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This article was downloaded by: [Northeastern University] On: 05 November 2014, At: 19:31 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrd20 Enhancing Content Literacy in Physical Education Cathy Buell & Andrea Whittaker a a Teacher education , San Jose State University , San Jose , CA , 95192 Published online: 24 Feb 2013. To cite this article: Cathy Buell & Andrea Whittaker (2001) Enhancing Content Literacy in Physical Education, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 72:6, 32-37, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2001.10605768 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2001.10605768 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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Page 1: Enhancing Content Literacy in Physical Education

This article was downloaded by: [Northeastern University]On: 05 November 2014, At: 19:31Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & DancePublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrd20

Enhancing Content Literacy in Physical EducationCathy Buell & Andrea Whittaker aa Teacher education , San Jose State University , San Jose , CA , 95192Published online: 24 Feb 2013.

To cite this article: Cathy Buell & Andrea Whittaker (2001) Enhancing Content Literacy in Physical Education, Journal ofPhysical Education, Recreation & Dance, 72:6, 32-37, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2001.10605768

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2001.10605768

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of theContent. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon andshould be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable forany losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use ofthe Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Page 2: Enhancing Content Literacy in Physical Education

Enhancing Content literacyin Physical Education

CATHY BUELL ANDREA WHITTAKER

Physical educators often objectwhen their classes are used aslaboratories for reading and

writing instruction (O'Brien &Stewart, 1990; Tannehill, Romar, &O'Sullivan, 1994). Yet, their argumentthat class time should be used solelyfor movement only serves to perpetu­ate the myth that physical activity issomehow isolated from the rest oflifeand, in the case of schoolchildren,from education. If physical perfor­mance is to be effective, more thanjust movement practice is required.

Unfortunately, little is found in theprofessional literature to helppreservice and inservice teachers seethe links between physical educationand literacy. In fact, until recently, fewpreservice programs in secondary edu­cation required potential physical edu­cators to take courses in language andliteracy. This reluctance to include lit­eracy in physical education may bebased on confusion about the differ­ence between general literacy skillsand content literacy. As McKenna andRobinson (1990) explained,

Content literary can be defined as theability to use reading and writingfor the acquisition of new contentin a given discipline. Such abilityincludes three principal cognitivecomponents: general literacy skills,content-specific literacy skills (suchas map reading in the social stud­ies), and prior knowledge of con­tent. (p. 184)

While general literacy skill is theability to make meaning through read­ing, writing, visual aids, and reason­ing, content literacy in physical edu-

32

cation means that students can usegeneral literacy skills to acquire knowl­edge in a specific movement, sport, orfitness context.

The first part of this article intro­duces some of McKenna and Robin­son's (1990) ideas as a framework foranalyzing why and how content lit­eracy plays an important role in physi­cal education. The succeeding sectionselaborate a number of general andspecific instructional strategies thatphysical educators can use to buildboth content-learning and general-lit­eracy skills. The final section suggestsways ofassessing conten t literacy basedon these instructional strategies.

Content Literacyin Physical EducationAs suggested above, content literacy isoften misunderstood by teachers. Thefollowing sections attempt to claritycontent literacy and its role in physi­cal education.

Content literary is content-specific. Tobe literate in a content area is not toknow that content per se, but to beable to read, write, and think about itas effective means of learning stillmore about it. Content literacy is notthe same as content knowledge (theavailable knowledge about a particu­lar subject), but prior knowledge ofcontent helps to build content literacy,and vice versa. Even though generalliteracy skills apply in all content ar­eas, content literacy-knowing howand when to use reading, writing, andthinking skills in a particular subjectarea-will vary and must be taughtexplicitly. Content literacy comprisesall of the skills needed to develop,

understand, and reflect on content.Content litemcJ is germane to all sub­

ject areas, not just those relying heavily onprinted materials. As suggested byMcKenna and Robinson (1990),"While the primary presentation maycomprise lecture or demonstrationrather than reading, and while theprincipal domain involved may bepsychomotor rather than cognitive,content acquisition nevertheless in­variably includes an understanding ofkey concepts and their interrelation­ships" (p. 185). This understandingcan be acquired through a variety ofcontent-oriented literacy strategies.Successful performance in physicaleducation requires critical thinking;students must plan, investigate, rea­son, strategize, and reflect. They mustemploy metacognition (thinking aboutthinking) in order to evaluate theircurrent level of understanding abouteffective performance, analyze alter­native strategies, and improve (Tish­man & Perkins, 1995). While this levelof engagement does not require read­ing or writing, multiple avenues ofexpression can only serve to augmentthe performer's active participationin the improvement process.

