Grammar

1. What is Grammar? 2. The 8 English Parts of Speech . A. English Parts of Speech :

1. Parts of Speech Table. 2. Parts of Speech Examples 3. Words with More than One Job

B. The 8 types of words : English Tense System

What is Tense? Tense & Time Basic Tenses Basic Tenses Regular Verbs Basic Tenses Irregular Verbs Basic Tenses Be

The 12 Basic Tenses Present tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect

Continuous Past tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous Future tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous

1. VERBS 1) What Are Verbs?

Verb Classification helping verbs main verbs Regular and Irregular Verbs

2) Verb Forms 3) Phrasal Verbs4) Conditionals5) Modal Verbs.6) Gerunds (-ing)7) Questions8) Tag Questions9) Subjunctive10)Active Voice, Passive Voice11)Infinitive or -ing?12)Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects13)Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses14)Used to do / Be used to15)Going to16)Future Time17)For & Since for Time 113pg

2. NOUNS 1) What are Nouns?2) Countable Nouns, Uncountable Nouns

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3) Proper Nouns (Names)4) Possessive 's5) Noun as Adjective6) Compound Nouns

3. PRONOUNS 1) Personal Pronouns.2) Demonstrative Pronouns3) Possessive Pronouns4) Interrogative Pronouns5) Reflexive Pronouns6) Reciprocal Pronouns7) Indefinite Pronouns8) Relative Pronouns9) Pronoun Case

4. ADJECTIVES 1) Determiners2) Adjective Order3) Comparative Adjectives4) Superlative Adjectives5) Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives6) Noun as Adjective

5. ADVERBS 1) What is an Adverb?2) Adverb Form3) Kinds of Adverbs4) Adverb Position5) Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of Manner List Adverbs of Place List Adverbs of Time List Adverbs of Degree List

6. PREPOSITIONS 1) List of Prepositions2) A Simple Rule for Prepositions3) Prepositions of Place4) Prepositions of Time

7. CONJUNCTIONS 1) Form2) Function3) Position4) Coordinating Conjunctions 5) Subordinating Conjunctions

8. INTERJECTIONS

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Grammar

Welcome to English Grammar for English learners.

Many of these grammar lessons also have quizzes to check your understanding. If you still don't understand something, feel free to ask a question at the Elluminate Sesion .

1. What is Grammar?

Grammar is the system of a language.Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.

Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? if you are serious about learning a foreign language, the answer is "yes, grammar can help you to learn a language more quickly and more efficiently.

It's important to think of grammar as something that can help you, like a friend. When you understand the grammar (or system) of a language, you can understand many things yourself, without having to ask a teacher or look in a book. So think of grammar as something good, something positive, something that you can use to find your way - like a signpost or a map.

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2. The 8 English Parts of Speech.

There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same job.

For example, some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to another word.

These are the "building blocks" of the language.

And when we want to build a sentence, we use the different types of word. Each type of word has its own job. We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts of speech".

It's quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze sentences and understand them. It also helps you to construct good sentences.

In this lesson, we have an overview of the eight parts of speech, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

A. English Parts of Speech:

1. Parts of Speech Table: This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech*.

Part of speech

Function or "job"

example words

example sentences

Noun thing or person

pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John

This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.

Pronoun replaces a nounI, You, He, She, It, We They

Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.

Adjective describes a noun

a/an, the, some, good, big, red, well, interesting

My dog is big. I like big dogs.

Verb action or state(to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, play

Senavirtual.edu.co is a web site. I like Senavirtual.edu.co

Adverb Describes a verb, quickly, My dog eats quickly.

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adjective or Adverb.

silently, well, badly, very, really

When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly.

Prepositionlinks a noun to another word

to, at, after, on, but

We went to school on Monday.

Conjunctionjoins clauses or sentences or words

and, but, whenI like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like cats.

Interjection

short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence

oh!, ouch!, hi!, well

Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don't know.

2. Parts of Speech Examples: Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:

verb

Stop!

noun

verb

Johnworks

.

noun

Verb

Verb

John IsWorking

.

 

pronoun

verb Noun

Sheloves

animals.

 

Nounverb

adjective

noun

Animals

like kind people.

 

noun

verb nounadverb

Taraspeaks

English

well.

 

noun

verbadjective

noun

Taraspeaks

goodEnglish.

 

pronoun

verb

preposition

adjective

nounadverb

She ran To Thestation

quickly.

 

pro ver adj Noun conjuncti pro ver pron

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n. b . on n. b .

She likes bigSnakes

But I hatethem.

interjection

pron.

conj.

adj.noun

verb

prep.

nounadverb

Well, she and young John walk to school slowly.

