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International Journal of Hospitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Hospitality Management

jo u r n al homep age: www.elsev ier .com/ locate / i jhosman

nhancing online brand experiences: An applicationf congruity theory

eonjeong (Ally) Leea,∗, Miyoung Jeongb,1

Hospitality Management, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, United StatesDepartment of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Isenberg School of Management, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 012 Flint Lab, UMASS,mherst, MA 01003, United States

r t i c l e i n f o

eywords:elf-image congruitynline–offline brand image congruityalue congruitynline brand experience

a b s t r a c t

Providing a distinctive brand experience is critical to differentiate each hotel brand from others, due tothe intangible characteristics of the hotel industry. Rooted in congruity theory, this study investigatedhow three congruities (i.e., self-image congruity, online–offline brand image congruity, and value con-gruity) influenced customers’ online brand experiences and their brand trust. Results from this study

rand trust indicated both self-image congruity and online–offline brand image congruity significantly influencedboth customers’ online brand experiences and their trust toward the hotel’s brand. Extending brandexperience literature and congruity theory, this study suggested hotels should develop a strategy thatcould capture these three congruity effects in online and offline channels because these effects shouldbe key determinants for customers’ online brand experiences and their responses.

. Introduction

The idea of creating unique and valuable customer experiencesas become a critical strategy among service industry practitionerss well as in the academic literature (i.e., Pine and Gilmore, 1999;argo and Lusch, 2008). Vargo and Lusch’s (2008) service-dominant

ogic has become the foundation for customers’ experiences withrands. Their study has emphasized branding as a method to createustomers’ values. Duncan and Moriarty (2006) also advocate themportance of providing distinctive experiences to customers bytating, “a brand touch point is created when a customer, prospect,r other stakeholder is expressed, in some manner, to a brandnd consequently has a brand experience” (p. 237). With increasedompetition among hotel brands, customers are exposed to numer-us brands, due to different marketing practices developed toifferentiate each brand from competitors. Marketing practitionersnd scholars accordingly have paid special attention to the impor-ance of creating brand experiences, which play a critical role in

eveloping marketing strategies for goods and services. Despite the

ndustry’s attention given to brand experiences, Forrester’s websiterand experience 2010 report interestingly has addressed few hotel

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 413 545 5376; fax: +1 413 545 1235.E-mail addresses: slee89@kent.edu (S. Lee), mjeong@isenberg.umass.edu

M. Jeong).1 Tel.: +1 413 545 4045; fax: +1 413 545 1235.

ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.03.008278-4319/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

websites that successfully create customers’ online brand experi-ences (Rogowski, 2010).

Providing a unique brand experience is important to the hotelindustry because customers are exposed to various brand-relatedstimuli as a part of marketing communications before they makepurchase decisions from numerous hotel companies. Accordingto Morgan-Thomas and Veloutsou’s (2013) study, brand experi-ence refers to “the individual’s internal subjective response to thecontact with an online brand” (p. 2). Brakus et al. (2009) viewbrand experience as customers’ sensations, feelings, cognitions,and behavioral responses evoked by brand-related stimuli (i.e., abrand’s design and identity, packaging, communications, and/orenvironments). As identified in Brakus et al.’s study, “brand expe-rience differs from evaluative, affective, and associative constructs,such as brand attitudes, brand involvement, brand attachment,customer delight, and brand personality” (p. 53), emphasizingthe importance of customers’ responses toward developing brandexperiences.

Due to the inherent nature of intangibility, hotels should havestrong and unique brand strategies that enable customers to differ-entiate each brand experience from others. With the developmentof advanced technology, brand experiences are not only derivedfrom actual consumption experiences, but also derived from a wide

range of experiences, such as an online search process (Brakus et al.,2009). It is critical for hotels to investigate how virtual environ-ments create customers’ meaningful brand experiences, which, inturn, will influence their responses. One of the important reasons

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otels need to create unique online brand experiences is because airtual environment (i.e., websites) serves as an important bridgehat drives customers’ online experiences to the offline visit. Annderstanding of how customer behavior can be transformed from

ndirect online experiences to offline environment experiencesay provide important insights into how customers develop their

elationships with hotels.Contingent upon customers’ online brand experiences, brand

atisfaction and brand loyalty can be enhanced (Brakus et al.,009; Frow and Payne, 2007). Companies (i.e., Starbucks) articu-

ate the importance of brand experience in their mission statemento build strong brand loyalty among competitors (Verhoef et al.,009). Even though dimensions of brand experience (Brakus et al.,009) and outcomes of brand experience (Ha and Perks, 2005;organ-Thomas and Veloutsou, 2013) have been investigated, few

tudies have documented factors that derive customers’ brandxperience in a virtual context. This study aims to investigatentecedents of online brand experience, based on congruity the-ry as a fundamental theoretical background. Congruity theoryOsgood and Tannenbaum, 1955) explains customers are moreikely to have favorable attitudes and behaviors when they holdongruent (similar) beliefs with objects or events. This study specif-cally investigates effects of different congruities on customers’nline brand experiences to better understand how each type ofongruity influences customers’ responses (i.e., brand experience,rust toward the hotel, and satisfaction with the hotel) in a hotelontext.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this research is therst attempt to investigate the effects of different types of con-ruity on customers’ online brand experiences in the context of theotel industry, filling an existing literature gap in the online brandxperience. This study also contributes to a better understand-ng of how online brand experiences influence customers’ trustnd satisfaction, signifying roles of providing brand experiences.eyond theoretical contributions of this study, this study will helpotel management develop favorable online brand experienceshat lead to positive customers’ responses. This is an importanthenomenon because customers tend to make decisions or developheir preferences after browsing hotel websites and/or during theirrowsing experiences. In turn, online experiences influence cus-omers’ responses. It is hoped this study can add current trends innline brand experience development to provide practical insightsor virtual marketing in a hotel setting.

