English_cohesion CHAKIR

7/27/2019 English_cohesion CHAKIR

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TEXT LINGUISTICS

A branch of linguistics which studiesspoken or written TEXTs, e.g. a descriptive

passage, a scene in a play, a conversation. Itis concerned, for instance, with the way theparts of a text are organized and related toone another in order to form a meaningful

whole.*

* Richards, C. J.& Schmidt, R. 2002. Dictionary of language teaching & applielinguistics. London: Longman.


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A text is an extended structure ofsyntactic units [i.e. text as super-sentence]such as words, groups, and clauses and

textual units, that is marked by bothcoherence among the elements andcompletion. [Whereas] A non-text consistsof random sequences of linguistic units

such as sentences, paragraphs, or sectionsin any temporal and/or spatial extension.*

*Werlich, E. 1976. A text grammar of English. Heidelberg: Quelle &

Meyer.p30.


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A naturally occurring manifestation oflanguage, i.e. as a communicative

language event in a context. TheSURFACE TEXT is the set ofexpressions actually used; theseexpressions make some knowledgeEXPLICIT, while other knowledgeremains IMPLICIT, though still appliedduring processing.*

*De Beaugrande, R., & Dressler, W. U. 1981.Introduction to Text Linguistics .London : Lon man.


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SLOW CARS HELD UP


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a text is a set of mutually relevant

communicative functions, structured insuch a way as to achieve an overallrhetoricalpurpose*

*Hatim, Basil & Ian Mason. 1990. Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman


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[A term] used in linguistics to refer toany passage- spoken or written, of

whatever length, that does form aunified whole [.] A text is a unit oflanguage in use. It is not a grammaticalunit, like a clause or a sentence; and it is

not defined by its size [.] A text isbest regarded as a SEMANTIC unit; aunit not of form but of meaning. *

*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.1


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14/91*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.2


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Wash and co re six cook ing apples.Put them into a f ireproof d ish.


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I have heard some strange sto r ies

In my t ime. But this one was

perhaps the strangest .


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GRAMMATICAL COHESION


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REFERENCE

SUBSTITUTION

ELLEPSIS

CONJUNCTION


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REFERENCE

Is used to descr ibe the di fferent ways in

which ent i tiesthin gs , people, events are

referred to w ithin texts

Doctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower of

rain. Hestepped in a puddle r ight up to his m iddle

and never wentthereagain


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CATAPHOR

IC

ANAPHORI

C

EXOPHORIC

O REFERENC

E

ENDOPHORIC


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When a word refers back to

somebody or something that hasalready been mentioned, this is

called anaphoric reference.References Forward are called

cataphoric references.

ENDOPHRIC REFERENCE


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CATAPHORIC

" he comes, our award-winning

host...it's John Doe!"


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ANAPHORIC

The water system is failing becauseof old pipes and shortage of qualified

technicians to repair them. These are

the reasons why change is

necessary


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The book is overthere

For he is a jolly good fellow

and so say all of us

EXOPHRIC REFERENCE


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Three boys are playing footbal l and one boy

kikcs the ball and it goes through the window and

the ball breaks the window and the boys arelooking at it and a man comes out and shouts at

them because they have broken the window so

they run away and then that lady looks out of her

window and she tel ls the boys off

They are playing football and he kicks it and it

goes through there it breaks the window and they

are looking at it and he comes out and shouts atthem because they havebrokeni t so they run

away and then she looks out and she tells them

off


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"Exophoric reference contributes tothe creation of text , in that it linksthe language with the context of

situation; but it does not contributeto the integration of one passagewith another so that the two

together form part of the same text*



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PERSONAL REFERENCE


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PERSONAL REFERENCE

This often involves the use of the

person pronouns (he, she, it or they).

If the buyer wants to know the condi t ion of the

proper ty , he has to have another survey

carr ied out on his ow n behalf *

My father is a natural ized Br i t ish cit izen. Hewas

born in Bombay.

* The legal Side of Buying a House, ConsumersAssociation

REFERENCE


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REFERENCE

Personnal reference

Demonstrative reference

Comparative reference

DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE


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DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE

These are my favourite colors.

He couldnt carry it on his own, buthe knew there was no one around

who could help him. That was the

problem he faced.

Leavethatthereand comehere


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REFERENCE

Personnal reference

Demonstrative reference

Comparative reference

COMPARATIVE REFERENCE


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GENERAL

COMPARATIVE

PARTICULAR

COMpARATIVE


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GENARAL

COMPARISON

IDENTITY SIMILARITY

Same

Equal

IdenticalIdentically

Such

Similar

So similarlylikewise

DIFFEREN

CE

Other

Different

ElseDifferently


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I bought shoes similarto yours

This is adif ferentexercisef rom theone we did last week

It is the samecatas the one we

saw yesterday


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We are demand inghigher l iv ing

standards

There aretwice as many people

there as the last t im e

SUBSTITUTION


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SUBSTITUTION


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Subs t i tut ion is replacement

of one l inguist ic i tem by

ano ther .