3. Words with More than One Job: Many words in English can have more than one job, or be more than one part of speech.

For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun; "but" can be a conjunction and a preposition; "well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection.

In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives.To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: "What job is this word doing in this sentence?"

In the table below you can see a few examples.

word part of speech example

workNoun My work is easy.

Verb I work in London.

butConjunction

John came but Mary didn't come.

Preposition Everyone came but Mary.

well

Adjective Are you well?

Adverb. She speaks well.

Interjection Well! That's expensive!

afternoonNoun We ate in the afternoon.

noun acting as adjective We had afternoon tea.

NOTE: These are the words that you use to make a sentence. There are only 8 types of word - and the most important is the Verb! Verbs be, have, do, work Nouns man, town, music Adjectives a, the, 69, big Adverbs loudly, well, often Pronouns you, ours, some

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Prepositions at, in, on, from Conjunctions and, but, though Interjections ah, dear, er, um

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B. The 8 types of words:

English Tense SystemIn English, the concept of tense is very important.In this lesson we look at the idea behind tense, how to avoid confusing tense with time, and the structure of the basic tenses, with examples using a regular verb, an irregular verb and the verb be.

What is Tense?Tense is a method that we use in English to refer to time - past, present and future, But:

we can also talk about time without using tenses (for example, going to is a special construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense

one tense does not always talk about one time (see Tense & Time for more about this)

Here are some of the terms used in discussing verbs and tenses.

* Mood: Indicative mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be

positive (affirmative) or negativeExample: I like coffee. I do not like coffee.

Interrogative mood expresses a question.Example: Why do you like coffee?

Imperative mood expresses a commandExample: Sit down!

Subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possibleExample: The President ordered that he attend the meeting.

* Voice. Voice shows the relationship of the subject to the action.In the active voice, the subject does the action (cats eat mice).In the passive voice, the subject receives the action (mice are eaten by cats).Among other things, we can use voice to help us change the focus of attention.

* Aspect: Aspect expresses a feature of the action related to time, such as completion or duration.

Present simple and past simple tenses have no aspect, but if we wish we can stress with other tenses that:

the action or state referred to by the verb is completed (and often still relevant), for example:

I have emailed the report to Jane. (so now she has the report)(This is called perfective aspect, using perfect tenses.) the action or state referred to by the verb is in progress or continuing

(that is, uncompleted), for example:We are eating.(This is called progressive aspect, using progressive [continuous] tenses.)

Tense and TimeIt is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to talk about time.

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For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time: I hope it rains tomorrow."rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)

Or a past tense does not always refer to past time: If I had some money now, I could buy it."had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)

The following examples show how different tenses can be used to talk about different times.

TENSETIME

past present future

Present Simple  I want a coffee.

I leave tomorrow.

She likes coffee

Present Continuous

 I am having dinner.

I am taking my exam next month.

They are living in London

Present Perfect Simple

I have seen ET. I have finished.  

Present Perfect Continuous

I have been playing tennis.

   

We have been working for four hours.

 

Past SimpleI finished one hour ago.

If she loved you now, she would marry you.

If you came tomorrow, you would see her.

Past ContinuousI was working at 2am this morning.

   

Past Perfect Simple

I had not eaten for 24 hours.

   

Past Perfect Continuous

We had been working for 3 hours.

If I had been working now, I would have missed you.

If I had been working tomorrow, I could not have agreed.

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Future Simple  Hold on. I'll do it now.

I'll see you tomorrow.

Future Continuous

   I will be working at 9pm tonight.

Future Perfect Simple

   I will have finished by 9pm tonight.

We will have been married for ten years next month.

Future Perfect Continuous

   

They may be tired when you arrive because they will have been working.

In 30 minutes, we will have been working for four hours.

Basic Tenses

For past and present, there are 2 simple tenses + 6 complex tenses (using auxiliary verbs). To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using modal auxiliary verbs will/shall). This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice. Another 12 tenses are available in the passive voice. So now we have 24 tenses.

24 Tenses past present future*

ACTIVE

simple tenses

past present future

complex tensesformed withauxiliary verbs

past perfectpresent perfect

future perfect

past continuous

present continuous

future continuous

past perfect continuous

present perfect continuous

future perfect continuous

PASSIVE

past present future

past perfect present perfect

future perfect

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past continuous

present continuous

future continuous

past perfect continuous

present perfect continuous

future perfect continuous

  Some grammar books use the word progressive instead of continuous. They are exactly the same.

The use of tenses in English may be quite complicated, but the structure of English tenses is actually very simple.