. Theoretical background: congruity theory

Congruity theory explains a person is more likely to have pos-tive attitudes toward the object when an individual perceives anbject or a phenomenon is consistent with what s/he holds (Osgoodnd Tannenbaum, 1955). This phenomenon occurs due to theeduced dissonance between a person’s own opinions and an objectOsgood and Tannenbaum, 1955). Social psychology researchersi.e., Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955) assert outcomes of similar-ty effects are evidenced with the relationship quality (i.e., positiveelationship) and positive outcomes (i.e., satisfaction and affectiveommitment). In a similar vein, Festinger’s (1964) cognitive dis-onance theory explains customers are reluctant to change theirttitude and beliefs that result in dissonance with their attitudesnd beliefs. Since customers are psychologically uncomfortableolding cognitive dissonance, they tend to reduce any cognitive

ncongruity. When congruity theory is applied to the virtual envi-

onment, it is expected customers will transfer favorable attitudesnd behaviors toward the hotel, based on their website experiences.

The virtual environment is important in the hotel industryecause of its complex and experiential nature of the industry

pitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58

that inherently holds uncertainty and ambiguity characteristics(Brunelle, 2009). Since customers search information first beforethey make their purchase decisions, hotels should have effectivepromotional strategies to attract customers. Hotels create theirwebsites to promote their services and products to entice cus-tomers’ booking intentions by persuading their actual visits to theproperty. Congruity effects in the virtual environment are criticalin a sense that customers develop their responses, based on expo-sure to the website. Thus, customers’ positive website experience isbelieved to reflect their self-concept, channel congruence, and con-gruent values, leading to their positive responses. For instance, Choi(2008) has proposed a theory of shopping congruence betweenonline and offline stores in the retail context. Choi’s (2008) studyidentifies customers’ brand attitudes and their purchase intentionsare contingent on the level of consistency across channels.

Focusing on core marketing activities (i.e., interactive, external,and internal marketing) in service brands (Brodie, 2009), this studyexamines the role of customer-oriented (i.e., self-image congruity),company-oriented (i.e., online–offline brand image congruity), andcustomer–company relationship-oriented (i.e., value congruity)congruent factors to better understand how different types ofcongruities influence customers’ online brand experiences. Thesedifferent aspects of the congruity are also supported in the usesand gratification theory (Katz, 1959). Explaining individuals’ dif-ferent media-usage patterns, the uses and gratification theory hasbeen applied to new media like Internet (Chung and Austria, 2010;Sheldon, 2008). According to the uses and gratification theory,people use media to satisfy their needs, including (1) a content-oriented area (i.e., the information delivered by the media), (2) arelationship-oriented area (i.e., interaction), and (3) a self-orientedarea (i.e., individual needs). Customers’ needs in each area canbe replaced with the online–offline brand image congruity, valuecongruity, and self-image congruity, respectively, to explain cus-tomers’ goals to browse the hotel website and how each congruityis related to developing brand relationship with the hotel.

Self-image congruity is related to customer-focused congruitybecause customers purchase goods and services to express theirown self, fulfilling their psychological needs in addition to utili-tarian benefits (Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967). Self-image explainscustomers’ beliefs about their identities, lifestyles, and prefer-ences, representing their preferred (ideal self) and/or perceived(actual self) image. Online–offline brand image congruity repre-sents company-oriented congruity, since customers develop theirown perceptions across environments when evaluating the com-pany (Kwon and Lennon, 2009). For instance, when customers’expectations are met between online and offline environments,a holistic attitudinal transfer process occurs as a result of thecongruity effect. Value congruity is the interactive marketing per-spective as it explains the value similarity between the customerand the organization (i.e., hotel). Customers prefer to use productsand service that represent their personal values. If customers aregreen conscious, they are more likely to stay at an environmental-friendly hotel. With the unique characteristics of the hotel industry(i.e., intangibility and heterogeneity) (Lovelock and Wright, 2002),the role of value congruity lies in the delivery of distinctive brandimages to customers.

3. Literature review

3.1. Self-image congruity: customer-focused congruity

Customers are motivated to hold a set of beliefs about them-

selves (a self-concept) and behave in certain ways to reinforce theirself-concepts, supported in the self-congruity theory (Sirgy, 1986).Self-congruity theory explains customers’ tendencies to purchaseproducts and services congruent with their own self-image. Since

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ustomers ascribe symbolic value to brands, they prefer to interactith products and brands compatible with their self-image/self-

oncept. When customers perceive similarities or perceived fitetween their self-concept and the brand image, they tend toevelop favorable attitudes toward the brand (Sirgy et al., 1997).hen the perception of brands is similar to their self-concept, cus-

omers achieve “self-consistency” (Aaker, 1997). On the other hand,f customers encounter brands inconsistent with their self-concept,hey tend to experience dissonance, a state of mental stress.

Customers prefer to purchase brands perceived similar to theirelf-concept because they are able to achieve the stage of self-onsistency by doing so (Aaker, 1997). The need for self-consistencys derived from a self-concept motive that encourages people toehave consistent with how they view themselves (Epstein, 1980).or instance, people tend to stay where their actual or ideal self-mage is represented. Customers who view themselves as trendyre likely to stay in contemporary hotels, compared to classic hotels.or instance, Beerli et al.’s (2007) study identifies when perceivedestination image is similar to tourists’ self-concepts, they are more

ikely to visit the destination. A positive relationship between actualelf-congruity and customer behaviors, such as brand choice (Beerlit al., 2007) and purchase intentions (Gabisch and Gwebu, 2011;sakli and Baloglu, 2011) has been identified. Usakli and Baloglu

2011) confirm the positive relationship between self-congruitynd tourists’ behavioral intentions. Gabisch and Gwebu (2011) alsoupport the importance of self-image congruity on customers’ pur-hase intentions in the virtual environment setting.

.2. Online–offline brand image congruity: company-focusedongruity

Marketing activities through multi-channels have becomerevalent to reach more customers and to enhance relation-hips with customers (Kumar and Venkatesan, 2005). In spitef the extensive multichannel research in retailing literatureBadrinarayanan et al., 2012; Kwon and Lennon, 2009), little atten-ion has been paid to the importance of online–offline brand imageongruity in the hotel industry. Many hotels have at least twoifferent marketing channels—online and offline. Customers haveifferent responses toward the hotel, contingent on the perceivedongruity between online and offline environments. Online–offlinerand image congruity refers to a customer’s perceived compatibil-

ty between the online image and offline image, comparing onlinend offline environments in this study (Gabisch and Gwebu, 2011).

