status in Sweden at county

level?

What are the main important correlations?

lev

el

Do physical attributes of senior housing influence elderly perception of

safety, use of space, and experience of fall?

How can senior housing be improved?

Mic

ro

Do elderly experience crime and fear of crime in their outdoor

environment?

Does experience of crime and fear of crime among older adults restrict their

mobility in the outdoor environment?

8

3. Theoretical background

Older adults living in their homes, institutions, or communities are continuously integrated

with their social and physical environment. The people and places that comprise their

surrounding environments -the local shopping centre, the behaviour of elderly neighbours,

the routine walk to the nearby bus stop, and the design and decor of their home – all influence

daily life. However, being subjected to some incidents may restrict older adults’ mobility and

use of space and environment – namely falls, risk for victimization, and fear of crime and

victimization (Cozens, Neale, Whitaker, & Hillier, 2003). Any of these incidents may be

regarded as a result of misfit between the environment and individuals. The influence of the

interplay between an individual and his/her environment on the well-being of that individual

has been discussed in the environmental-press model theory (Lawton & Nahemow, 1973). In

the model, the best and optimal fit between a person and his/her environment takes place

when the person’s competence is in consistent with the demands and challenges of his/her

environment. The competence and ability of the person is related to their social, physical,

psychological, and intellectual aspects. The theory is helpful to identify the type of

adaptations needed for the environment to meet the individual’s demands. The misfit between

a person’s environment and his/her ability results in maladaptive behaviour of that person. In

the case of the elderly, the environmental-press model suggests that environmental factors

could function either as barriers or opportunities to develop mobility for older adults.

According to this branch of theory, disability takes place when there is a misfit between the

environment and individuals (Lawton & Nahemow, 1973; Lawton, 1977).

In this section, a selected set of terms used in this thesis are defined and the theories of

relevance for studying the elderly and their safe mobility and environment are briefly

presented.

9

Basic concepts

Ageing society

The term elderly is a relative concept because ‘being elderly’ may depend on an individual’s

identity and perception of one’s physical and mental capabilities. This term is defined here

as a group of people aged 65 years and older – a definition put forward by the World Health

Organization (WHO), which considers older adults to be ‘individuals of chronological age

of 65 years and older’ (WHO, 2002). This definition has been accepted as standard in most

of the developed world. However, it is important to distinguish between ageing as a normal

process and ageing as a disease (Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996). The classification of

population based solely on reaching a certain age may undervalue the influence of lifestyle,

biological, and behavioural factors in the quality of life and well-being of the older

population. In Europe, a substantial number of countries will experience population ageing

in the near future. Of the countries in the European Union (EU), Sweden ranks third and it

ranks fourth of the countries in the world with the highest share of older adults (The World

Bank, 2014). In Sweden, 19% of the current population is over 65, and by 2020, one fourth

of the population will be older than 65.

Mobility

Mobility is essential to fulfil basic needs and to participate in social, cultural, and physical

activities. Being unable to do these activities while there is a willingness to do so is referred

to as a mobility problem and is common among the ageing population (Rantakokko et al.,

2010). In this study, mobility is defined as the ability to move oneself freely by walking

within community environments that expand from one’s home to the neighbourhood

(Webber, Porter, & Menec, 2010). The quality of mobility plays a key role in the social and

emotional well-being of the elderly. Safety is one of the important aspects of the quality of

mobility (Carp, 1988). The fear of experiencing falls, or any other accident, and being

subjected to any type of crime are two factors that hamper elderly mobility.

Falls, elderly falls

According to WHO (2012), ‘a fall is defined as an event which results in a person coming to

rest inadvertently on the ground or floor or other lower level’. Serious injuries causing death,

hip fracture, and disability may be as a result of a simple fall. Older people are exposed to

fall-related injuries nine times more than other people (Organisation for Economic Co-

10

operation and Development [OECD], 2005). Even if a fall does not affect the physical health

of senior citizens, it may lead to activity and movement limitations by contributing to a fear

of falling (Chan, Law, & Seliske, 2012). In Sweden, falls are the leading cause of deaths due

to injury among people aged 65 years or older. (Schyllander & Rosenberg, 2010). More than

two thirds of all fatal accidents (71%) occur in Swedish elderly populations, and the annual

cost to society for these elderly accidents is estimated at about 11 billion SEK (Torstensson,

Forslund, & Tegnell, 2011).

A fall is a product of complex interactions between multidimensional factors (Chan et al.,

2012, von Heideken Wågert, Gustafson, Kallin, Jensen, & Lundin-Olsson, 2009).

Behavioural, environmental, biological and socio-economic factors all contribute to falling.

Therefore, falls can be minimized by identifying the risk factors and root causes (Campbell

& Robertson, 2006; Finkelstein, Corso, & Miller, 2006). Age, gender, ethnicity, lower

income, loneliness, and less activity contribute to higher rates of elderly falls (Saveman &

Björnstig, 2011; Cauley, 2011; Çakar, Durmuş, Dinçer, Kiralp, & Cerit-Soydan, 2011;

Galizia et al., 2008). Regions characterized by long frosty winters also show higher rates of

falls (Lin & Xiraxagar, 2006; Mirchandani, Aharonoff, Hiebert, Capla, Zuckerman, & Koval,

2005). Injuries experienced by elderly people in their homes, such as falling in the bathroom,

tripping on the front steps, and slipping in the kitchen, all signify that ageing is not the only

factor influencing a potential fall. Home and the immediate environment could also act as

triggers.

