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Enhancing Professional Learning through Aspects of Creativity C. S. Cumming1 School of Education, University of Glasgow, Scotland Abstract This paper reports on a qualitative research study which aimed to identify what a group of initial teacher education university students found significant to their professional learning. It explores possible links between key features of creativity and the aspects of learning and teaching which the student teachers identify as central to enhancing their professional development. The research aims to inform and enhance student engagement with learning, by identifying creative learning and teaching approaches for students, in order to improve the future effectiveness and creativity of their own teaching, as trainee teachers fit for a twenty-first century profession. As Robinson (2001, p.1) states: ‘we urgently need people who are creative, innovative and flexible. Too often we can’t find them.’ The research methodology was informed by grounded theory. Data collection drew on the students’ reflective learning journals, a semi-structured interview and literature on the theme of creativity. The key findings and conclusions establish links between the enhancement of professional learning and creativity; the paper concludes with a consideration of key issues. Key Words & Phrases creativity; professional learning; student engagement; initial teacher education. Introduction This paper focuses on the themes of professional learning and creativity. It identifies and explores aspects which can enhance learning, as well as creativity, and discusses the qualities we want both teachers and their students to develop for education and life in the twenty-first century. We live increasingly within knowledge-based economies. Hence, the capacity to think critically, learn creatively and to generate solutions and creative ideas is not only highly prized but a necessity for life and employment, including within the teaching profession. The study focused on the weekly, two hour seminar workshop learning of student teachers within the curricular area of English language and literature, over the course of year three of their B.Ed. teacher education programme. The research study, on which this paper reports, explored two key questions: 1. What aspects of learning and teaching were viewed by the student participants in the study as most helpful or engaging to their learning? 2. How are the aspects identified by these students linked to creativity?

1 Email: c.cumming@educ.gla.ac.uk

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Literature Review & Rationale Features of creativity were identified through a study of the literature which was treated like data. The literature reveals that thinking and research on creativity tends to focus on the person, or group of people, the process, or the product, to varying degrees (Barron, 1968; Swede, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Robinson, 2001, respectively). Conducive contexts - activities, characteristics and features which help to foster creativity and its outputs, such as tolerance of divergent thinking, experimentation, spontaneity, risk-taking and self-motivation - are relevant factors. Such factors can also aid student engagement. Einstein’s creative thinking is described by Koestler (1964) as ‘combinatorial play’ (cited by Reid & Petocz, 2004, p.50), which they explain as the ‘putting together of ideas in unusual combinations’ (2004, p.50). Such creative play results in creative or learning outcomes with complex structures and frames of reference, linking with Biggs’s idea of ‘the extended abstract’ (1999, p.47). Further, there is a strong rationale for exploring creativity and learning and teaching: they are fundamental, interdisciplinary issues. Within education, creativity is usually associated with innovation, synthesis and making connections in the process of learning and teaching, (Reid & Petocz, 2004). Robinson (2001) views creativity and creative play as a global educational priority, essential to effective learning and teaching, the modernization of our educational systems, employability, business success and economic prosperity. Howard Gardner defines creativity as the ability to ‘knit together information from disparate sources into a coherent whole’ and believes that ‘the mind most at premium in the twenty-first century will be the mind that can synthesize well’ (Gardner, 2006, p.46). Identifying and exploring links between student teachers’ engagement with learning, teaching and creativity is, therefore, important. Such study can help ensure that teaching and learning strategies, processes and contexts improve learners’ creative responses, as well as their professional learning. The study which this paper reports mapped key features from Bleakley’s ‘typology of creativities’ (2004, p.467) against aspects of learning and teaching identified by students. This typology was used as a mapping model in the research because it is wide-ranging, covering aspects of person, process and product. Bleakley’s typology focuses on ten key types of creativity: creativity as ‘an ordering process’; ‘rhythm and cycle’; ‘originality and spontaneity’; ‘the irrational’; ‘problem-solving’; ‘problem-stating’; ‘inspiration’; ‘serendipity’; ‘resistance to the uncreative’; and ‘withdrawal and absence’ (Bleakley, 2004, p.463). The typology illustrates Bleakley’s view that the term creativity has usually been either too narrowly defined or applied uncritically. Like Gardner’s ‘multiple intelligences’ (1983), Bleakley’s typology presents a view of creativity that is heterogeneous and theoretically expandable – the main rationale behind the study’s application of his classifications of creativity in investigating research question 2. One of his most pertinent questions is: ‘Within any specific historical period of a culture, which kinds of creativity are preferred and promoted to the detriment of others?’ (Bleakley, 2004, p.267). Certain features of creativity, or types of ‘creativities’ (2004, p.467), may be valued more than others at any given time or within any specific place, culture, context or subject