Myaxeis too blun t , i mus t get a

sharperone

You th ink kr iss already knows? - I

th inkeverebodydoes.


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SUBSTITUTI

ON

NOMINAL

CLAUSAL

VERBAL


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NOMINAL

I have heard some strange stor ies in

my time. But this was perhaps the

strangestoneof all .

A:Illhave two poached eggs on toast,

please.

B:Illhavethe same


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VERBAL

The words did not come the same

as they used todo

Idont

know how to f ix this tapand idont think youdoeither


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CLAUSAL

SO NOT

Is there going to be an

earthquake?

- It saysso


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ELLIPSIS

W h e n e l e m e n t s a r eomitted from sentence iti s ca l l ed e l l i p s i s . Thisbecomes a cohesive deviceif an earlier part of the

text allow us to deduce them i s s i n g e l e m e n t s .


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SOMETHING UNSAID

Unsaid = Understoodneverthless


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ELLEPSIS

NOMINALVERBAL


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NOMINAL

Four other Oysters fol lowed them,

And yet anotherfour


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VERBAL

-H ave you been swimming ?

-Yes I have

-Did you ki l l the man ?-No, ididnt

CONJUNCTION


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CONJUNCTION


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Conjunction sets up arelationship between two

clauses. The most basic butleast cohesive is the conjunctionand.

Transitions are conjunctionsthat add cohesion to text andinclude then, however, in fact,and consequently. Conjunctions

can also be implicit and deducedfrom correctly interpreting thetext


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Johnny has promised to turn

over a new leaf and meet his

deadlines. Although I have yet

to see any proof of this change.


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Lexical Cohesion is a linguisticdevice which helps to create unityof text and discourse. In contrast

to grammatical cohesion, lexicalcohesion [] is the cohesive effectachieved by the selection of

vocabulary.*



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1 - Repetit ion

2 -Synonymy

3 - Col locat ion


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Repetion or Reiterat ion is a

form of lex ical cohesion whichinvolves the REPITITION o f a

lexical i tem at one end of a

scale;THE USE OF GENERALWORD TO REFER BACK TO A

LEXICAL ITEM, at the o ther end

of the scale; and a number ofthings in between the use of a

synonym or superord inate


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Example:

Algy met a bear. Thebearwas

bulgy


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SYNONYMY


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According to the Oxford AdvancedLearners Dictionary (Sixth Edition,

2000), synonymy refers to

[] the fact of two or more words orexpressions having the same meaning.


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1. there is a boy climbing that treeThe ladis going to fall if he does not take

care.

2. He looked nervouslyat the damage to

the car. Then ginger ly ran his fingersalong the scratches and indentations along

its side

3. David walkedtowards the door. Davidambledbeside him.


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He was startled by a no isefrom

behind. It was the noise oftrotting horses. The soundof

the cavalrygrew nearer.


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Seven blackbirds began to

sing in the morning. Thesebirds were singing beautifully.


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Hyponymy

Describes a specific-general relationship

between lexical items


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1. Then they began to meetvegetation prickly cactus-like

plants and coarse grass

2. He brought her some roses.

Those f lowers have a beautiful

smell.


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Meronymy:

Describes a part-wholerelationship between

lexical items


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- She knelt down and looked

along the passage into the

loveliest garden you ever saw.

How she longed to [] wander

about among those beds of brightf lowersand those cool fountains.

- I dont like that bicyc le. Thesaddle is very uncomfortable.


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Antonymy:

Describes a relationship

between lexical items that haveopposite meanings.


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[] each occurrence of a lexical

item carries with it its own textual

history, a particular collocational

environment that has been built

up in the course of the creation

of the text and that will provide

the context within which the item

will be incarnated on thisparticular occasion. (Hallid ay, 1976:289).


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The sementic relationships of the

lexical items used in the text are

very important to theachievement of lexical cohesion


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A little fat man of BombayWas smok ing one very hot

day

But a bird called a snipeFlew away with his pipe,

Which vexed the fat man of

Bombay

Examples Of Pares Sharing

Th S L i l E i t


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The Same Lexical Environment

:

- Laugh /jock

- b lade/ sharp.

- garden/dig .

- i l l /docto r.

- try/su cceed.

- bee/honey.

- door/w indow.


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Every lexical item may enter into a cohesive

relation but by itself, it carries no indication

whether it is functioning cohesively or not; it

is cohesive only when it is a part of wholetext, not as it is standing alone


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Richards, C. J.& Schm idt, R. 2002. Dict ion ary of language

teaching & appl ied l inguist ics. Lon don : Longm an.

Hall iday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English.

Longman

De Beaug rande, R., & Dressler, W. U. 1981.Introd uc tion to TextL ingu is t ics . Londo n : Longman.

Hatim, Basil & Ian Mason. 1990. Discou rse and the Trans lator.

London : Longm an.

Werlich, E. (1976) A text grammar of English. Heidelberg:

Quelle & Meyer.


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