The elderly fear of crime and victimization

A victim of crime is defined here as a person who has suffered physical or emotional harm,

property damage, or economic loss because of a crime. The rates of crime and victimization

among older adults is lower compared to those aged 64 or younger. However, the pattern of

the victimization may vary. For instance, the older adult victims of violence are expected to

need more medical care than younger groups (Bachman & Meloy, 2008). Moreover, the risk

of death from assault is higher among older adults than younger age groups (Chu & Kraus,

2004). Further, older population are more likely to be victimized by strangers. However,

known offenders of the elderly are more expected to be care givers (Bachman & Meloy,

2008).

11

Many studies have confirmed that older adults are more fearful of crime, despite lower rates

of victimization (Fattah & Sacco, 2012; Pantazis, 2000). Garofalo (1981) defined a fear of

crime as ‘an emotional reaction characterized by a sense of danger and anxiety produced by

the threat of physical harm’ (p. 840). According to this definition, the threat of physical harm

leads to the production of a sense of danger and anxiety. In this thesis, a fear of crime refers

to the fear of being a victim of crime as opposed to the actual probability of being a victim

of crime (Hale, 1996). This fear may restrict activities, particularly when certain places are

regarded as unsafe by the older population (Clemente & Kleiman, 1976; Dowd, Sisson, &

Kern, 1981; Lorenc et al., 2013). For instance, there is a relationship between high level of

fear of crime and poorly illuminated areas (Girling, Loader, & Sparks, 2000; Koskela & Pain,

2000; Pain & Townshend, 2002; Pain, MacFarlane, Turner, & Gill, 2006; Waters, 2006). An

appropriate level of illumination in public spaces leads to increased visibility and

surveillance, particularly in dark corners and hiding places (Koskela & Pain, 2000; Waters,

2006). Moreover, good lighting gives a more pleasant sense of environment for people

(Waters, 2006). Physical incivilities including graffiti, litter, and dirt are considered strong

predictors of fear of crime (Cozens, Neale, Whitaker, & Hillier, 2003; Goodey, 1997; Innes

& Jones, 2006; Little, Panelli, & Kraack, 2005). In the case of the elderly, fear of crime is

associated with a low level of competence and urbanism (Ward, LaGory, & Sherman; 1986).

Safety and security

In this thesis, safety is an overarching term that covers both the risk of an individual to falls

(with health-related implications) and the risk of being a victim of crime. Yet some branches

of the international literature have suggested that security is about crime and fear of crime,

terrorism acts, and economic security (Brooks, 2008) and that safety refers to risk of accidents

associated with transit environments (road safety, hubs, and airports), products, natural

hazards, and natural catastrophes (Oakes, 2009). In this thesis, the term safety also avoids the

dichotomy between objective and subjective dimensions of safety (on the one hand, risk and

perception of risk; on the other hand, fears and anxieties), and the term safety is sometimes

used to indicate interchangeably both dimensions (for an extensive discussion, see Ceccato,

2012). Safe environments are those that allow free movement and have no risks for falls or

other types of threat to life and health.

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Universal Design

A home and the living environment should be designed in a way that can be used by a wide

range of people with diverse needs and that is in adherence to a set of basic standards. The

concept of universal design (often referred to as ‘inclusive design’ in Europe) is defined as

‘an approach to creating environments and products that are usable by all people to the

greatest extent possible’ (Mace, Hardie, & Plaice, 1991, p. 156). The fundamental principles

of universal design include equitable use, flexibility in use, intuitive use, perceptible

information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use

(Goldsmith, 2000). These principles aim to underpin the concept of universal design (UD),

and could be applicable to all environments and environmental features. UD has its root in

the concepts related to the design of barrier-free and accessible environments (Mace, Hardie,

& Place, 1996). However, although environmental barriers are not the same for everyone, in

the concept of UD, any suggestions leading towards achieving barrier-free environments

should work for everyone.

Mobility, safety and the environment of the elderly

This thesis is based on two main theories that stem from the relationship between the

environment of older adults and their safety. One set of theories relates the elderly to their

environment as a health issue and is used here for the analysis of elderly falls, both indoors

and outdoors, from the perspective of environmental gerontology. The other set of theories

links the elderly and crime and perceived safety, arising mostly from environmental

criminology theory and theories of fear of crime/environment.

Environmental gerontology examines the interrelations between ageing individuals and their

physical–social environments and how these physical–social environments affect the quality

of life of older adults in disciplines such as psychology, sociology, architecture, social

geography, occupational therapy and urban planning (Wahl & Gitlin, 2007). Studies have

highlighted two dominant areas of concern for fall taking place: individuals’ attributes and

individuals’ environments (Prudham & Grimley-Evans, 1981; Neutel, Hirdes, Maxwell, &

Patten, 1996; Campbell, Reinken, Allan, & Martinez, 1981; Wild, Nayak, & Isaacs, 1981).

Loneliness, lower income, living in ordinary housing, less activity, ethnicity, and

geographical location all contribute to falls among the older population (Cakar et al., 2011;

13

Bjorgul & Reikeras, 2007; Trujillo, Puvanachandra, & Hyder, 2011; Sattin, Lambert-Huber,

DeVito, Rodriguez, et al., 1990). Moreover, the characteristics of the place where elderly

people live and the physical attributes of the environment are also leading causes of falls

(Letts et al., 2010; Tinetti et al., 1988; Shroyer, 1994; Northridge, Nevitt, Kelsey, & Link,

1995; Berg, Alessio, Mills, & Tong, 1997). Activities vary depending upon the environment

of the individual. Living in single-family housing is typified by more outdoor activities such

as gardening. Therefore, the type of housing may influence the likelihood of falls among

seniors. Furthermore, greater accessibility to basic services and improved street pavement

conditions are expected to reduce falls (Burnett, 2005; Bleijlevens et al., 2010; Giuliano, Hu,

& Lee, 2003).