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domain. Powerful stakeholders influence the dominant conceptualizations of creativity in different contexts. Conceptualizations of creativity, therefore, require critical examination. Bleakley’s critical question is considered near the end of the paper, as part of the research conclusions and recommendations. Other features of creativity which the literature often mentions, such as making unusual connections, aspects of play and innovation, are also considered in terms of question 2. Methodology The research was designed to provide evidence relating to the two research questions: 1. What aspects of learning and teaching were viewed by the student participants in the study as most helpful or engaging to their learning? 2. How are the aspects identified by these students linked to creativity? By focusing on students’ own learning experiences and what they thought was significant for learning within the seminar class context, via research question 1, the study aimed to provide further insight into such experiences, so that any resultant connection to learning theories or key aspects of creativity would arise from data provided by the learners. This grounded theory approach was used for two main reasons. Firstly, it sought to ensure that any emerging theory fitted the situation, rather than testing out a previously postulated theory, which could potentially affect the situation as it was explored. Secondly, it helped to reveal the students’ various learning narratives, the texts they constructed about learning, as they emerged from the data collected. Data was collected by the following methods: . Seminars evaluation questionnaires; . Reading, analysis, open coding and categorization of students’ diary

entries/personal learning journals about seminar experiences of learning and teaching;

. Recording, transcription, reading, analysis, open coding and categorization of

a semi-structured group interview (1hr.40mins) – set-up as an interpersonal context which provided a rich source of data;

. Mapping of findings on key aspects of learning (Qu.1) and key features of

creativity (Qu 2). This utilized research literature on creativity, treated like data, with a focus on Bleakley’s typology of creativity (2004), and a final deductive process to identify links between learning and creativity.

Emerging categories helped to identify and develop the key themes and concepts used to understand the learning experiences of the student teachers. They were further refined by comparison and re-analysis of the data through an iterative process. The methodological process created the conceptual framework through which research questions 1 and 2 were addressed and out of which conclusions were developed.

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Findings A. Question 1: Learning and Teaching Question 1 findings are summarized and illustrated below. The aspects of learning and teaching which emerged as most significant, or helpful, to the professional learning of the research participants are illustrated in diagram 1 below: modelling (the most recurrent aspect); group contexts; group tasks; and the environment, which included the physical and psychological learning context. These aspects emerged consistently in both the group interview and individual journal entries. All these aspects impacted on students’ motivation and purposes for learning and, subsequently, on how they rated seminar classes. Additionally, all the key aspects of learning were found to be influenced by various stimuli, as diagram 1 below also shows:

Modelling, according to the students in the study, was the most important teaching strategy a tutor could use to help them. As it performed a number of roles in the learning and teaching process, the analysis classified it into three main types: modelling as tutor demonstration; as trusted, authentic voice; and as platform and catalyst for creativity. Modelling, as demonstration of teaching and learning processes, strategies and resources, involved the university tutor clearly demonstrating professional knowledge, skills and practical expertise. Additionally, modelling acted as a vital link between university seminar learning and school-based teaching practice, the latter involving about twelve weeks in total of year three of the B.Ed. course.

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Tutor modelling enhanced the development of the student learners’ understanding of pedagogy, their ability to connect and synthesise theory and practice, and supported subsequent creative adaptation of observed and shared practice by the student teachers. Student D, for example, wrote:

‘The input on picture books was extremely enlightening…on the uses that they can have when teaching and learning. We looked at ‘Snow White in New York’, which were adapted to use for older primary children. I would never have imagined that these books could be used with upper stage children. The actual examples and ideas of how to use them were clearly illustrated by the tutor.’

Less successful seminars, according to the students’ evaluations and interview comments, were problematic for learning. A lack of tutor modelling was apparent and, consequently, the students did not link theory and practice as clearly: the ‘inside’ learning world of the university and the ‘outside’ world of school experience became ‘disconnected’ (Student B). The second type of modelling, as trusted, authentic voice, highlighted the significance of the affective domain of learning and student perceptions. For example, Student B stated that:

‘If somebody comes in who’s been a primary school teacher, or who is out seeing primary school children…their information that they’re putting out there…well, we are engaged immediately.’