Further, reading and writing pro­vide students with ways to connect theirclass activities with other aspects oftheir lives and to take an active role inlearning. For example, teachers oftenverballv provide the rules for a par­ticular game and have the studentslearn them as they play. However, thestudents' understanding might be en­hanced if they are given the rules inwriting. They can then be asked toselect several of the rules and write

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Table 1. SampleTopics for JournalWriting or Qu·ickWrites

o Explain one rule that we used today and why it is important to the game.

o Describe how much effort you put into the activity today.

o Give one example of how you did or did not display ethical (fair play)behavior during the games today.

o Select one skill from the current activity and analyze your current levelof expertise.

o Choose one word that is specific to this activity and write your owndefinition for it.

o Give examples of how your team did or did not cooperate (show team­work) today.

• Give two technique cues that you think might help someone perform_____ [a skill] more successfully.

o Explain one thing that you learned about [a sport orphysical activity] by reading the newspaper or finding information onthe internet.

o Set one goal for yourself for the next class.

o Make one suggestion about how the skills we worked on today could bepracticed in a way that would help you learn them better.

• Why did/didn't you do something physically active over the weekend?

o What kinds of activities do you do with your family that have specialfamily, cultural, or religious meaning? Is movement a part of theseactivities?

• If! could be a really skilled performer, I would like to be a...

o One idea I can use to help a family member become more physicallyactive is...

o A question about this class (or activity) that I need answered is...

o One thing that would motivate me to do better in physical education is...

o Today I did/didn't reach the goal I set for myself yesterday because ...

about why and how each rule is im­portant to effective or safe game play.This type of assignment, given ashomework, assures that the studentswill: (1) review the rules betweenclasses, (2) see how the rules look inwriting, and (3) engage in criticalthinking-an active learning strategythat may also help them relate theneed for rules in a game to the needfor rules in general.

Content literacy has the potential tomaximize content acquisition. Good con­tent-area teaching enhances direct-in­struction models (e.g., lecture anddemonstration) with literacy activitiesthat help students make their ownmeaning and pursue content on theirown, according to their personal in­terests. For example, when studentshave learned the technical languageof sports, fitness, or movement, theycan use this language to read manualson how to improve their performance.In addition, such learning allows stu­dents to interpret sports informationand become more educated consum­ers of sports-related products.

Content literacy does not require con­tent-area teachers to instruct students inthe mechanics of writing or reading. Amajor concern of physical educatorsis that they do not have time to teachboth their subject area and generalliteracy. Rather than helping studentslearn to read and write, however,content literacy helps students readand write to learn. In content liter­acy, reading and writing are comple­mentary tasks that can be used tofollow direct instruction or demon­stration. Students can construct theirown meanings for the concepts re­lated to a demonstration and thenuse writing to explain, analyze, sum­marize, or evaluate what they havelearned, further refining their under­standing. The criteria for assessingsuch learning (as we will discuss morefully later in this article) focus ondepth of thinking and selection ofappropriate information rather thanon reading or writing skill.

However, if physical educators tryto foster content literacy using textfrom their college courses or from

widely available trade materials, theymay unknowingly present obstacles tounderstanding, since such writing of­ten exceeds students' reading levels.Because physical educators have toteach such mixed-ability groups, it isimportant that they know the approxi­mate reading and writing levels oftheirstudents; this way, activities can bestructured to help students use read­ing and writing to support contentlearning at their own level. The fol­lowing section offers suggestions forsuch activities that meet the needs ofstudents with a variety of reading andwriting abilities.