Online–offline brand image congruity is explained in thechema theory. Schema theory explains new entity information isrocessed through comparison with established schemas. Schemasescribe the cognitive structures that are derived from prior expo-ure to an object and/or kept in memory (Fiske and Linville, 1980).ccording to schema theory, it is predicted when salient and rel-vant hotel associations are available, image congruence followshat influence customers’ attitude toward two different channelsWalton and Bower, 1993). The magnitude of image congruence isontingent upon the level of congruence. According to schema the-ry, congruence facilitates attitudinal transfer between channelsFiske and Pavelchak, 1986). When customers perceive both chan-els similar to each other, congruence between the physical andnline environment is expected to influence customers’ responses.

Even though some physical hotel-related attributes may note able to transfer to the online environment, those salient hotelttributes should be included in both environments (Teltzrow et al.,007). For example, upscale, trendy, service-oriented hotel images

hould be reflected in both physical and virtual environments.ased on multi-channel congruence, Wang et al.’s (2009) studyonfirm the importance of congruity between online and offlinenvironments to have positive attitudes toward the company. Thus,

pitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58 51

hotel websites should be designed to provide consistency betweenonline and offline environments.

3.3. Value congruity: customer and companyrelationship-focused congruity

Representing a motivational construct and forming the psy-chological core of the self (Wade-Benzoni et al., 2002), valuesplay central roles in customers’ cognitive structure. Value con-gruity explains the perceived similarity between values held byindividuals and organizations (Chatman, 1989). Followed by theprevious study (Zhang and Bloemer, 2008), a ‘customer-hotel valuecongruity’ (called ‘value congruity’ in this study) refers to thesimilarity between a customer’s own personal values and his orher perceptions of the hotel’s values on its website. Value con-gruity is supported by the similarity-attraction theory (Byrne et al.,1967). Similarity-attraction theory explains people prefer to sus-tain relationships with others who are similar to them. When valuecongruity occurs, customers tend to have more favorable attitudestoward the hotel than when value congruity does not happen. Cableand Judge (1997) support enhanced communication and socialinteractions when people experience reduced cognitive dissonancewith the results of the similarity attraction.

Value congruity is considered a powerful human motivator todevelop and maintain relationships (Gaunt, 2006). The importanceof value congruity is supported by different disciplines, such aspsychology (Edwards and Cable, 2009), organizational behavior(Cable and Judge, 1997; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005), and mar-keting (Zhang and Bloemer, 2008). For instance, employees aremore satisfied with and committed to the organization, leadingto better performance when employees perceive organizationalvalues are consistent with their values. Related to brand success,De Chernatony et al. (2004) identify the importance of value asa key component for the success of a service brand. Due to theheterogeneity characteristics in the hotel industry (Zeithaml et al.,2006), investigating value congruity between personal values andperceived value of the hotel is important because when values arecongruent with each other, customers’ psychological outcomes (i.e.,trust, satisfaction, and positive behavioral intentions) tend to beenhanced (Zhang and Bloemer, 2008).

4. Hypotheses development

4.1. Factors affecting customer online brand experience

Effects of three different types of congruity, self-image con-gruity, online–offline brand image congruity, and value congruityon customers’ psychological outcomes are examined, derived fromthe core marketing activities of the service brands. These three con-gruities are supported by self-congruity theory, schema theory, andsimilarity-attraction theory, respectively, explaining customer-focused, company-focused, and interactive orientation of congruityeffects. Effects of self-image congruity are investigated respondingto customer-oriented congruity, part of the external marketingactivities in the service brand. Explained in self-congruity theory,the congruity of self-concept with the brand plays an importantrole in customer behavior, since it influences customers’ attitudesand behaviors toward the brand. Consistent with the self-congruitytheory, it is predicted when the hotel’s website fits with cus-tomers’ self-image, customers tend to have enhanced online brandexperiences and trust toward the brand, proposing the following

hypotheses:

H1. Self-image congruity positively influences customers’ onlinebrand experiences.

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on Qualtrics, by using the convenience sampling method. Theonline marketing research company’s panel was accessed to recruitrespondents for this study. Participants, who browsed hotels’ web-sites to plan their trip and booked the hotel via online, were

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2 S. Lee, M. Jeong / International Journal

2. Self-image congruity positively influences customers’ trustoward the hotel.

An online–offline brand image is investigated to captureompany-oriented congruity, focusing on the internal marketingf the service brand. Supported by the schema theory, when onlinend offline environments are synergistically operated, customers’xperiences tend to be enhanced, reinforcing the brand image ofhe hotel and strengthening customer loyalty toward the hotelKwon and Lennon, 2009). Derived from previous research in multi-hannel environments (Badrinarayanan et al., 2012; Kwon andennon, 2009), it is expected when a congruent online and offlinerand image is perceived, customers’ online brand experiences andrust are enhanced; thus, the following hypotheses are developed:

3. Online–offline image congruity positively influences cus-omers’ online brand experiences.

4. Online–offline image congruity positively influences cus-omers’ trust toward the hotel.

Capturing the interactive marketing component in the servicerand, value congruity involves the perceived fit between a cus-omer’s own values and his or her perceptions of the hotel’s valuesrovided on its website (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Explained inimilarity-attraction theory (Byrne et al., 1967), the role of valueongruity (Edwards and Cable, 2009; Zhang and Bloemer, 2008)redicts customers are more likely to have enhanced online brandxperience and trust toward the hotel, when customers perceivealue congruity between themselves and the hotel. Thus, the fol-owing hypotheses are posited:

5. Value congruity positively influences customers’ online brandxperiences.

6. Value congruity positively influences customers’ trust towardhe hotel.

.2. Outcomes of online brand experience: trust toward the hotelnd satisfaction with the hotel