Environmental criminology theory is the study of crime events in relation to the

environmental and contextual factors that can influence the crime taking place (Brantingham

& Brantingham, 1981). Defensible space theory (Newman, 1972) emphasizes how criminal

opportunities can be minimized through environmental design in public housing. The idea

is to design the environment in such a way that promotes surveillance, builds a sense of

ownership, and maintains a positive image of an area that is cared for and that the residents

are self-motivated in this care (Taylor, Evans, & Fraser, 1996; Taylor, Gottfredson, &

Brower, 1980). Newman and Franck (1982) found that those areas with defensible space

features, such as clear boundaries between public and private spaces, low-rise buildings, and

good lighting, have better control of outdoor space and lower levels of fear of crime and

victimization. Potential offenders are discouraged from committing crimes in an environment

with natural surveillance features; an environment that allows residents of the area to observe

what is happening there (Angel, 1968; Jacobs, 1961; Newman, 1972). A walkable

neighbourhood design with features such as destination accessibility and street connectivity

allows more pedestrian traffic and surveillance (Foster & Giles-Corti, 2008). Better lighting

is also linked to less crime and a better chance of surveillance (Clarke, 2009). Social

disorganization theory suggests that disorganized communities characterized by poverty,

population heterogeneity, and residential mobility have a negative impact on the

effectiveness of social controls, and in the absence of social controls, the emergence of crime

and social disorders is probable (Kelly, 2000; Messner, Baumer, & Rosenfeld, 2004).

Physical disorder or ‘incivilities’ such as vandalism, graffiti, and litter in the outdoor

environment has been shown to increase burglary (DeFrances & Titus, 1993).

14

4. The context of the study

In this section, the context of the study is presented. A brief description is provided of how

the elderly care system works in Sweden, including the stakeholders and institutions involved

in the process at the national, county, and municipality levels.

Sweden

Sweden is considered a country with a growing proportion of older adults. This is due to the

increasing life expectancy of the total population as well as Swedish older adults (Statistics

Sweden [SCB], 2016). Sweden consists of 21 counties. Counties are defined as the first-level

administrative and political subdivision in Sweden. The highest rate of older population

growth was observed in the counties of Uppsala, Halland, and Gotland from 2001 to 2010

(SCB, 2014). However, the older population mostly lives in southern Sweden, namely in the

counties of Stockholm, Västra Götlands, Skåne, and Östergötland. The level of physical

outdoor activity – particularly for the elderly – is more likely to be determined by climate.

Overall, three types of climate are observed in Sweden. The southern part has oceanic climate

(cool summer, cool but not cold winter), the central part has a humid continental climate

(warm to hot summers, and cold winters), and the northern part of the country is typified by

subarctic climate (long, and cold winters, and short and cool summers). In the absence of

warm and pleasant weather during the cold months of the year, older adults are less likely to

engage in outdoor physical activities (long walks, cycling, etc.). In each of the counties, the

number of older women is higher than the number of older men, which is also the case in the

whole of Sweden. However, other socio-demographic factors of the counties vary slightly

from each other. For instance, the lowest elderly annual income is observed in Jämtland and

Gotland. Older adults living in Norrbotten (the most northerly county in Sweden), as well as

in most of the northern counties, are the least active population in the whole country in terms

of number of working older adults. By contrast, Stockholm and Uppsala have the most active

older population. The numbers of foreign-born elderly individuals are the highest in

Stockholm and Västmanland and are the lowest in Västerbotten, Västernorrland, and

Jämtland (SCB, 2014). Generally, people in Sweden – no matter in which county they reside

– have a similar degree of access to basic services (i.e. in less than five minutes by car). The

situation is not the same for healthcare. The northern counties are characterized by slightly

lower access to healthcare.

15

Social healthcare and welfare in Sweden

In Sweden, three levels of government are responsible for the welfare of the elderly. At the

national level, the government and the parliament arrange and set out policies for financial

support and legislation. At the county level, the county councils must make provisions of

healthcare and medical care. The county councils can freely organize the delivery of health

services based on the needs of each community. At the final stage, the municipalities are

responsible for providing social services and accommodations for the elderly at the local

level. Municipal elderly care can be quite different, depending on the municipality. The

municipalities have different policies and budgets to follow, and the range of services may

vary (The National Board of Health and Welfare, 2009). For instance, some municipalities

apply freedom of choice for elderly care in some areas; others do not. This means that older

adults have the opportunity to choose from different activities and actors to carry out the help

based on their individual needs (Swedish Agency for Health and Care Services Analysis,

2012).

The Ministry of Health and Social Affairs is responsible for medical care and healthcare at

the national level. The ministry, in cooperation with the county councils and the

municipalities, provides money and offers healthcare to Swedish citizens. Under the

supervision of the ministry, eight agencies are involved with healthcare at the national level.

These agencies receive financial and other resources from the central government and have

the right to act independently. For instance, the National Board of Health and Welfare is

responsible for evaluating the legislation and for supervising the actions of the county

councils and the municipalities. This organization also produces guidelines and reports on

the developments of care services in Sweden annually. The National Institute of Public

Health is responsible for preventing disease and for promoting health and for making sure

that citizens have equal access to health services. There is a municipal council in each

municipality that works to improve the quality of the health system from the perspective of

users (The National Board of Health and Welfare, 2009).