The basic structure for a positive sentence is:subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

An auxiliary verb is used in all tenses. (In the simple present and simple past tenses, the auxiliary verb is usually suppressed for the affirmative, but it does exist for intensification.)

The following table shows the 12 tenses for the verb to work in the active voice.

structurepast present future*

auxiliary main verb

simple

normal     I worked I work I will work

intensive

do base I did work I do work  

perfect havepast participle

I had worked

I have worked

I will have worked

continuous bepresent participle -ing

I was working

I am working

I will be working

continuous perfect

have been

present participle -ing

I had been working

I have been working

I will have been working

* Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called "modal tenses". The examples are included here for convenience and comparison.

Basic Tenses: Be

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This page shows the basic tenses with the verb be. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).

The basic structure is:

positive (+): subject + main verb

negative (-):subject + main verb + not

question (?):

main verb + subject

These are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the tenses:

basepast simple

past participle

present participle

present simple

bewas, were

been being am, are, is

 

past present future

SIMPLEpresent simple or past simple(except future: will + be)

+ I was I am I will be

- I was not I am not I will not be

? Was I? Am I? Will I be?

SIMPLE PERFECThave + been

+ I had been I have been I will have been

-I had not been

I have not been

I will not have been

? Had I been? Have I been?Will I have been?

CONTINUOUSbe + being

+ I was being I am being I will be being

-I was not being

I am not beingI will not be being

? Was I being? Am I being? Will I be being?

CONTINUOUS PERFECT

+ I had been being

I have been being

I will have been being

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have been + being

-I had not been being

I have not been being

I will not have been being

?Had I been being?

Have I been being?

Will I have been being?

In the following table, we see be conjugated for 12 basic tenses.

SIMPLE past present future

singular

I was am will be

you were are will be

he/she/it was is will be

plural

we were are will be

you were are will be

they were are will be

PERFECT past present future

singular

I had been have been will have been

you had been have been will have been

he/she/it had been has been will have been

plural

we had been have been will have been

you had been have been will have been

they had been have been will have been

CONTINUOUS past present future

singular

I was being am being will be being

you were being are being will be being

he/she/it was being is being will be being

plural

we were being are being will be being

you were being are being will be being

they were being are being will be being

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CONTINUOUS PERFECT

past present future

singular

Ihad been being

have been being

will have been being

youhad been being

have been being

will have been being

he/she/ithad been being

has been beingwill have been being

plural

wehad been being

have been being

will have been being

youhad been being

have been being

will have been being

theyhad been being

have been being

will have been being

Basic Tenses: Regular Verb

This page shows the basic tenses with the regular verb work. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).

The basic structure is:

positive: + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

negative: -subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:

base verb pastpast participle

present participle -ing

workworked

worked working

 

past present future

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SIMPLEdo + base verb(except future:will + base verb)

+I did workI worked

I do workI work

I will work

- I did not work I do not work I will not work

? Did I work? Do I work? Will I work?

SIMPLE PERFECThave + past participle

+ I had worked I have workedI will have worked

-I had not worked

I have not worked

I will not have worked

? Had I worked? Have I worked?Will I have worked?

CONTINUOUSbe + ing

+ I was working I am working I will be working

-I was not working

I am not working

I will not be working

?Was I working?

Am I working?Will I be working?

CONTINUOUS PERFECThave been + ing

+I had been working

I have been working

I will have been working

-I had not been working

I have not been working

I will not have been working

?Had I been working?

Have I been working?

Will I have been working?

* See Regular verb list.

Basic Tenses: Irregular Verb

This page shows the basic tenses with the irregular verb sing. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).

The basic structure is:

positive: + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

negative: -subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verbThese are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:

base verb past past present participle -

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participle ing

singsang

sung singing

 

past present future

SIMPLEdo + base verb(except future:will + base verb)

+I did singI sang

I do singI sing

I will sing

- I did not sing I do not sing I will not sing

? Did I sing? Do I sing? Will I sing?

SIMPLE PERFECThave + past participle

+ I had sung I have sung I will have sung

- I had not sung I have not sungI will not have sung

? Had I sung? Have I sung? Will I have sung?

CONTINUOUSbe + -ing

+ I was singing I am singing I will be singing

-I was not singing

I am not singing

I will not be singing

? Was I singing? Am I singing? Will I be singing?

CONTINUOUS PERFECThave been + -ing

+I had been singing

I have been singing

I will have been singing

-I had not been singing

I have not been singing

I will not have been singing

?Had I been singing?

Have I been singing?

Will I have been singing?

  * See irregular verb list.