Brand experience has been identified as an important factorhat influences customer perceptions of the brand and purchasingehaviors (Brakus et al., 2009). Originating from the importance ofustomer experience (Pine and Gilmore, 1999), brand experiencesxplain more concrete customers’ experiences, encouraging cus-omers to develop mental interactions with hotels (Brakus et al.,009). Capturing the customer’s internal subjective response withhe hotel brand, brand experiences occur through customers’ holis-ic perceptions developed from all possible exposures toward arand (Crosby and Lunde, 2008). With increasing roles of brandingnd severe competition among brands, hotels attempt to develop

strong brand experience that provides unique and distinctiverand perceptions to customers. With pleasant online brand expe-iences, (hotel) industry practitioners promote customers to visithe offline property. Customers are more likely to have a strongelationship with the brand through the strong and intensifiednline brand experiences. Accordingly, an enhanced relationshipith the brand leads to customers’ satisfaction with and loyalty

oward the brand (Brakus et al., 2009). Since brand experienceot only captures cognitive responses to a brand, but also influ-nces customers’ emotional processing of brand experiences, bothspects should be investigated when exploring effects of brandxperiences (Caruana and Ewing, 2010; Mollen and Wilson, 2010).

s a consequence of brand experiences, both brand trust and brandatisfaction are identified as consequences of customers’ positiverand experiences (Brakus et al., 2009; Ha and Perks, 2005). Thus,his study proposes the following hypotheses.

pitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58

H7. Online brand experiences positively influence customers’trust toward the hotel.

H8. Online brand experiences positively influence customers’ sat-isfaction with the hotel.

According to Coulter and Coulter (2002), trust toward a serviceprovider refers to customers’ perceived confidentiality, honesty,integrity, and high ethical standards toward the service provider.Trust is developed when customers have positive expectationstoward the service provider, which are results of consistent servicequality, fulfillment of customers’ needs, and service providers’ con-stant and reliable care on the customer’s interests (Liljander andRoss, 2002). Trust has been identified as one of the most importantcomponents, which leads to the success and long-term value of therelationship (Aijo, 1996).

According to the theories of disconfirmation of expectations,attribution, and equity, satisfaction was considered a cognitivestate and its typical antecedents were identified as expecta-tions and performance. Based on the definition of satisfaction,e-satisfaction refers to “the contentment of the customer withrespect to his/her prior purchase experiences with a given elec-tronic commerce firm” (Anderson and Srinivasan, 2003, p. 125).When customers have trust toward a brand, they are more likely tohave active involvement, overall satisfaction with the brand, and astronger confidence in their final decisions (Gretzel and Yoo, 2008).Thus, the following hypothesis is derived.

H9. Customers’ trust toward the hotel positively influences theirsatisfaction with the hotel.

4.3. A conceptual framework

Investigating a customer’s interactions with a brand withindifferent marketing channels is important. Dependent upon theperceived fit, effects of customers’ online brand experiences mightbe enhanced or hindered. This study proposes that customers’online brand experiences are contingent on their perceived con-gruity, incorporating three major marketing activities of the servicebrand strategies. As the conceptual model describes (see Fig. 1), thisstudy investigates the effects of three different congruities (i.e., self-image, online–offline brand image, and value) on customers’ onlinebrand experiences and their responses in the context of the hotelindustry.

5. Method

5.1. Data collection

An online self-administered survey was conducted, hosted

Value congruity H6

Fig. 1. Effects of congruity on customer responses.

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Table 1Sample characteristics (n = 322).

Characteristics Frequency Percentage

Preferable booking websiteHotel’s own website 184 57.1Travel website 99 30.7Opaque website 39 12.1Others 11 3.4

Frequency of hotel staysMore than once a month 52 16.1Once a month 39 12.1Once every 2–4 months 112 34.8Once every 5–8 months 75 23.3Once a year 34 10.6Less than once a year 10 3.1

Type of hotels for the recent tripBudget hotel 25 7.8Midscale hotel 152 47.2Upscale hotel 107 33.2Luxury hotel 23 7.1Bed and breakfast 2 0.6Resorts 13 4.0

GenderMale 165 51.6Female 155 48.4

Age18–24 years old 50 15.525–34 years old 111 34.535–44 years old 54 16.845–54 years old 43 13.455–65 years old 49 15.2Over 65 years old 15 4.7

EducationHigh school or below 70 21.9Associate degree 80 25Bachelor degree 114 35.6Master’s degree 47 14.7Doctoral degree 9 2.8

Note. The frequencies and percent may not sum to total due to missing values.

S. Lee, M. Jeong / International Journal

olicited to participate in this study. The online survey consisted ofour sections. The first section asked participants’ previous onlinend hotel brand experiences. The second section was about differ-nt types of congruity. The third part asked about online brandxperiences and customers’ responses. And, participants’ demo-raphic information was asked in the last section of the survey.

.2. Development of measures

All measurement items were adopted from previous studieso ensure validity and reliability issues. All measurement itemsere operationalized on a 5-point Likert-type scale, from 1 being

strongly disagree’ to 5 being ‘strongly agree.’ As antecedents ofnline brand experiences, three types of congruity were measured.easurement items of self-image congruity were adopted fromabisch and Gwebu’s (2011) study. Online–offline brand imageongruity was from the study of Carlson and O’Cass (2011) andalue congruity was from Jung and Avolio’s (2000) study. Threeependent variables were used in this study. Based on Morgan-homas and Veloutsou’s (2013) study, online brand experiencesere measured. Customers’ responses, brand trust toward the hotel

nd satisfaction with the hotel were measured, based on studies ofazodier and Merunka (2012) and Rose et al. (2012), respectively.The survey questions were refined and modified through a pro-

ess of an expert review and a preliminary survey. A pilot test wasonducted to ensure clarity of each question with 30 undergradu-te students. In addition, an expert in the service brand reviewedhe measurement items to ensure each item was consistent withhe context of the study.