This type of modelling has the potential to make productive connections between university and school worlds, one characterized more, in the students’ minds, by thinking and theory, the other more by action and practice. In order to ‘marry’ (Student C) these different, sometimes opposing, learning worlds for the students, the tutor needed to be perceived as able to straddle the two. Cognitive and affective learning for these students was closely interwoven and the contexts for learning were both internal and external: psychological-emotional and physical-social. In the third type, modelling as skills building platform and catalyst for creativity, tutors employed strategies and contexts to facilitate learning and encourage innovation and independence. The tutor's direct role gradually diminished, as learning contexts become more student-centred and self-directed. This type of modelling seemed to be crucial for accelerating students’ personal and professional development - from being able to understand and copy ideas, knowledge and skills, transferred directly by tutor modelling, to adapting and transforming them for different contexts, needs, purposes and outcomes. Peer to peer modelling was supported by use of group learning contexts and tasks and increasing use of enquiry-based learning. The student teachers increasingly took the lead in directing their own development, were highly engaged and moved from a secure platform of growing competence and skill to independent, creative innovation and experimentation. Modelling as creative catalyst, therefore, helped students to adapt taught models to create new learning ones of their own. The student teachers became increasingly confident to try out new ideas of their own as seminars progressed. Teaching practice

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beyond the seminar was also a real opportunity to try out their adaptations, to experiment and to create a more personalized pedagogy. Student D writes in her journal, for instance, that:

‘I think it is hard to be creative or innovative. This is where good examples are a benefit in order that adaptation can then apply.’

Besides the three types of modelling, as identified above, the research participants also identified aspects of group contexts, group tasks and the physical and psychological environment of the university seminar as significant, or helpful, to their professional learning. In summary, in terms of Qu.1, the aspects which enhanced the professional learning of the students were: modelling of professional knowledge and skills by an authentic, trusted practitioner; modelling as platform and catalyst, to help them to make connections, create adaptations and experiment with alternatives of their own; group contexts and collaborative, group tasks; and a variety of stimuli within a supportive learning environment. It was essential that seminar time was given to the above aspects which the students identified, in order to facilitate opportunities for effective professional learning. Question 2 findings below provide further detail on the salient features of these aspects and their connections to features of creativity. B. Question 2: Creativity and Learning 2. How are the aspects identified by these students linked to creativity? Connections exist between the aspects of learning identified by the research participants as helpful to their professional learning and key features of creativity. It seems possible, therefore, to call these key aspects of learning and teaching creative features or strategies. Such creative strategies enhanced the students’ professional learning. Modelling as platform and catalyst, in particular, along with aspects of group contexts and tasks, use of various imaginative stimuli and supportive environments which provide opportunities and extended time for reflection, play and experimentation can be described as creative strategies. They enhance learning engagement and professional development. Bleakley’s key types of creativity were mapped, as relevant, to the aspects of learning to which they have a connection. Figures 2–6 below map and connect these features in turn. Modelling for Creativity and Learning Modelling was viewed as a key aspect which supported learning and acted as a catalyst for creativity. The three types of modelling are linked to several types of creativity within Bleakley’s typology: ‘creativity as an ordering process’; ‘inspiration’; ‘rhythm and cycle’; and ‘originality and spontaneity’ (Bleakley, 2004, p.463). Modelling as catalyst also links to Bleakley’s ‘creativity as withdrawal and