Most of Sweden’s seniors live in private homes. Either municipalities or private care

companies (e.g. non-governmental organizations [NGOs]) offer care services for those

requiring care. These care services include basic home services (e.g. shopping, cleaning,

cooking, washing and personal hygiene) and advanced medical care at home for the treatment

16

of serious diseases. However, for those who need long-term care, nursing homes are available

to provide a broader range of services with specific types of care. Older adults who are not

able to live by themselves can stay in old-age homes with meals and other services provided.

Elderly care is almost entirely covered by taxes – of which 85% is financed by local taxes,

and the remaining 15% is financed by national taxes. The consumer of this service pays only

up to 6% of the cost. In 2007, the National Board of Health and Welfare designed a system

for open comparison of elderly care in Sweden. Through this system, Swedish seniors can

compare the cost, quality, and efficiency of the care services provided by municipalities and

care service companies across Sweden in a user-friendly way (National Board of Health and

Welfare, 2009).

5. Data and method

Both primary and secondary data were used in the analysis of this thesis. Table 2 shows the

research areas of each article and the related methods.

Table 2-The articles contribution and relevant methods.

Articles Research area Methods

lev

el

Article I Regional patterns of fall,

Physical environment

Secondary data modelling/non-parametric

analysis

Ma

cro

Article II Socio/demographic variations of fall Secondary data modelling/non-parametric

analysis

lev

el

Article III Indoor environment and elderly safety Survey/interview and fieldwork analysis

Mic

ro

Article IV Crime and perceived safety in outdoor

environment

Survey/interview, fieldwork, and

secondary data analysis

Papers I and II focus on the counties of Sweden (macro level), and Papers III and IV focus

on senior housing located on the periphery of Stockholm (micro level, see Figure 1).

17

Figure 1-The study areas.

Secondary data were collected from various sources. Fall records data were collected from

the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare. This data consists of in-patient records

including number older patients admitted in hospitals because of fall, by county, age group,

gender, and the external causes of falls from 2001-2010. Another data base from the same

source contains the number of the older population experiencing falls based on the location,

age, gender, county, regardless of external causes of fall in 2010. Elderly population data

contains the number of older population by each county, gender, age group derived from

Statistics Sweden from 2001 to 2010. Rates of fall were calculated per 100,000 older adults’

population as follows:

Equation (1) 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 =𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑦

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑦×100,000

Other databases are related to environmental characteristics of counties of Sweden as well

as socio economic/ demographic status of older adults by county. To determine the presence

of the relationship between rates of older adults fall and seasonal temperature variations, a

database was collected from the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute which

includes annual minimum, maximum, and average temperature by county from 2001-2010.

The socio-economic/demographic databases were collected from Statistics Sweden (2010) to

examine the associations between active older adults (workers), income, marital status,

18

ethnicity, and older population rates of fall at the county level. These databases include the

number of single Swedish elderly, the number of nonworker older adults, and the number of

foreign-born seniors. To assess the influence of cost of elderly care and level of accessibility

on rates of older adults fall at county level in Sweden, two databases were used: one is the

cost of elderly care by municipality collected from the report of The Swedish Association of

Local Authorities and Regions in 2011. The other is the data on the percentage of the

population with access to the post office, grocery stores, ATM, and health care in less than

five minutes by car collected from Growth Analysis 2010. The percentage of paved roads by

county was also collected from Growth analysis, 2010. A database collected from the

Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare helps us to determine whether older adults

living in special housing are more likely to experience a fall. This database includes records

on the number of older adults living in special housing. The association between the rates of

older adults fall and housing type is examined by making use of a database relevant to the

number of single family housing available in each county, in 2010, from Statistics Sweden.

For Papers III and IV, fieldwork observation, documentation and a survey/interviews were

selected to collect data on the health status, safety perception, use of space and fall/crime

experiences of the residents in Hässelgården senior housing. Hässelgården senior housing is

located in Hässelby district and is owned by Micasa. Micasa Fastigheter i Stockholm AB, a

subsidiary of Stockholms Stadshus AB, is a property company that owns and manages care

residences in the city of Stockholm. Several senior housing developments with different

levels of adaptation for meeting the needs of the elderly are managed by Micasa, and

Hässelgården senior housing is one of the least adapted housing for the older population. The

reason behind choosing Hässelgården senior housing as a case study is to have a platform

associated with a number of physical risk factors (as it is one of the least adapted senior

housing in Stockholm) that may influence the likelihood of experience of fall, safety

perception of the environment, and the use of space. Moreover, as it is located in periphery

areas, the residents may experience crime and fear of crime in relation to their outdoor

environment differently. Overall, Hässelby district is characterized by a population with a

slightly lower income and a high proportion of middle-aged people and children than the rest

of the Stockholm districts. The rental cost of Hässelgården senior housing is also among the

lowest in Stockholm. There are 119 apartments in this senior housing complex – of which 36

apartments are studio apartments (42 m2 each), and 83 apartments are two-room apartments

19

(52–57 m2 each). Some of the apartments have been adapted partially for needs of the elderly.

A subway station, a supermarket, and a bank are located within 500 meters walk to the senior

housing.

Moreover, a database was used to compare the level of fear of crime experienced by older

adults in Hässelgården to the rest of the older population living in Hässelby- Vällingby (the

neighbourhood), and city of Stockholm. The database is a Stockholm safety survey from

2014 obtained from Stockholm municipality, and includes the number of older adults who

have experienced crime victimization and fear of crime in the Hässelby area, and the city of

Stockholm.