. Results

.1. Characteristics of sample

The majority of the respondents was between 25 and 34 yearsld (35%), had a Bachelor’s degree (35%), and male (52%). Almost0% of the respondents used hotels’ websites to book rooms, fol-

owed by travel websites (i.e., expedia.com) (31%), and opaqueebsites (i.e., priceline.com) (12%). In terms of the frequency ofotel stays during the past 12 months, almost 35% of the par-icipants have stayed at a hotel once every two to four months.n addition, almost 47% of the respondents have stayed in mid-cale hotels for their most recent trip. Detailed information aboutespondents’ background and characteristics is described in Table 1.

.2. Data analysis

To investigate the different types of congruity effects onustomers’ online brand experiences and their responses, dataere analyzed based on Anderson and Gerbing’s (1988) two-step

pproach—confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equa-ion modeling (SEM). The LISREL 8.80 structural equation analysisackage was utilized to examine the theoretical framework pro-osed in this study. First, CFA was used to test the measurementodel (Hair et al., 1998). Based on the results from CFA, convergent

alidity and discriminant validity were investigated (Hair et al.,998).

Then, the structural relationships proposed in the hypothesesere analyzed, based on the SEM. Relying on the model’s goodness-

f-fit test, this study used a �2 test as the main reference, along withormed Fit Index (NFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Comparativeit Index (CFI), and the Root Mean Squared Error of ApproximationRMSEA) (Hoyle and Panter, 1995).

6.3. Validity and reliability tests

Inter-item reliability, composite reliability, average varianceextracted (AVE), and convergent validity were investigated to checkvalidity and reliability. Composite reliability is the reliability of asummated scale and AVE refers to the variance in the indicatorsexplained by the common factor. Convergent validity was investi-gated through composite reliability and average variance extracted(AVE). Checking inter-item reliability, values of Cronbach’s alpharanged from 0.78 to 0.94, showing an acceptable internal consis-tency for all constructs. Composite reliabilities of the six constructsranged from 0.68 to 0.94, representing acceptable ranges (Hair etal., 1998).

Construct validity was examined with convergent validity anddiscriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The values forcomposite reliability were greater than 0.7 and the values forAVE were greater than 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). In addi-tion, all confirmatory factor loadings were significant at the 0.001level, resulting in satisfactory convergent validity for each construct(Table 2).

According to the standardized solution of the factor loadingsin the measurement model, both convergent and discriminantvalidities were met. The larger factor loading supported conver-gent validity and the moderate to low trait correlations supporteddiscriminant validity. All AVE values were larger than the corre-sponding squared inter-construct correlation estimates, meetingdiscriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Thus, a theoret-

ically meaningful and statistically acceptable model was achievedin this study.

54 S. Lee, M. Jeong / International Journal of Hospitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58

Table 2Results of measurement model (n = 302).

Construct and measurement item Mean (standard deviation) Factor loading (error)

Brand satisfaction with the hotel (composite reliability = .90; AVE = 70.1%; ̨ = .911)This brand entirely fulfills my needs. 4.06 (.850) .83 (.31)This brand provides the results I want. 4.10 (.816) .89 (.21)This brand usually meets my expectations. 4.16 (.798) .82 (.33)I am very satisfied with the service provided by this brand. 4.14 (.832) .86 (.25)

Brand trust toward the hotel (composite reliability = .94; AVE = 78.5%; ̨ = .936)I trust this brand. 4.21 (.781) .91 (.17)This brand is reliable. 4.19 (.812) .88 (.22)This is an honest brand. 4.14 (.785) .89 (.21)This brand is safe. 4.15 (.823) .87 (.25)

Online brand experience (composite reliability = .88; AVE = 60.1%; ̨ = .88)The layout of the website is appealing. 3.99 (.877) .75 (.41)The hotel’s website is easy to navigate. 4.12 (.838) .77 (.41)Results are always returned promptly when browsing this website. 4.07 (.794) .82 (.33)The results of this website are always up-to-date. 4.02 (.830) .76 (.32)Accurate search results are always returned when browsing this website. 4.07 (.790) .75 (.34)

Self-image congruity (composite reliability = .68; AVE = 51.27%; ̨ = .78)This hotel brand is used by people similar to me. 4.04 (.845) .82 (.33)This hotel brand’s typical use is like me. 3.94 (.868) .91 (.17)

Online–offline brand image congruity (composite reliability = .92; AVE = 78.32%; ̨ = .911)The hotel’s website projects an image consistent with the hotel’s image. 4.13 (.845) .89 (.22)The hotel’s website fits with my image of the hotel. 4.15 (.813) .89 (.21)The hotel’s website’s image matches that for the hotel. 4.16 (.802) .86 (.25)

Value congruity (composite reliability = .86; AVE = 67.16%; ̨ = .927)I really support the intent of the core values of this hotel. 3.80 (.942) .91 (.18)I have a clear understanding of the core values of this hotel. 3.74 (.996) .91 (.17)

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I have a great deal of agreement about what this hotel’s core values represent.

.4. Confirmatory factor analysis

CFA was used to verify the factor structure of a set of observedariables to the underlying constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981;air et al., 1998). Even though a large �2 statistic indicated a poort, it should be noted that �2 was affected by the sample size, sug-esting the �2/df should be less than 3:1 (Jöreskog and Sörbom,989). In addition, when values of NFI, IFI, and CFI were between.9 and 1.0, the results indicated a good fit. RMSEA with a valueelow 0.80 was also suggested for the acceptable model fit (Byrne,998; Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000).

In this study, RMSEA equals 0.076, conveying an acceptableodel fit. According to the results of CFA, the goodness of

t indices of CFA were: �2(174) = 487.11, p = 0.000; �2/df = 2.79;FI = 0.98; NNFI = 0.98; IFI = 0.98; CFI = 0.99; GFI = 0.87; AGFI = 0.83;RMR = 0.03; RMSEA = 0.076, indicating an acceptable value forach model fit index. Therefore, it can be concluded the measure-ent model fits well with the data.