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absence’ and ‘as resistance to the uncreative’ (2004, p.463), because it supports creativity within increasingly student-centred contexts of learning, as the tutor withdraws from direct control of activities (see diagrams 2 and 3, respectively, below). Firstly, links between creativity as an ordering process and modelling as tutor demonstration, the latter identified as a key aspect in effective learning, involve the development of professional knowledge and professional skills. Mastery requires training, disciplined study and sustained practice over time; modelling as demonstration facilitates this. Learning and teaching methods and processes tend to be more obviously structured and directed by the tutor-mentor. Learners use them to scaffold their own knowledge and understanding. Bleakley’s ‘creativity as an ordering process’ (Bleakley, 2004, p.463) is related to this aspect of learning and teaching: it involves a linear and logically structured type of learning development and creative process. Secondly, creative learning is enhanced when supported by a trusted tutor, mentor or other source of support or inspiration, related to the second type of modelling, as identified in Qu.1 findings above. Modelling as trusted, authentic voice links to Bleakley’s idea of creativity as ‘inspiration’ (2004, p.463): both recognize the role of outside influences beyond the self which help to inspire and ignite an individual's creativity. Student B, for instance, stated that in both the poetry and picture books seminars the respective tutors cared about what they were telling them and that her curiosity was so aroused by a brimming trolley full of books that she felt ‘like a child in a toy store’, claiming enthusiastically that she ‘wanted to steal her trolley’ of fantastic resources and that this ‘was a very creative’ way to learn. Her simile here is a powerful one which alludes to ideas of creative play, inspiration and stimulation. The enthusiastic reactions of the students reveal a genuine sense of being inspired by specific instances of tutor modelling as demonstration and authentic voice. Lowes describes this as the influence of a ‘shaping spirit’ (1978, p.23). Figure 2 below visually illustrates these links:

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Thirdly, connections between creativity and modelling, as skills building platform and catalyst for creativity, are most important for learner development and independence, as figure 3 illustrates below. This type of modelling links not only to Bleakley’s creativity as ‘inspiration’, ‘originality and spontaneity’, ‘rhythm and cycle’, but to creativity as ‘withdrawal and absence’ and ‘resistance to the uncreative’ (2004, p.463).

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Learning becomes much more student-centred and creative independence can lead to innovation and originality. An interplay between logic and intuition can also lead to deeper learning. Modelling as catalyst can enhance this interplay. Learning and creativity are further developed through a creative learning journey, or cycle, marked by peaks and challenging troughs. Hence, development is not only linear but cyclical. Space and time to make mistakes, to question, experiment and reflect are vital. Hence, creative learning as rhythm and cycle relates to on-going processes of reflection, learning development and transformation. Understanding of pedagogy and teaching, as both profession and professional learning, becomes highly personalized. Student C, for example, reveals that she has gone through some kind of transformation on her learning journey: ‘Certainly, now that I’m in third year, I think I’ve become far more confident…I have my own approaches and views. I’m certainly not the same person I was in first year.’ Such transformations link to theories of creativity which identify its role in achieving self-expression and fulfillment, what Rogers describes as ‘the curative force in psychotherapy - man’s tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities’ (Rogers, 1978, p.140). As figure 3 above also illustrates, such a learning journey towards mastery and self-actualization will see the learner actively and increasingly resisting what they believe to be ‘the uncreative’ (Bleakley, 2004, p.463). Consequently, all three types of modelling identified by the students as significant for learning – modelling as demonstration, authentic voice and catalyst - are central to students' creative learning journeys and professional development. Group Contexts and Tasks for Creativity and Learning Group contexts and tasks are linked to creativity because they can facilitate idea generation and conceptual connections through collaboration and discussion; they provide contexts and activities in which students can brain-storm, inspire one another, experiment, take more risks, problem-state and problem-solve. Bleakley’s typology, like-wise, identifies ‘problem-solving’ and ‘problem-stating’ as features of creativity. (Bleakley, 2004, p.463). The B.Ed.3 students’ seminars utilized an increasing amount of group work and enquiry throughout the session. Since creativity can be a characteristic of a group, as well as an individual (Swede, 1993), group contexts for learning also allowed the students to have creative control and to explore issues about the content and process of learning. Student C said that ‘collaborative learning’ helped her to problem-solve as ‘it’s the bouncing ideas off other people’ which helps, as well as ‘talking it out’. Such contexts and tasks helped students through learning troughs - or difficulties - on the path to new learning. Further, through group work, participation and discussion, the students sought ‘consensual validation’ which simultaneously developed their capacity for self-reflection (Kruger, 1981, p.28). Discussion enabled them to filter their experiences of seminar teaching and learning and to make further sense of them. As Kruger (1981, p.28) states:

‘…Although it is true that my existence is not only a dialogue with others, I actualize myself on a reflective level only in relation to others.’