A survey was conducted by the researcher to gather detailed information on aspects of the

elderly lifestyle, health status, fall experiences, fear of crime, victimization history and

pattern of elderly mobility. The survey included 43 questions. Fifty-six residents of the two-

room apartments in Hässelgården received a notification letter. The residents were informed

about the time of the interview two weeks in advance. Overall, 56 questionnaires were

distributed, of which 27 were collected (yield of 50%). Ten questionnaires were filled out at

face-to-face interviews, and the rest were answered on paper by the senior citizens. The

design of the survey was based on the literature review on the difficulties associated with

older adults’ daily life, how they perceive their environment, and the way they use it.

Furthermore, a checklist was designed to assess the housing and the surrounding environment

of the residents. The apartment checklist was created in accordance with the main principles

of universal design to identify the risk factors present in the older adults’ apartments. The

checklist included questions about safety aspects of the older adults’ indoor and outdoor

environments.

Table 3 summarizes the methods employed in this thesis. Overall, the methodology used in

this thesis includes a mixed methods approach (Creswell, Fetters, and Ivankova, 2004). This

means that both qualitative and quantitative methods are employed to capture the trends and

details of the data within the analysis.

20

Table 3-A summary of the methods used in the thesis.

Quantitative analysis Qualitative analysis

Statistical

analysis Mapping

Fieldwork/

observations

Survey/

interviews

Documentation

analysis

Ma

cro

lev

el

Article I

Article

II

Mic

ro

lev

el Article

III

Article

IV

Creswell et al., (2004) pointed out that mixed methods research is used when either a

quantitative method or a qualitative method is not sufficient to add breadth and depth to the

data and the analysis. Because the sample sizes in papers I and II were small (<30), a non-

parametric test was performed for the quantitative analysis to test the associations by

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS-version 21.0.). Based on the available data for

Papers I and II, the Fisher exact test, the Spearman rank correlation test, and the Kendall test

were performed to test for the presence of any associations between the rates of elderly falls

(dependent variables) and independent variables such as socio-demographic status and

temporal variations. These types of non-parametric tests assess how well the relationship

between two ranked variables can be explained when the sample size is small. The data in

papers I and II has been aggregated with the county level as the unit of the analysis. Thus, all

the results of the papers I and II are presented at county level.

However, for the qualitative analysis, fieldwork observations and a survey and interviews

were employed. In paper III, each part of the apartments visited has been analysed and scored

based on the fieldwork (checklist) results. The scoring system is based on meeting the seven

principles of universal design in each part of the apartments. For instance, if the living room

has the score of 70 in perceptible information (one of the seven principles of universal

design), it means that 70% of the conditions (questions) related to this principle are fulfilled

in all ten apartments. The results of the survey were also analysed via spreadsheet, and were

divided into three main categories based on the relevant questions declared by elderly:

frequency of use, experience of fall, and safety perception for each part of the apartments. In

paper IV, the results from the survey were analysed to identify the most/least fearful places

21

declared by older residents in the immediate environment of Hässelgården senior housing.

These places were mapped by using a Geographical Information System (GIS). Further, a

map was produced to show the daily path of the elderly residents of Hässelgården based on

the aggregated answers from the survey. The data from Stockholm safety survey were sorted

and analysed using the spreadsheet.

6. Research summary

Paper I

The nature and the geography of elderly injuries in Sweden (2015). Published in:

GeoJournal, 80(2), 279–299.

The aim of Paper I was to capture and portray a holistic image of elderly falls in the counties

of Sweden. The Fisher exact test was performed to examine the potential association between

the rates of elderly falls and the older population’s age/gender, housing type, and seasonal

temperature patterns at the county level. As a way to empower the methodology of the study,

the Spearman rank correlation test was conducted to determine the direction and magnitude

of the significant associations. The rates of falls in each county were mapped with GIS. The

results of the study showed that falls resulting from slipping, tripping, and stumbling were

the most common causes of elderly falls in the counties of Sweden. Moreover, most of these

falls occurred in an indoor environment and often in an elderly person’s home. At the county

level, elderly Swedish women were more likely to fall than their male counterparts. However,

this pattern faded as the population increased in age. The counties of Sweden showed

different distribution patterns of the rates of elderly falls by types based on their geographical

location. Whereas warmer weather was associated with higher rates of outdoor falls, indoor

falls mostly occurred in the coldest months of the year. Counties with a higher minimum

yearly temperature showed higher rates of falls on ice and snow for the elderly. This finding

may be explained by the fact that in counties with a higher minimum yearly temperature,

winter weather is mild enough to allow outdoor activities. Falls from furniture were more

common in the winter months for those aged 75 to 84 years. The results indicate that wintery

weather restricted the outdoor activities of older adults, prompting them to spend most of

22

their time indoors. The members of this specific age group were not as passive as elderly

people aged 85 years or older, but they were not as active and agile as those aged 65 to 75

years. No relationship was found between the type of housing and elderly falls by county,

except for single-family housing. Living in single-family housing may encourage more

outdoor activities, which in turn may increase the likelihood of falls among seniors. The study

endeavoured to highlight the geographical areas associated with higher concentrations of

elderly falls at the county level. The need of conducting more investigation of both indoors

and outdoors environment was highlighted to identify which characteristics of the elderly

housing areas may influence the rates of elderly fall.

Paper II

The regional ecology of elderly falls in Sweden (2016). Published in: GeoJournal, 81(1),

23–36.

Three main hypotheses were tested in the study. The hypotheses were built upon the

association between elderly falls and a selection of attributes relevant to (1) socio-economic

status, (2) elderly care services by municipality, and (3) the degree of accessibility to social

services at the county level in Sweden by using aggregated data. The Kendall rank correlation

was used to examine the association between dependent (rates of elderly falls) and

independent variables. The rates of falls were mapped with GIS. The results of the study

indicate that certain socio-economic factors such as ethnicity, income, and marital status may

contribute to rates of elderly falls in Sweden at the county level. The lowest number of elderly

falls on ice and snow was observed in counties with higher numbers of foreign-born older

adults. Differences in lifestyle, diet, and the urban environment may explain this ethnic-

specific variation. Counties with higher income older populations tended to have lower levels

of falls caused by slipping, tripping, and stumbling. Greater accessibility to social services

and better eating habits and lifestyle were associated with higher income households.