Fostering Content LiteracyContent literacy and reading can beincluded in physical education insubtle but highly relevant ways, with­out taking up excessive class time. The

gym, locker room, and surroundingareas can be made into print-rich en­vironments that support content lit­eracy. For example, the rules of thegymcan be posted for students to read.Bulletin boards with short articlesabout sports, athletes, physical activ­ity, health, and fitness may entice stu­dents to read further. Issues related tophysical activity, ethics, or fair playcan be posted before class so that stu­dents can read and think about thecontent before discussion. A "strategyof the day" might also be posted onthe wall when students enter the gymso that they can read and begin toprocess how the strategy will affectgame play. Similarly, a "word for theday" might be posted and then dis­cussed or analyzed during warm-upsas a means for students to focus oncontent-specific vocabulary.

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Web Diagram:organize topics or categories

Hierarchy:organize ideas from general to specific

Venn Diagram:compare and contrast

Matrix:compare and contrast using rowsand columns

Flow Chart:display a process or cycle...~...

t 1.....

Cycle:display a processthat repeats

T-Graph:compare another's quoteor idea with your own

her students understand a text thatdescribed such exercise. Before read­ing, the students were given severalcategories or main ideas that theycould use to activate prior knowledgeand experience and to guide theirreading. After reading, small groupsof students compiled details from thetext into the web diagram. A whole­class discussion then provided an op­portunity for students to compare theirdiagrams and generate additionalideas for the topic (see figure 2 for thecompleted web).

Writing can also be incorporatedin a physical education class in waysthat take little time away from physicalactivity. For instance, students can usestructured note-taking formats duringlectures about strategies, rules, or tech­niques. Journal writing and "quickwrites" are particularly effective waysto bring writing and reflection intophysical education. For example, atthe end of an instructional segment,students might be given a few minutesto record their performance, reflecton their participation, set a goal forthe next day, or pose a question forthe teacher to address. See table 1 fora list of potential journal topics orquick-write prompt~.

Teachers may also use task cardsthat include instructions for the activ­ity and/or cues for performance thatrequire the students to read, makedecisions, and take responsibility fortheir own learning. Another simplewriting task is a student-designedplaybook. Teams might create aplaybook describing and illustratingstrategies that the students hope to

use during tournament play. Teamsmight also design practice drills to beused during their pre-game warm-up.

While each of these suggestions of­fers ways to integrate content literacyday to day, more complex tools can beeven more effective in helping stu­dents develop content-literacy andgeneral-literacy skills. Graphical orga­nizers and other visuals (such as VennDiagrams, charts, webs, clusters, t­graphs, and posters) often help stu­dents understand the relationshipsbetween key ideas (figure 1). Simpli­fied text containing the most impor­tant ideas can be arrayed visually tosupport students' understanding. En­glish-language learners and otherswho are frequently mainstreamed intophysical education classes will likelybenefit from graphical organizers thatreduce the linguistic demands ofcom­plex text or speech and that clearlydepict links between concept~,actions,and facts. For example, one teacherin a high school fitness class used aweb diagram summarizing key aspectsof aerobic exercise in order to help

Quote or ideafrom a text

Your own ideasor comments

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English-language learners couldalso work together with their teachersto create handouts in multiple lan­guages that summarize key conceptsand reinforce understanding of rulesor procedures. Teachers can providegraphical illustrations of techniquesor strategies as well, and then havesuch students write verbal descriptionsin English and in their native language.

Another way to develop content lit­eracy is through "think-alouds." Athink-aloud engages students in ver­balizing their thinking to themselveswhile performing a skill or strategyand in analyzing their processes, suc­cesses, and challenges. Thinking aloudhelps to make explicit the underlyingphysical and mental steps in a processand to focus the students on what theyare doing well and what needs work.Thinking aloud can also serve a moti­vational purpose by challenging stu­dents to continue even when facedwith difficulties. This process ofmoni­toring one's performance can build"metacognitive awareness" or self-regu­lation that can be used in learningsituations outside of sport and physi­cal activity.