.5. Structural equation model

SEM was run to investigate the causal relationships of the con-tructs proposed in the theoretical framework. According to theesults of SEM, RMSEA equals 0.079, implying an acceptable modelt. Each model fit index value was also acceptable. The goodness-f-fit statistics for the structural model were: �2(177) = 513.64,

= 0.00; �2/df = 2.90; NFI = 0.98; NNFI = 0.98; IFI = 0.99; CFI = 0.99;FI = 0.86; AGFI = 0.82; SRMR = 0.03; RMSEA = 0.079. Results of theoodness-of-fit statistics suggested the model fit was acceptable.

.6. Hypotheses testing

As shown in Table 3, eight hypotheses were supported out

f nine proposed hypotheses. Hypotheses 1 and 2 investigatedffects of self-image congruity on customers’ online brand expe-iences and brand trust. Self-image congruity influenced bothustomers’ online brand experiences ( ̌ = .31, p < 0.000) and trust

3.78 (.924) .89 (.21)

toward the hotel ( ̌ = .39, p < 0.000); therefore, supporting H1 andH2. Online–offline brand image congruity also influenced cus-tomers’ online brand experiences ( ̌ = .45, p < 0.000) as well as trusttoward the hotel ( ̌ = .26, p < 0.000); therefore, supporting H3 andH4. However, effects of value congruity only influenced brand trust( ̌ = .19, p < 0.000), not supporting the relationship between valuecongruity and customers’ online brand experiences ( ̌ = .01, not sig-nificant). The relationship between value congruity and customers’online brand experience might not be supported, because this studydid not incorporate each individual’s characteristics. When valuecongruity was investigated, individual characteristics played animportant role. Previous studies (Jehn et al., 1997; Meglino et al.,1989) on value congruence identified important roles for each indi-vidual’s characteristics on the effects of value congruence in thecontext of organization and employees’ perceived value fit.

As outcomes of online brand experiences, both trust towardthe hotel ( ̌ = .47, p < 0.000) and brand satisfaction with the hotel( ̌ = .39, p < 0.000) were influenced with online brand experiences.Customers’ trust toward the hotel also influenced brand satisfac-tion ( ̌ = .64, p < 0.000). The results of the hypotheses testing aredescribed in Table 3, explaining t-values and the standardizedparameter estimates.

7. Discussions

The central idea of this paper was to investigate different typesof congruities on customers’ online brand experiences and theirresponses in the hotel context. Hotels utilize cross-channels mar-keting strategies to augment their results from marketing activities(Zhang et al., 2010; Keller, 2010). If hotels better understand rolesof the online environment, they can maximize the effects of thevirtual environment to sustain the relationship with customers.This study investigated three kinds of congruities, based on the

key marketing activities in service brand (i.e., internal, external,and interactive marketing). Results from this study supported cus-tomers were more likely to have favorable responses when theyperceived (1) the subjective fit with the self-concept, (2) the image

S. Lee, M. Jeong / International Journal of Hospitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58 55

Table 3Results of structural model (n = 302).

Structural path Beta t-Value Hypotheses testing

Self-image congruity → online brand experience (H1) .31*** 4.31 SupportedSelf-image congruity → trust (H2) .39*** 4.80 SupportedOnline–offline brand image congruity → online brand experience (H3) .45*** 7.72 SupportedOnline–offline brand image congruity → trust (H4) .26*** 3.74 SupportedValue congruity → online brand experience (H5) .01 0.21 Not supportedValue congruity → trust toward the hotel (H6) .19*** 2.71 SupportedOnline brand experience → trust toward the hotel (H7) .47*** 5.13 SupportedOnline brand experience → satisfaction with the hotel (H8) .39*** 5.46 SupportedTrust toward the hotel → satisfaction with the hotel (H9) .64*** 9.85 Supported

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FI = .98, IFI = .99, GFI = 0.86, RMSEA = .079, CFI = .99.*** p < 0.001.

ongruence between the hotels’ websites and the actual property,nd (3) the compatibility between values provided on the web-ite and values they kept, in accordance with results of previoustudies (Kwon and Lennon, 2009; Kumar and Venkatesan, 2005).epresenting the potential of congruity effects, this study providedmpirical support that congruity played a key role in influencingustomers’ online brand experiences and their responses, such asrand trust and brand satisfaction.

Self-image congruity was investigated to examine theustomer-oriented congruity. Should hotels need to investesources in developing marketing communications strategies thateinforce customers’ self-concept on their websites? Results fromhis study promoted online communication strategies should aimo heighten customers’ self-congruity. Hotels need to incorporate

arketing communication components that intrigue customers’elf-concept and/or hotel brand’s self-concept to enhance theirelf-congruity, providing coherent feelings to prospective cus-omers. Consistent with previous studies (Gabisch and Gwebu,011; Kressmann et al., 2006; Usakli and Baloglu, 2011), self-imageongruity was identified as an important factor that influencedustomers’ online brand experiences and trust toward the hotelrand. That is, images of guests staying at a hotel or a hotel brand’s

mage should correspond to customers’ self-concepts to enhanceheir experiences. The perceived fit between the self-concept andhe brand image is important, since meaningful and memorablenline brand experiences can be a useful means to persuadeustomers to the actual visit to the hotel. Kressmann et al.’s2006) study, for instance, identified the importance of self-imageongruity to influence product involvement, relationship quality,nd brand loyalty. When a brand was perceived consistent withhe customers’ self-concept, the similarity effect led to a positiveffect on their evaluation of the brand.

As a way to evaluate company-oriented congruity,nline–offline brand image congruity was investigated.nline–offline brand image congruity was identified as sig-ificant to influence customers’ online brand experiences andrust toward the brand as predicted (Carlson and O’Cass, 2011). Asdentified in this study, retaining image congruity between onlinend offline environments is important to enhance customers’rand experiences and their brand trust. Hotels need to manage

mage congruence between channels not only to improve brandrust, but also to heighten the brand experience that would bearried over from the online environment to the actual physicalnvironment. A customer’s interaction with a brand in the virtualnvironment may provide important information about the cus-omer’s desire to visit the actual hotel, supplying the hotel with anpportunity to develop a relationship with customers. The image

etween hotel website and actual property should be consistento advance the attitude transfer process. Hotels should developnline communication strategies that augment the perceived fitetween these two environments and maintain similarities of the

salient hotel attributes across channels. By doing so, hotels canmaintain image congruence, and positively facilitate the formationof brand experience and brand trust toward the hotel.