Surprisingly, the higher cost of elderly care by municipality was associated with increased

rates of elderly falls on ice and snow. One explanation may be that municipalities spend more

money in areas with higher rates of falls on ice and snow to improve accessibility and

pavement conditions. Counties with lower levels of accessibility to basic services tended to

have higher rates of senior falls. The results of this study may point to some fall prevention

measures for the elderly. Moreover, using aggregate data at the county level provided a

23

broader image of the impact of socio-economic/demographic factors, the degree of

accessibility to social services, and the cost of elderly care on the rates of elderly falls across

the counties of Sweden. The study suggests a number of fall preventive measures such as

closer distance to social service, as well as high quality street paving to five suitable target

groups. The target groups are namely: seniors with low income levels, single elderly women,

seniors living in rural areas with improper street pavement, and low levels of accessibility to

social services.

Paper III

Assessing safety quality in senior housing indoor environments: A Swedish case study.

Submitted in the journal of Housing and the Built Environment.

This study focuses on the attributes of the indoor environment of the older adults living areas

in relation to use of space, experience of fall, and safety perception. Hässelgården senior

housing was selected as a case study A detailed survey including 56 questions about health

statutes, perceived safety, experience of fall, and use of space of the residents of two- room

apartments in Hässelgården was conducted. Ten inspection visits to the senior housing

apartments were performed to assess the quality of the physical environment. The various

parts of the apartments were evaluated by scores according to a checklist based on the

principles of Universal Design (UD). It is expected that the parts of an apartment with higher

UD score were those used more frequently by residents. Lower UD scores of some parts

indicate the higher number of fall there. And finally, higher levels of adaptation of UD

principles in some parts of the apartments would contribute to higher safety perceptions by

the participants. The analysis of the survey and inspection checklist indicates that higher

scores of universal design principles are associated with lower levels of fall injuries and

higher levels of safety perception and use of space. Various areas of the apartments exhibited

different potential risk factors for elderly falls. The kitchen and the bedroom were the most

common places for elderly falls. Some of these potential risk factors included the way in

which the seniors arranged their furniture, the presence of unsecured objects in the

apartments, and the lack of simple fall prevention measures. The study suggests performing

regular inspection of apartments by care givers to determine those triggers of falls related to

the placement of the furniture. It is equally important to inform the residents about the results

of these inspections and safety related issues.

24

Paper IV

Elderly victimization and fear of crime in public spaces. (2016). International Criminal

Justice Review, 26(2), 115–133.

Paper IV focused on older adults’ victimization and fear of crime in the outdoor environment.

Hässelgården senior housing in Stockholm, Sweden, was used as a case study. It is expected

that older adults in Hässelgården senior housing are more fearful than the rest of older

population. Moreover, fear of some places may result in place avoidance strategy, and limit

elderly mobility. A multi-method approach was employed to explore and examine the

research questions. The effects of the elderly residents’ history of previous victimization and

fear of crime on the patterns of their use of space were assessed through a survey. An

inspection also was made to capture the environmental features of Hässelgården senior

housing and immediate areas. The second set of data obtained from Stockholm municipality

is a Stockholm safety survey from 2014. This data includes questions on crime victimization

and fear of crime for population aged 16-79 living in Stockholm areas. The data related to

Hässelby district (Hässelgården neighbourhood) and city of Stockholm were excluded to be

used in this study. The results indicate that although the rate of victimization was low, the

residents were more fearful. Further, the residents of Hässelgården feel more fearful than

those living in the same neighbourhood and city of Stockholm. The residents regarded

familiar nearby places, despite their lack of safety conditions, as the safest. The residents

generally regarded deserted areas as the least safe. Surprisingly, this study suggests that fear

of crime does not necessarily limit the mobility of the older population. Although this finding

may not be generalized because of the small sample size, it highlights the importance of the

physical environment in achieving safe mobility for active older adults. For instance, in the

case of Hässelgården, minor changes such as providing seating areas on sidewalks of

pedestrian, as declared by the participants, contribute to higher level of mobility.

25

7. Discussions of the results and future work

The aim of this study was to obtain a better understanding of the nature of safe mobility for

the older population in Sweden. The study was divided into two levels of the analysis: macro

and micro. The discussion at macro level deals with the results from papers I and II, and may

contribute to the knowledge on elderly falls in Sweden at county level. At the micro level,

the discussion is presented based on results from papers III and IV, that deal with local level

issues of housing and neighbourhood features.

At the macro level, the findings of this study indicate that there are substantial geographical

differences in fall distribution across Sweden. The pattern of this distribution also varies by

the type of fall. The rates of some types of fall are associated with declines in temperature in

Sweden counties. Prior studies confirm the presence of the association between freezing

temperature and risk of fall (Lin & Xiraxagar, 2006; Mirchandani, et al., 2005). Another

possible explanation could be that the presence of differences in socio-

economic/demographic status and access to basic services between groups at county level.

These findings are similar to studies indicating the socio-economic/demographic, and

accessibility trends in fall fractures (Saveman & Björnstig, 2011; Cauley, 2011; Çakar, et al.,

2011; Galizia et al., 2008, Burnett, 2005; Bleijlevens et al., 2010; Giuliano, et al., 2003).