Newspaper and magazine articlesand web sites can also be used to teachcontent and support students as read­ers and writers. Students might ana­lyze articles, write about connectionsto their everyday lives (McKenna &Robinson, 1990), relate what they readto their own experiential knowledge,or indicate new information that theyhave gathered. For example, during atrack-and-field unit, a middle schoolteacher asked her students to researcha particular track-and-field athlete orevent. Students located articles ontheir chosen topic through web orlibrary searches, summarized thesearticles, and identified at least twoconcepts that they learned from thearticles. This assignment, given by afirst-year teacher in the early days of anew school year, set the tone for bothactive student learning and criticalthinking and helped the students re­late what they were doing to the worldoutside of physical education class.

Additional ideas for implementing

August 2001 • JOPERD • Vol. 72 No.6

reading and writing in physical educa­tion include:

• Playing charades on rules or othertopics and then writing about whatwas learned

• Analyzing videos of games orevents (or even live events themselves)

• Usingjudging forms• Completing peer observations• Designing a new or modified game• Creating posters or other visuals

accompanied by written explanation.

Assessing Content LiteracyCurrent thinking in education sug­gests that assessment must be inte­grated with the teaching process andprovide meaningful information aboutstudent learning (National Associationfor Sport and Physical Education[NASPE], 1995). Therefore, teachersshould use a range ofassessment tech­niques and measures that "reflect im­portant subject content, ... enhancelearning through a connection withthe instruction, [and] ... provide reli­able evidence ofstudent performance"(NASPE, p. vii). Content literacy inphysical education includes both "whatstudents should know" and "what stu­dents should be able to do," in alldomains. Employing strategies to de­velop content literacy ensures that stu­dents will have opportunities to dem­onstrate multiple ways ofknowing andtheir current levels of learning. Au­thentic assessment, based on a dem­onstration of content literacy, com­municates to students, administrators,and parents both "what is valued inphysical education and how studentsare progressing toward specific goals"(NASPE, p. viii).

Again, reading material providedto students must be at a level thatallows them to comprehend the con­tent. Teachers can use a simple "cloze"test on a text to ensure that it is writ­ten at an appropriate level (Bormuth,1968, and Taylor, 1953, as cited inAIverman & Phelps, 1998). Here arethe directions for such a test:

• Beginning with a randomly se­lected word in the second sentence ofthe text, delete every fifth word until20 words have been removed.

• Ask students to read the alteredtext on their own and make guessesabout the missing words. Let themknow in advance that this guessingwill be difficult. Encourage them todraw on past experience with the topicand to use the surrounding text tosupport their guesses. If they can fig­ure out 40-to-60 percent of the miss­ing words, then the text is at theirinstructional level.

• Once students have made theirguesses, reveal the deleted words, dis­cuss strategies that the students usedto make their guesses, and ask themto calculate their score (allow them toearn a correct score for very closesynonyms as well as exact matches).

This test takes only about 15 min­utes to administer, and it gives teach­ers a reasonable understanding of thereading level of individuals and wholeclasses. The cloze test also helps stu­dents recognize the strategies that theyuse to make sense of text (e.g., usingprior knowledge, predicting, usingknowledge of syntax and other con­text cues). They can transfer thesestrategies to reading in physical edu­cation and other courses, thereby pro­moting literacy development in gen­eral as well as content literacy in physi­cal education.

Once teachers identify appropriatereading levels using the cloze test, theycan select materials for use with wholeclasses or groups of students. In addi­tion, the cloze process helps teachersidentify which aspects of the text areposing difficulties for students andwhich content-specific terms are un­familiar. After identifying these diffi­culties, teachers can plan vocabularylessons that help students learn theterms needed to understand and par­ticipate in a new activity. For example,an article on weight training may in­clude unfamiliar names of musclegroups, weight equipment, or liftingtechniques. The results of a cloze testcan help teachers single out such con­cepts to teach in an explicit and mean­ing-eentered way in the gym and inthe classroom.