The basic structure of tenses for regular verbs and irregular verbs is exactly the same (except to be). The only difference is that with regular verbs the past and past participle are always the same (worked, worked), while with irregular verbs the past and past participle are not always the same (sang, sung). But the structure is the same! It will help you a great deal to really understand that.

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The 12 Basic Tenses

The following lessons are for each of the 12 basic tenses. In each lesson we look at two aspects of the tense:

Structure: How do we make the tense? Use: When and why do we use the tense?

1. Simple Present TenseI sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject +auxiliary verb

+main verb

    do   base

There are three important exceptions:1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary. 2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or

es to the auxiliary. 3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and

negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

  subjectauxiliary verb

 main verb

 

+

I, you, we, they

  like coffee.

He, she, it   likes coffee.

-

I, you, we, they

do not like coffee.

He, she, it does not like coffee.

?Do

I, you, we, they

  like coffee?

Does he, she, it   like coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

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  subject main verb    

+

I am  French.

You, we, they

are  French.

He, she, it is  French.

-

I am not old.

You, we, they

are not old.

He, she, it is not old.

?

Am I   late?

Areyou, we, they

  late?

Is he, she, it   late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?We use the simple present tense when:

the action is general the action is not only happening now, the action occurs at regular

intervals, happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future

non-continuous actions general truths, or situations existing for a period of time

John drives a taxi.

past present future

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples: I live in New York. The Moon goes round the Earth. John drives a taxi. He does not drive a bus. We meet every Thursday.

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We do not work at night. Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tense - some of them are general, some of them are now:

Am I right?Tara is not at home.You are happy.

pastpresent

future

The situation is now.

 

I am not fat.Why are you so beautiful?Ram is tall.

past present future

The situation is general. Past, present and future.

  This page shows the use of the simple present tense to talk about general events. But note that there are some other uses for the simple present tense, for example in conditional or if sentences, or to talk about the future. You will learn about those later.

2. Present Continuous TenseI am singing

We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense, both in structure and in use.

Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses. So the present progressive tense is the same as the present continuous tense.

How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?The structure of the present continuous tense is:

subject +auxiliary verb

+main verb

    be   base +

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ing

Look at these examples:

 subject

auxiliary verb

 main verb

 

+ I am   speaking to you.

+ You are   reading this.

- She is not stayingin London.

- We are not playing football.

? Is he   watching TV?

? Are they   waiting for John?

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

action happening now, continuous, ongoing actions action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening nowa) for action happening exactly now

I am eating my lunch.

past present future

The action is happening now.

 

Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...

...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.

b) for action happening around nowThe action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.

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John is going out with Mary.

past present future

  The action is happening around now.  

Look at these examples: Muriel is learning to drive. I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the futureWe can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.

I am taking my exam next month.

past present future

!!!

 A firm plan or programme exists now.

The action is in the future.

Look at these examples: We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the

table.. They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working. When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.

How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple - we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.

Basic rule

Just add -ing to the base verb:

work > working

play > playing

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assist > assisting

see > seeing

be > being

Exception 1

If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:

s t o p

  consonantstressedvowel

consonant

(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)

stop > stopping

run > running

begin > beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed:

open > opening

Exception 2

If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

lie > lying

die > dying

Exception 3

If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

come > coming

mistake > mistaking

3. Present Perfect TenseI have sung

The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English.The present perfect tense is really a very interesting tense, and a very useful one. Try not to translate the present perfect tense into your language. Just try to accept the concepts of this tense and learn to "think" present perfect! You will soon learn to like the present perfect tense!

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How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

The structure of the present perfect tense is:

subject +auxiliary verb

+main verb

    have  past participle

Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

 main verb

 

+ I have   seen ET.

+ You have   eaten mine.

- She has not beento Rome.

- We have not played football.

? Have you   finished?  

? Have they   done it?

Contractions with the present perfect tense

When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write. 

I have I've

You have You've

He hasShe hasIt hasJohn hasThe car has

He'sShe'sIt'sJohn'sThe car's

We have We've

They have They've

Here are some examples: I've finished my work. John's seen ET.

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They've gone home.

He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs have and be. For example, "It's eaten" can mean:

It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active voice] It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]

It is usually clear from the context.

How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the present. Non-continuous actions completed before a certain time. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:

1. experience 2. change 3. continuing situation

1. Present perfect tense for experienceWe often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:

I have seen ET.He has lived in Bangkok.Have you been there?We have never eaten caviar.

past present future

!!!

The action or state was in the past.

In my head, I have a memory now.

 

Connection with past: the event was in the past.

Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about the event; I have experience of it.

2. Present perfect tense for changeWe also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:

I have bought a car.

past present future

- +  

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Last week I didn't have a car.