Environmental press theory can be used here in the attempt to support a better understanding

of the interplay between individual (the older adults) and the environment (indoor and

outdoor) in terms of risk of fall. According to environmental press theory (Lawton, 1973), a

fall (the indicator of maladaptive behaviour) could be regarded as an outcome of interaction

between high level of environmental press (challenges) and low levels of individual’s

competences. In the context of this study, falls are the products of the interaction between

low level of a person’s ability and high level of environmental challenges in Swedish

counties. Swedish counties may evidence different level of environmental weakness (such as

low levels of accessibility to basic services) as plausible causes of falls. Therefore, the level

of the environmental adaptation and the required strategies for fall prevention may vary by

each county. More attention should be paid to the north of Sweden in terms of fall prevention

strategies both indoors and outdoors, as the rates of fall are much higher there than is the case

elsewhere in Sweden. The goal of these strategies should be to reduce elderly fall related

injuries caused by slipping, and tripping as well as ice and snow. Further studies could

26

examine the relationship between the rates of elderly fall, and the layout and the size of the

older adults housing. Future research studies are needed to explore other dimensions of

sustainable elderly mobility in a broader context, including the use of public transport,

driving, and cycling, dimensions that were not examined in the present study. Distinguishing

the levels of elderly mobility is necessary to achieve more reliable results in these types of

studies.

At the micro level, the study focused on the interplay between a person and his/her living

environment which may influence prevalence of falls, safety perception, and use of space.

Any remedy to mitigate this should be made with regards to this mutual interaction. The

universal design theory is about the need of ‘mutual’ adaptation of both individuals and their

environment. Acting on individuals (e.g. increasing their awareness about their living

environment) may lead to their better adaption to the living environment. For instance, in our

case, the way the older adults organize their furniture may contribute to the higher number

of falls, and could be regarded as an indicator of lower level of elderly adaptation to their

environment. On the other hand, the individuals’ living area could be adapted through the

interventions and technical design approaches. For instance, some physical features of the

older adults’ apartments in Hässelgården contribute to higher number of falls. These features

may be regarded as obstacles to a barrier-free environment. One obvious example is the

tripping hazard posed by thresholds in the apartments, and for this reason, they should be

removed. Studies confirm the presence of relationships between environmental hazards and

prevalence of falls among the older population (Letts et al., 2010; Tinetti et al., 1988; Shroyer,

1994; Northridge et al., 1995; Berg et al., 1997). However, these two strategies may be

employed in synergistic to meet the goal. More research is needed to determine and explain

what safety means to the elderly in different environmental settings. One immediate answer

could be that safety perception is an outcome of both emotional and physical comfort.

However, the magnitude of each of these factors varies from older individual to older

individual. Answering this question may also help planners and decision makers obtain a

better understanding of what elderly people expect from their environment and help

stakeholders prioritize safety modifications and interventions based on the needs of the

elderly.

27

The findings of this study show that elderly living in Hässelgården senior housing are more

fearful of crime than those living in the neighbourhood. This might be explained partially by

the fact that exposure to crime in a small older adults’ community such as Hässelgården,

could act as fear generator, as it becomes a topic for talk and spread quickly among residents.

Surprisingly, the results suggest that fear of being victim of crime in some areas of the near

environment of Hässelgården may not limit the residents’ mobility. It has long been discussed

in studies that fear of crime is associated with decline in mobility as people feel constrained

to go out (Clemente & Kleiman, 1976; Dowd et al., 1981; Lorenc et al., 2013). However,

people in Hässelgården take an alternative, longer route, which does not have any single

seating area in which to rest. This indicates that the elderly in Hässelgården, at least active

ones, adjust their life style to conditions of their living environment. But it may not be the

same for those with mobility impairments. Future research should examine more deeply the

relationship between older adults’ physical and mental vulnerability and their use of space

and fear of crime and victimization. This may work to identify the driving forces behind the

mobility of the elderly that override fear of crime. More studies should be conducted to

investigate to what extent the fear of crime itself may influence the mobility of senior citizens.

8. Limitations

As with any piece of research, this thesis has several limitations that should be mentioned.

The small number of Swedish counties (n = 21) included at the macro level analysis meant

that only non-parametric tests could be performed to examine associations. If a larger sample

size were available (e.g. at municipal level), it would provide greater power to detect

differences and could result in more reliable findings. Moreover, the data set on elderly falls

includes only the information about causes of fall, age, gender, and the name of the county

of the incidents. For instance, there was no detailed information about the underlying causes

of the fall (e.g. the fall resulted from slipping or taking medication) and the location of the

fall (i.e. where and in which area of the home that the fall occurred). Funding permitting

future research should make use of this detailed data the National Board of Health

Organization. Fall records used in this study are in-patient data. Other injury records resulting

in a visit to the emergency department are unreported in the database and, thus, are missing

28

in the analysis. Defining regional spaces (counties) with borders and lines is necessary at the

administrative level, and planners need to consider geographical units as boundaries.

However, people living in these different regions are related to each other in many aspects

such as socio-economic status, culture, and environment beyond the regional boundaries. The

existence of porous and multi-layered regional boundaries, therefore, necessitates some

caution in interpretation of the results of this research.

At the micro level, more robust results would have been obtained if the size of the sample

had been larger. This study is exploratory in nature because of the small sample size (N=27).

More participants would have allowed somewhat more robust testing for the relationship

between rates of elderly falls and physical features of both indoor and outdoor environments

of elderly living areas. The findings of these papers may not therefore be extended to other

areas. Despite these limitations, the study makes contribution to a better understanding of the

safe mobility of older adults in relation to their environment. The findings may enlighten

researchers, planners, and other stakeholders involved in urban safety in areas with climate

challenges such as the Scandinavian countries.