Students also need support whenwriting reports if the teacher is going

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to grade the quality of their under­standing as exhibited within such re­ports. To give this support, teacherscould do the following:

• Provide clear guidelines for whatwill need to be included.

• Share the rubric or scoring guidewhen the assignment is given ratherthan keeping expectations secret.

• Allow some in-elass time for gath­ering resources (web, text, etc.).

• Encourage students to use graphi­cal organizers or note-taking formatsto help them organize ideas beforewriting.

• Use staggered due dates so thatstudents turn in a draft or some otheraspect of the report (e.g., a list ofresources, a graphical organizer sum­marizing key aspects of the report) inorder to receive feedback and avoidprocrastination.

Teachers should use rubrics andscoring guides that focus primarily onthe content, organization, and clarityof student writing, not on the me­chanics of their writing (spelling,grammar, and punctuation). This willhelp students clearly understand thegoal of assignments and prepare for

success. For example, in Moving intothe Future: National Standards for Physi­cal Education (NASPE, 1995, p. 65),one sample assessment of an eighth­grade performance benchmark forstandard two ("Applies movement con­cepts and principles to the learningand development of motor skills") is aproject that requires the students toselect an activity in which they alreadyparticipate or in which they wish toparticipate, develop a training andconditioning program, analyze thebasic skills and movement patterns,assess their current personal skill andfitness status, describe specific condi­tioning and practice procedures, andset goals for improvement.

This project clearly holds expecta­tions of content literacy and authen­tic assessment. The selection of theactivity is tied to the student's life awayfrom the classroom, which creates ahigher level of personal meaning andmotivation. The student must gather,interpret, and analyze both verbal andvisual information in order to com­plete the project successfully. In thiscase, the criteria for assessment re­flect what the student knows and is

able to do relative to the selected physi­cal activity. The successful student:

a. Accurately assesses personal mo­

tor fitness status

b. Correctly identifies motor fitness

requirements

c. Correctly identifies the compo­

nent skills and movement patterns

d. Selects appropriate practice pro­

cedures to learn and master skills

and movement patterns (NASPE,

1995, p. 65)

In addition, the student should beable to demonstrate knowledge aboutmultiple facets of skill developmentby using various personally selectedstrategies, such as reading, writing, il­lustrating, using technology, and giv­ing physical demonstrations.

For some types of students (e.g.,English learners or special-educationstudents), it may be appropriate toreduce reading and writing demandsbut still allow students to show whatthey know. For example, rather thanrequiring students to write a lengthyreport, teachers may want to assessstudent posters or graphical organiz-

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ers that display key concepts and theirinterrelationships. In the aerobic-ex­ercise unit mentioned earlier, theteacher assessed students' graphicalorganizers for the article they read byexamining how they linked details withmain idea categories. This assessmentrevealed which terms and conceptswere understood and which neededto be taught again through demon­stration or explanation.

Finally, when assessing journals orother reflective writing, teachers canfocus their feedback on the qualityand depth of students' ideas, on theirexplanations of content-related con­cepts and strategies, on their analysisof their own strategies and perfor­mances, and on how they make con­nections to their own life experience.Aswith other projects, teachers shouldprovide rubrics or scoring guides forjournal writing to clarify for studentswhat will be assessed.

ConclusionReading and writing in physical edu­cation? While it is critical that we pro­vide students with opportunities to bephysically active, it is equally impor­tant that we offer opportunities tothink, to learn how to learn. It maynot be possible for students to be­come highly skillful performers in athree-to-six-week unit. However, ifthese same students are given the op­portunity to learn what they can aboutunit activities and are provided withthe tools (i.e., content literacy) to learnmore in the future, they are morelikely to become lifelong movers.

ReferencesAlverman, L., & Phelps, S. (1998). Content

reading and literacy:Succeeding in today's

diverse classroom (2nd ed.). NeedhamHeights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Bormuth, j. (1968). Cloze test readabil­ity: Criterion-referenced scores. Jour­

nal ofEducational Measurement, 5, 189­196.