Results from this study confirmed the importance of imageintegration between channels to enhance customers’ online brandexperiences. This implied customers compared across channels andevaluated attributes in both online and offline environments todrive their responses. O’Cass and Grace (2008) identified imagecongruence influenced customers’ service experiences, as well asperceived value for the money spent on the service. Carlson andO’Cass (2011) also advocated the importance of multi-channel con-gruity, since it influenced customers’ attitudes and their loyalty.Therefore, a hotel website should convey an image consistent withits symbolic offline brand image so customers’ experiential needscan be congruent with their expectations in both online and offlineenvironments.

This study investigated value congruity to better understandthe importance of consistency between personal values and hotelbrand values. Consistent with the study of Zhang and Bloemer(2008), results from this study verified the importance of value con-gruity. Since one of the unique characteristics of the hotel industryis intangibility, values represented on the hotel website might fillthe gap of tangible attributes of the hotel when customers evaluatethe hotel (Berry, 1995). Hotel websites should incorporate market-ing communication strategies that deploy the hotel’s values. Whencustomers easily compare and see similarities between the corevalues of the hotel and their values, they are more likely to havea positive response when these two values are compatible witheach other. Service can be emphasized or people can be signifiedfor the core values of the hotel. For instance, customers who placepriority on people perceive the values of Marriott International ascompatible because Marriott puts its core values of placing peo-ple first followed by pursuing excellence, embracing change, actingwith integrity and serving our world. Although value congruity didnot have an effect on customers’ online brand experiences, valuecongruity influenced customers’ trust toward the brand.

As indicated in similarity-attraction theory, customers tend tohave a positive relationship with the hotel when they perceivethe hotel values correspond to their values. However, the effectsof value congruity on customers’ online brand experience mightbe contingent upon individuals’ differences, identified in previousstudies (Jehn et al., 1997; Meglino et al., 1989). If customers takea trip for the purpose of leisure activities, they are more likely toengage with the website, taking into account values and/or brandof the hotel; whereas, if customers visit the hotel for business pur-poses, their involvement with the hotel website tends to be low,due to each customer’s situational difference.

Understanding the conditions that lead to positive customerresponses is a complex phenomenon that overlaps with differentboundaries (Rose et al., 2012). Derived from the empirical results ofthe proposed model, different types of congruities were important

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rivers that attributed to customers’ responses. The conceptualodel developed in this study challenged the antecedents of

ustomer–brand relationship outcomes by introducing differentypes of congruities as important antecedents to explain theelationship between the virtual environment and customers’esponses. Collectively, results from this study suggested brandxperience and brand trust were contingent upon three differentypes of congruity effects in the hotel industry.

. Conclusions

.1. Theoretical contributions and managerial implications

Overall, results of this study contribute to a clearer under-tanding of perceived congruity effects and their implications ononsumers’ online brand experiences and their responses. From

theoretical standpoint, this study proposes a conceptual frame-ork that integrates and extends existing explanations of congruity

ffects on consumer responses. This framework is a step forwardoward theorizing congruity effects, given the current attempts toxplain online brand experiences are piecemeal and incomplete,nd the combined effects of linking different types of congruitieso consumer responses have received little attention. This studyerves as one of the first attempts to empirically investigate theffects of different types of congruities on consumers’ online brandxperiences and their responses. The current study adds additionalupport to the existing literature by identifying customers who per-eive congruity effects with hotel brands, are more likely to haveositive outcomes.

This study also provides useful insights on online brandxperiences. Considering the skyrocketing competition and themportance of brand power, roles of online brand experiencesave become significant. More and more consumers rely on brandower to make decisions and prefer to choose familiar brands. More

mportantly, since the hotel industry holds intangibility in its char-cteristics, online brand experiences play a critical role to persuadeonsumers to actually stay with a hotel. Unlike previous studiesi.e., Brakus et al., 2009), this study builds antecedents of onlinerand experiences by incorporating the congruity theory.

In addition, compared to self-image congruity and online andffline brand image congruity, value congruity has received littlettention. Although recent research has acknowledged the impor-ance of value in the hotel industry and the importance of valueongruity has been identified in other disciplines (Edwards andable, 2009; Zhang and Bloemer, 2008), the issues of value con-ruity in the virtual environment are underexplored. Since fewtudies have examined the importance of congruity effects on con-umers’ responses, this study serves as a stepping-stone or baselineo provide an insightful understanding of the roles of value con-ruity in the hotel industry.

Beyond theoretical contributions, this study provides usefuluidelines for practitioners of the hotel industry. In this study, theole of different types of congruities is examined. This study detectsongruity as an important driver for the customer–brand relation-hip as well as identifies various influential congruent factors foruccessful hotel brand strategies. Considering these findings, usefuluidelines for industry practitioners can be inferred. Hotel web-ites are an excellent tool for marketing, since they influence theelationship between customer and hotel brand. The goal of annline environment marketing strategy is to trigger customers’uriosity on their visit to the actual property. This study pro-

ides implications for hotel management on different congruitiesustomers perceive when they browse the website, suggestinghe importance of perceived fit in pre-visit stages for actual visittages.

pitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58

Hotel managers should embrace an online channel to incor-porate it into their operational and marketing strategies becausecreating a webpage and generating traffic are insufficient to builda relationship with customers. To design better virtual platformsand a more efficient use of a website for marketing purposes, hotelsshould understand the different kinds of congruities perceived bycustomers, since each congruity influences their responses (i.e.,online brand experiences, trust, and satisfaction). This study’sresults demonstrate the importance of congruity effects in the vir-tual environment, in addition to the service quality or informationquality that previous studies (i.e., Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2003)have supported.