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Student A notes, for instance, in her journal that the group presentations used ‘various resources’ to present topics and were ‘interesting sessions where each group discussed very different topics and subject matters. The session gave me good ideas for classroom practice and lessons.’ Such contexts facilitate more creative learning outcomes of the type which Biggs (1999) explores, by the application of principles to new problems and knowledge transformation, resulting in new structures and more complex connections. Further, in group tasks, it can be ‘the nature of the problem that is creative, and whether the problem allows different conclusions and solutions’ (Reid & Petocz, 2004, p.47). The choice of tasks, then, often made by tutors, partly determines the potential that group contexts and group tasks have for creative learning. For creative learning outcomes to be maximized, tasks need to be clearly explained, carefully chosen, stimulating, extended over several weeks and to allow for elements of choice and challenge. Carefully constructed learning and teaching contexts and tasks are, therefore, more likely to result in creative products: teachers for the twenty-first century who are creative, reflective, flexible and innovative individuals who can, likewise, encourage these traits in their pupils. Figure 4 diagrammatically summarizes the connections between group contexts of learning and their related types of creativity within Bleakley’s typology: ‘problem-solving’, ‘problem-stating’, ‘ordering process’, ‘rhythm and cycle’, ‘inspiration’, ‘originality and spontaneity’, ‘creativity as withdrawal and absence’ and ‘as resistance to the uncreative’ (2004, p.463).

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Stimuli for Creativity and Learning Stimuli also emerged as a central factor in supporting both creativity and learning. Figure 5 below maps stimuli to Bleakley’s creativity as ‘problem-solving’, ‘problem-stating’, ‘the irrational’, ‘originality and spontaneity’ and ‘inspiration’, as well as to ‘creativity as withdrawal and absence’ and ‘as resistance to the uncreative’ (2004, p.463):

Stimuli help to promote such types of creativity as part of the learning process. Learning and Teaching Scotland’s publication, ‘Creativity in Education’ (2001, p.39), acknowledges this, stating that ‘creative thinking and activity does not occur in a vacuum; it needs something to work on, a stimulus’. An interesting question or a problem itself could be a catalyst to creative ideas, activities and thinking processes which could lead to creative outcomes, products or solutions. The most successful B.Ed.3 language and literature seminars, according to both student evaluations and the students involved in the semi-structured interview, all utilized various stimuli and media resources, as well as the three types of modelling. These seminars involved pedagogy related to the topics of the teaching of imaginative writing, the teaching of poetry to older primary pupils and the use of picture books for learning. The seminar on imaginative writing, for example, gave the student teachers themselves (as they worked on their own writing) experiences of various stimuli and activities for helping pupils to generate ideas for imaginative writing. Student D recalled in both interview and journal an ‘interesting and fun’ seminar activity which asked students to draft a short paragraph of creative writing using a noun, an adjective and a verb as initial stimuli. The tutor used a video to model the activity and encouraged them to think divergently, or irrationally, so that each part of speech was not combined or connected in a typical way:

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‘Because you’d seen the video, you had the video in your head… I also liked how in one of the seminars which we talked about you had a snowman and one of the settings was maybe a bit obscure, you’re like in space. I think that’s very creative for yourself, you can pick any three. That helps develop your own creativity. However, you’re getting an idea of how to start it.’

Literature on creativity states that it can be conceptualized as an associative process which involves ‘the formation of associations between stimuli and responses which are characterized by the fact that the elements linked together are not normally associated’ (Cropley, 1967, p.117), a way of thinking which the seminar task, described above, encouraged. Linguistically and conceptually, this is similar to the ability to create original metaphors and similes and to be able to think in terms of them. In Bleakley’s typology, ‘creativity as serendipity’ (2004, p.463) focuses on happy chances and good fortune, but serendipity is also a term, as Hebb (1949) indicates, relating to fortuitous combinations. Another characteristic which both creativity and learning share, then, is their need for various forms of stimulation and support, to develop creative learning behaviours and processes, such as divergent thinking and creative synthesis, which lead to original outcomes or products, including creative teachers. Opportunities and Time for Creativity and Learning Creativity and learning also require both active and reflective states. Learning environments need to support this through the extension of learning opportunities and time. Literature on creativity, implicitly and explicitly, highlights the importance of time as an aspect of creative processes, since creative ideas may require a significant period of incubation. Time is needed for both absorption and reflection, which helps ideas and concepts to take root and be reviewed, and for experiences, which may have been new or challenging, to be digested, synthesized and evaluated over time. Time is vital to enable the learner to understand and move on from any sense of dissonance, or learning trough. Bleakley’s ‘creativity as rhythm and cycle’ (2004, p.463), as well as other types, relates to this non-linear, developmental learning process. Opportunities and time for creativity and learning have also been mapped to ‘creativity as problem-solving’, ‘problem-stating’, ‘originality and spontaneity’ and ‘inspiration’, as well as to ‘creativity as withdrawal and absence’ and ‘as resistance to the uncreative’ (2004, p.463) in figure 6:

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Time for creative learning increases the variety of learning opportunities, builds up confidence, independence, learning resilience and encourages experimentation and risk-taking, by easing performance pressures. This can make ‘originality and spontaneity’ (Bleakley, 2004, p.463) in learners, and in the processes and products of learning, more likely. Any continuing professional development for teacher learners, then, is dependent on having time and opportunities, including time for reflection. In summary, the aspects of learning and teaching viewed as helpful or effective by the student teachers were closely related to key features of creativity. The three types of modelling, conducive group contexts and tasks (in particular interesting and challenging problem-stating and problem-solving tasks), various engaging stimuli, opportunities and time for creativity and learning, within supportive learning environments, are all key aspects of creative learning and teaching processes. They enhance professional learning, creative dispositions and outputs. Conclusions Learning and Creativity Links The study demonstrates important links between learning, creativity and engaging learners. Creative learning and teaching processes and contexts move learners’ knowledge and skills on from simple copying to experimental adaptations and greater originality, as part of an enquiring, engaging learning process. The affective and social domains of learning also emerged as just as important as the conceptual domain in creative learning and teaching. They are related to social constructivist theories of learning and teaching: ‘the notion of learning as a social process where learners construct and re-construct meaning through dialogue, questioning, collaborative working, teamwork, debate and argument is a powerful one’ (Boyd, 2008, p.6).

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Jeffrey & Craft (2004) have noted pedagogical strategies thought to foster creativity, such as the promotion of ‘possibility thinking’ - central to promoting learners’ agency and proactive innovations (2004, p.81). Problem-stating, problem-solving, critical thinking and enquiry-based learning are all related to this. These approaches to learning could, therefore, be more widely utilized to enhance student engagement and professional learning, via creative learning and teaching. It is vital to ensure that student teachers’ creative, affective and cognitive learning journeys are challenging, coherent and supported. University and school (or work) placement learning often needs to be better linked as contexts for professional learning and practice, for example through the kinds of modelling and problem-solving and stating activities described above. Nevertheless, teaching practice and experiential learning in the real context of schools for students and teachers engaged in initial teacher education must also remain pivotal, even in the early stages of initial teacher education programmes, in order to connect theory and practice and to allow students to develop skills, experiment and innovate. We must also be vigilant against potential ‘dichotomies’ which could result in ‘restrictive pedagogic ideologies’ (Jeffrey & Craft, 2004, p.77), such as focusing only on problem-solving as the most important type of creative learning task. This is seen, for instance, in the Learning and Teaching Scotland publication, ‘Learning, Thinking and Creativity: A Staff Development Handbook’ (2004). It advocates a rather narrow approach to creativity, featuring mainly thinking and problem-solving skills. However, as this study highlights, creativity is also necessary for self-fulfillment and is vital to sustain motivated and meaningful life-long learning, beyond the mutability of market forces and employability criteria. Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) definition of creativity is dependent on evolving domain-, time- and place-specific criteria, since definitions and criteria will be relative to these factors. Learning and assessment policies, contexts and processes need to be congruent with such principles. Continuing professional learning opportunities for students, teachers and lecturers are also essential. Learners (and their tutors or teachers) need to be encouraged to move beyond a simple teaching demonstration model, so that they feel confident about risk-taking, divergence and willingness to experiment, which creative learning necessitates. Tutors and institutions need to demonstrate clearly that they value creativity through communications with students and through learning, teaching and assessment principles, policies and practices. Some students’ alienation or disengagement during school or Higher Education may result from unsupportive or uncreative learning contexts, and could actually be the result of an alternative type of creativity. In some scenarios, there may be a kind of poetic departure - a learner’s ‘resistance to the uncreative’ through their ‘withdrawal and absence’ (Bleakley, 2004, p.463) - as opposed to a destructive dropping-out. Some learners may see this as the only creative act left open to them in uncreative learning environments. One way forward is Reid and Petocz’ proposition which has the aim of: ‘…the setting up (of) a learning environment that encourages students to see the essence as well as the detail of a subject, to formulate and solve questions, to see the connectedness between diverse areas, to take