McKenna, M. c., & Robinson, R. D.(1990). Content literacy: A definitionand implications. Journal of Reading,

34(3), 184-186.National Association for Sport and Physi-

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cal Education. (1995). Moving into the

future: National physical education stan­

dards: A guide to content and assessment.

Reston, VA: Author.O'Brien, D., & Stewart, R. A. (1990).

Preservice teachers' perspectives onwhy every teacher is not a teacher ofreading: A qualitative analysis. Journal

ofReading Behavior, 22, 101-129.Tannehill, D., Romar,j. E., & O'Sullivan,

M. (1994). Attitudes toward physicaleducation: Their impact on how physi­cal education teachers make sense oftheir work. Journal of Teaching in Physi­

cal Education, 13, 406-420.Taylor, W. (1953). Cloze procedure: A

new tool for measuring readability.Jour­

nalism Quarterly, 30,415433.

Tishman, S., & Perkins, D. (1995). Criti­cal thinking and physical education.Journal ofPhysical Education, Recreation

& Dance, 66(6),24-30.

Cathy Buell is an associate professor of hu­man performance and director of second­ary education, and Andrea Whittaker is anassistantprofessor of teachereducation, atSanJose State University, San Jose, CA 95192.

IWilliamsContinued from page 31

consists oficing, stretching, ultrasound,and strengthening exercises (Ander­son & Hall, 1995). In order to preventjumper's knee, children should stretchproperly before physical activity andmake sure that the surrounding mus­culature is properly strengthened.

ConclusionAthletic injuries can affect children ina number of negative ways. Childrenwho are injured might feel ashamedor embarrassed of their injuries andtherefore avoid telling their physicaleducation teacher that they shouldnot participate. Continued participa­tion may hinder the healing processor lead to additional injuries. Otherchildren may seek different ways ofavoiding activity in order to hide theirinjury from their teacher or peers.This strategy may lead to teasing fromother children that could eventuallyaffect the child's attitude towards

physical activity.Armed with the aboveinformation on the causation, identi­fication, and treatment of commoninjuries, teachers and youth sportcoaches can help children preventsuch injuries and maintain their ex­citement for physical activity.

ReferencesAmerican Academy of Pediatrics. (2000).

Intensive training and sports specialize­

tion in youngathletes[On-line]: Available:

http://www.aap.org/policy/re9906.htmlAnderson, M. K., & Hall, S.j. (1995). Sports

injury management. Media, PA:Williams& Wilkins.

Arnheim, D. D., & Prentice, W. E. (2000).Principles of athletic training (10th ed.).St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book.

DiFiori,j. (1999). Overuse injuries in chil­dren and adolescents. The Physician and

Sports Medicine, 27, 75-89.Duff, j. F. (1992). Youth sports injuries: A

medical handbook for parents and coaches.

New York: Macmillan.Gallaspy,j. B., & May,j. D. (1996). Signs

and symptoms ofathletic injuries. St. Louis,MO: Mosby-Year Book.

KidsHealth. (2001). Preventing children's

sports injuries [On-line]. Available: http://kidshealth.org/parent/firstaid_safe/outdoor/sports_safety.html

National Athletic Trainers' Association.(1998). NATA foundation emphasizescom­

mitment to youth safety [On-line]. Avail­able: http://www.nata.org/publica­tions/ press%20releases/foundation_emphasizes.htm

National SAFE KIDS Campaign. (2000).New survey reveals parents lack concern

about sports injuries to kids [On-line].Available: http://www.safekids.org/tier3_cd.cfm?contenCitem_id=505&folder-id=178

O'Conner, D. L. (1998, June 15). Pre­venting sports injuries in kids. Patient

Care, 32, 60-78.Thomas, C. L., & Craver, R. H.,Jr. (1993).

Taber'scyclopedic medical dictionary (17thed.). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis.

Bift Williams is an assistant professor, andRip Marston isan associate professor, in theSchool of Health, Physical Education, andLeisure Services at the University of North­ern Iowa, CedarFalls, fA 50614.

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