A hotel website should foster a sense of self-concept, imagecongruity, and value congruity contents to its customers becausethese different types of congruities encourage customers to visitthe actual hotel. Catering to target customers’ needs, a hotel web-site should fully portray their self-image as a strategic tool forenhancing their brand experience. For instance, customers shouldbelieve the kind of people who stay at a hotel is very similar tothem. When customers do not perceive the fit between themselvesand the hotel brand, their online brand experiences and behaviorscould be hindered. Thus, hotel websites can enhance the self-imagecongruity by providing compatibility between the hotel and its cus-tomers as well as the perceived fit between customers and othercustomers.

Hotels might conduct research to identify target and loyal cus-tomers’ profiles. They can track who regularly stays at the hoteland/or who are the emerging market segments. Once these dif-ferent market segments have been identified, hotels can triggerself-image congruity on their websites to attract these markets,encouraging their brand experiences. Hotels can even utilize othervirtual platforms, such as social media to embed the self-congruity.Prospective customers can read the hotel’s experiences of othercustomers, especially those who are similar to their self-image. Tospark customers’ self-image congruity, hotels need to frequentlyupdate their current events. With current events and other cus-tomers on the hotel website as well as other virtual platforms,prospective customers are able to project their desire for self-image congruity. When customers experience self-image congruitythrough the hotel’s website, they might become more involvedwith the hotel brand, therefore, maximizing their brand experi-ences.

In addition, many hotels hold at least two marketing channelsfor their operational and marketing efficiencies; thus, it is impor-tant to know how these different channels play a role to formcustomers’ experiences and responses. Hotels should understandoperational issues of managing multichannel settings, and need torecognize similarities and differences of customers’ expectationsfor the online and offline environments to see compatibility of thesetwo channels. Additionally, hotels need to know customers’ expec-tations from their website to provide online–offline brand imagecongruity. The spillover effect might increase or decrease cus-tomers’ brand experiences, depending upon the congruity betweenonline and offline brand images. Hotels keep their website imageconsistent with the physical environment.

Even though online–offline brand image congruity is important,if either environment is better or worse than the other, hotels mightneed to distance one from the other, blocking the spillover effectsfrom one environment to the other environment. For instance, ifcustomers like the hotel’s image, the hotel should retain its web-site image consistent with its offline image, because keeping asimilar image between the two contexts will encourage guests to

draw from their pre-existing positive attitudes toward the hotelwhen developing their attitudes toward its website. On the otherhand, if customers do not like the hotel’s image, then the hotelshould attempt to distance itself from customers’ currently held

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erceptions toward the hotel to prevent a negative attitude transferrocess.

Furthermore, hotels need to recognize the role of valueongruity, since it sustains a long-term relationship between cus-omers and hotels. Developing brand values that fit with customers’alues might have important consequences toward building atrong relationship between customers and hotel brands. Eachotel pursues and aims to deliver different values to its customers,ased on its representative market segments. Hotel managersight utilize a list of values to differentiate their brands from others

nd to provide unique components of their brand values, in accor-ance with their target markets. In particular, hotel brand managershould identify which values are perceived important to their tar-et customers. For instance, the Schwartz Value Survey (Schwartz,994) can be used to identify target customers’ values and develophe hotel’s values (Zhang and Bloemer, 2008).

Since the effects of value rely on the interaction between hotelsnd customers, hotel websites should be a venue for both party’sialog to build dynamic and interactive relationships. To enhancehe value congruity, hotels might scan social media to be atten-ive to customers’ core values. If the hotel website does not deliveralue for the customers on a regular basis, people will lose theirnterest in the hotel, ultimately turning to a different hotel, which

ight carry similar values with them. Using the different virtuallatforms, hotels can announce their core values on a public siteo attract more attention from customers. Their pursuit of holding

unique value can be promoted through different communicationhannels, such as social media and word-of-mouth communica-ions. For instance, if a hotel decides to implement sustainabilityalue in its operational practices, its activities and practices cane promoted on its website to target the environmental sensitiveroup of customers, shooting the value congruity between the hotelnd these target customers. As a result, this study strongly encour-ges hotel management to rethink how they communicate andhare their values with customers, and sustain core values of botharties for trust building.

A customer’s behavior is not always rational or logical, whichequires the need to investigate heuristic factors other than sys-ematic factors (i.e., information quality or design quality) tonderstand a customer’s response. As the findings of this study

ndicate, self-image congruity, online–offline brand image con-ruity, and value congruity are important for customers to enhanceheir online brand experiences. Hotel websites inherently holdustomer- and relational-oriented perspectives, in addition to theransactional purpose. This study also provides the importance ofongruity between customers and hotel brands in the hotel indus-ry context. For instance, prospective customers are more likelyo have increased trust and satisfaction when hotel websites areerceived to have a subjective fit. Since the hotel alone cannoteliver value or an experience on its website, the hotel shoulde attentive to customers’ self-concept, their evaluations on thehannel congruity, and their perceived value congruity.

.2. Suggestions for future research

Even though this study identifies a key, yet under-explored area,t has some inherent suggestions, calling for additional research.irst, this study collects data, based on a convenience samplingethod. Results from this study lack generalizability. Even though

election criteria are used to sort out valid respondents, a broadernd more representative sample would be preferable in futureesearch. For instance, findings of this study might be different

etween people who have previous experiences with the hotelrand and those who have no previous experiences with the hotelrand. In addition, a future study may employ a different studyesign to further validate the proposed model. This study focuses

pitality Management 40 (2014) 49–58 57

on the cross-sectional survey study design, but a future studywould be encouraged to conduct an experimental design, control-ling other external factors to increase the internal validity of thestudy. Following previous congruence research, this study inves-tigates different types of congruities as antecedents of customers’online brand experiences. A reverse process might occur as well, ifcustomers have had experiences with the hotel brand. Value con-gruity might be developed after customers become loyal to thehotel brand. It would be also recommended for future research inidentifying how customers’ brand trust and satisfaction influencedifferent types of congruities.

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