9. Conclusion and Recommendations

In this thesis, we investigated older adults’ mobility in relation to safety and the environment

in Sweden. We adhered to the standard definition put forward by WHO for this age group. It

is important to note that in addition to chronological age, environmental and social

differences must be considered in this definition in both research and practice, aspects that

have so far been taken for granted.

At the macro level, the findings of this study show that there is variability in Swedish older

adults’ experience of falls at the county level. This variability may be associated in part by

the presence of temporal patterns and differences in socio-economic status at the county level.

There is a need to conduct a pilot project that aims to increase access to basic services and

decent quality sidewalks and paved streets in the areas of Sweden that are affected by falls

caused by ice and snow (the northern counties). The project would provide information about

the consequences and effectiveness of inventories relevant to accessibility with regard to the

29

well-being of older adults at the county level. Together, Swedish municipalities and the

National Institute of Public Health could support and work on inventories of relevance to

improve the drainage system of street pavement so as to ensure safer walkways and

sidewalks, particularly in the northern part of Sweden. Among all Swedish counties,

Västerbotten shows the highest rates of elderly falls both indoors and outdoors. This means

that there is a need for further investigation and assessment of the physical environment of

the elderly homes, and its immediate environment in this county.

The National Institute of Public Health could support more research at the national level to

assess the quality of social services offered by public and private companies. Municipal costs

for elderly care and support are not homogenous across the country. The financial allocation

is based on differences in socio-demographic structure, population density, and percentage

of elderly immigrants at the county level. However, one factor that could be taken into

account is the distribution patterns of older adults with mobility problems, health issues, and

dysfunctionality across the country. The results of this study may contribute to knowledge

on the distribution of fall-related injuries of older adults. When drawing up financial

allocation plans, planners and decision makers may consider this pattern as an indicator of

the greater demands of seniors.

The existence of safe neighbourhoods is crucial in achieving safe mobility for older adults.

Although older adults are more active at home and in their surrounding environments (and

most elderly fall-related injuries take place in these environments), planners, decision

makers, and other involved stakeholders could consider and examine the problems that exist

beyond the context of housing and the immediate surroundings of the elderly living

environment (Kullberg, 2010). Providing safe mobility for seniors requires an

interdisciplinary approach (Bell et al., 2013). Fostering cooperation and collaboration among

different stakeholders is the focus of attention. However, putting forward a bottom-up

approach in the planning and decision-making process may lead to the achievement of

intersectoral tactics to promote safety and to generate a community control planning process

(Global Aging, 2003).

At the micro level, Hässelgården senior housing was selected as a case study with different

focus areas: falls and fear of crime and victimization with regard to safe elderly mobility.

The findings suggest that safety perception of the older adults’ residents regard certain areas

30

of the elderly home as the safest/least safe. The results also show that some areas that are

regarded as safe by the participants have higher rates of falls than other areas of the

apartments. Municipalities could endeavour to increase the knowledge of the older

population through various forms of outreach in terms of safety in relation to the

environment. The elderly’s perception, and preference of what constitutes a safe

environment, may be considered in the planning and design process of new housing (Maurice

& Lavoie, 2004). For instance, some municipalities offer freedom of choice for elderly care.

From the perspective of older adults, this is a good strategy for meeting their needs

(Abramsson, Elmqvist, and Turner, 2010). However, this strategy would not be effective

unless older adults have adequate levels of information about the risk factors threatening their

daily safety (Swedish Agency for Health and Care Services Analysis, 2012). Paying attention

to details that may be considered trivial is also an important aspect of creating a safe

environment for the elderly. Many small obstacles may become too large to handle for an

elderly person. Therefore, minor changes could result in major benefits for this population.

For example, municipalities could inform Swedish seniors about when they can expect snow

removal to occur in their neighbourhood so that they can plan their affairs accordingly.

Another example would be for municipalities to provide clear boundaries for cyclist and

pedestrian paths in the immediate vicinity of elderly housing, thereby reducing the risk of

accidents and falls. As safety is investigated in relation to fear of crime and victimization, the

level of physical vulnerability of older adults plays a role in their fear of crime or

victimization. The residents of Hässelgården senior housing described being fearful of crime

and victimization, even in their homes. The residents’ fear could be alleviated by replacing

the main door of the apartments with master security doors and locks.

This thesis focuses on the safe mobility of the older adults in relation to the aspects of their

living environment both at the macro and at the micro level in the Swedish context. The

study, despite its limitations, has provided a contribution to a better understanding of safety

among older adults who, even with limited mobility, strive to maintain their daily routine

independently and make use of public spaces. At the macro level, the results suggest that

policy should pay more attention to the northern parts of Sweden in terms of prevention and

management of elderly fall. In order to maximize policy effects, two tasks may be regarded

as important: the first is to focus on the strategies geared to the better adjustment of the elderly

to their environment (e.g. inform seniors about environmental risk factors involved in falls).

31

The second is to provide policies that underpin the intent to modify the living environment

according to the needs of older adults. At the micro level, findings of this thesis indicate that

safety hazards associated with homes and near environments of the older adults are not only

influenced by faulty design and/or the layout of the internal and external structure of the

housing. In addition, details of the organization of the home (such as the way the residents

place their furniture) is also a factor that influence risk of falls – an element that the elderly

rarely themselves consider as crucial for their safety. Any home safety assessment program

would therefore benefit from considering indications of lack of adaptation of the elderly to

their environment, at the same time; this assessment must be sensitive to the needs of the

older adults.

32

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39

Chapter II