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in and react to new ideas, and to include the element of surprise in their work. Such a learning environment includes not only appropriate materials and assessment techniques, but also methods of learning that address the important affective dimensions creativity.’ (2004, p.45) It is vital to also consider assessment in relation to student engagement via learning and creativity, since assessment processes, outcomes and results are informed by criteria, values and purposes which are socially, economically, culturally and politically determined. Hence, when Ken Robinson defines creative ideas in terms of their value (Robinson, 2001), it is not a simple but highly problematic part of his definition. It assumes that creativity must have value without considering what the criteria are by which value will be determined and why, how and by whom these criteria are selected and employed. The validity of a definition of creativity and any assessment of it depends on the clarification of underlying value judgements and assumptions, as well as the subject-domain and historical time-specific contexts such judgements take place in. Moreover, it is crucial to consider that creative processes and skills - which may have, for example, resulted in a tangible artefact, a set of ideas or the identification of a solution to a problem - may be concealed in these end products. Yet, assessment criteria tend to focus solely or disproportionately on such end products. The products of creativity and learning can be de-contextualized from the creative learning processes they have gone through. Assessment that fails to consider creative processes, therefore, can be inadequate. Looking at and assessing only the products of creativity or learning does not tell the full creative or learning story: we need more innovative assessment practices and tools. More variety of enquiry, group tasks/projects, problem-based learning, group role-play, to bridge theory and practice, and assessment credit for all of these would help. This poses an assessment challenge within education, since it challenges principles and value systems upon which a lot of traditional assessment has been built across the globe. Assessment needs to be formative to support, inform and develop learning and creativity, whilst summative tools need to be more various, transparent and informative with regards both to creative learning processes and outcomes (or products). In conclusion, professional learning can be enhanced through not only the use of creative learning and teaching approaches, contexts and environments but by fuller consideration of what the various features and types of creativity might be. Further research is required into their application within various domains of learning and how such features can be valued by more creative, critically examined and agreed assessment criteria and processes, to engage and prepare both learners and teachers for the demands of the twenty-first century. References

Barron, F. (1968) Creativity and Personal Freedom, Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co.

Biggs, J. (1999) Teaching for Quality Learning at University, Buckingham: SRHE & O.U. Press. Bleakley, A. (2004) ‘Your creativity or mine?: a typology of creativities in higher education and the value of a pluralistic approach’, in Teaching in Higher

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Education, Vol.9, No.4: 463-475. Boyd, B. (2008) The Learning Classroom, London: Hodder Gibson. Cropley, A.J. (1967) ‘S-R psychology and cognitive psychology’, in Vernon, P. E. (ed.) (1978) Creativity, Middlesex: Penguin. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999) ‘Implications of a systems perspective for the study of creativity’, in R. J. Sternberg (ed.) Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gardner, H. (2006) Five Minds for the Future, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Hebb, D.O. (1949) The Organization of Behaviour, CA: Wiley. Koestler, A. (1964) The Act of Creation, New York: MacMillan. Kruger, D. (1981) An Introduction to Phenomenological Psychology, Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press. Lowes, J. L. (1978) The Road to Xanadu: a study in the ways of the imagination, London: Pan. Learning and Teaching Scotland (2001) Creativity in Education, Glasgow: LT Scotland. Learning and Teaching Scotland (2004) Learning, Thinking and Creativity: A Staff Development Handbook, Glasgow: LT Scotland. Jeffrey, B. & Craft, A. (2004) ‘Teaching Creatively and Teaching for Creativity: Distinctions and Relationships’, Educational Studies, Vol.30, No.1, March 2004, London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Reid, A. & Petocz, P. (2004) ‘Learning Domains and the Process of Creativity’, The Australian Educational Researcher, Volume 31, Number2, August 2004. Robinson, K. (2001) Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative, Sussex: Capstone Publishing. Rogers, C.R. (1978) ‘Towards a Theory of Creativity’, in Vernon, P. E. (ed.) Creativity, Middlesex: Penguin. Swede, G. (1993) Creativity: A New Psychology, Toronto: Wall & Emerson.

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