Now I have a car.  

 

John has broken his leg.

past present future

+ -  

Yesterday John had a good leg.

Now he has a bad leg.  

 

Has the price gone up?

past present future

+ -  

Was the price $1.50 yesterday?

Is the price $1.70 today?

 

 

The police have arrested the killer.

past present future

- +  

Yesterday the killer was free.

Now he is in prison.  

Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.

Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.

Americans do not use the present perfect tense so much as British speakers. Americans often use the past tense instead. An American might say "Did you have lunch?", where a British person would say "Have you had lunch?"

3. Present perfect tense for continuing situationWe often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure. continuous, ongoing actions completed before a certain time

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I have worked here since June.He has been ill for 2 days.How long have you known Tara?

past present future

     

The situation started in the past.

It continues up to now.(It will probably continue into the future.)

Connection with past: the situation started in the past.

Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

For & Since with Present Perfect TenseWe often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.

We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

for since

a period of time

a point in past time

x------------

20 minutes 6.15pm

three days Monday

6 months January

4 years 1994

2 centuries 1800

a long time I left school

everthe beginning of time

etc etc

Here are some examples: I have been here for 20 minutes. I have been here since 9 o'clock. John hasn't called for 6 months.

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John hasn't called since February. He has worked in New York for a long time. He has worked in New York since he left school.

For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.

4. Present Perfect Continuous TenseI have been singing

How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:

subject +auxiliary verb

+auxiliary verb

+main verb

   havehas

  been  base + ing

Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

 auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I have   been waiting for one hour.

+ You have   been talking too much.

- It has not been raining.  

- We have not been playing football.

? Have you   been seeing her?

? Have they   been doingtheir homework?

Contractions: When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and the first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.

I have been I've been

You have been You've been

He has beenShe has beenIt has beenJohn has been

He's beenShe's beenIt's beenJohn's been

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The car has been

The car's been

We have been We've been

They have been They've been

Here are some examples: I've been reading. The car's been giving trouble. We've been playing tennis for two hours.

How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense:

1. An action that has just stopped or recently stoppedWe use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.

I'm tired because I've been running.

past present future

!!!

Recent action. Result now.  

I'm tired [now] because I've been running. Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining? You don't understand [now] because you haven't been listening.

2. An action continuing up to nowWe use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since.

I have been reading for 2 hours.

past present future

Action started in past.Action is continuing now.

 

I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.] We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]

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How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]

We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]

For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous TenseWe often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.

We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

for since

a period of time

a point in past time

x

20 minutes 6.15pm

three days Monday

6 months January

4 years 1994

2 centuries 1800

a long time I left school

everthe beginning of time

etc etc

Here are some examples: I have been studying for 3 hours. I have been watching TV since 7pm. Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks. Tara hasn't been visiting us since March. He has been playing football for a long time. He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.

For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.

5. Simple Past TenseI sang

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The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often.

How do we make the Simple Past Tense?To make the simple past tense, we use:

past form onlyor auxiliary did + base form

Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs:

 V1base

V2past

V3past participle

 

regular verb

workexplodelike

workedexplodedliked

workedexplodedliked

The past form for all regular verbs ends in -ed.

irregular verb

goseesing

wentsawsang

goneseensung

The past form for irregular verbs is variable. You need to learn it by heart.

You do not need the past participle form to make the simple past tense. It is shown here for completeness only.

 

The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject +main verb    past

The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject +auxiliary verb

+not +main verb

    did base

The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:

auxiliary verb

+subject +main verb

did       base

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The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:

 subject

auxiliary verb

 main verb

 

+I     went to school.

You     worked very hard.

-She did not go with me.

We did not work yesterday.

?Did you   go to London?

Did they   work at home?

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:

  subject main verb    

+

I, he/she/it was   here.

You, we, they

were  in London.

-

I, he/she/it was not there.

You, we, they

were not happy.

?

Was I, he/she/it   right?

Wereyou, we, they

  late?

How do we use the Simple Past Tense?We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation - an event - in the past. The event can be short or long.Here are some short events with the simple past tense:

The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.She went to the door.

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We did not hear the telephone.Did you see that car?

past present Future

The action is in the past.

   

Here are some long events with the simple past tense:

I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.We did not sing at the concert.Did you watch TV last night?

past present Future

The action is in the past.

   

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:

the event is in the past the event is completely finished we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the simple past tense; we cannot use the present perfect.

Here are some more examples: I lived in that house when I was young. He didn't like the movie. What did you eat for dinner? John drove to London on Monday. Mary did not go to work yesterday. Did you play tennis last week? I was at work yesterday. We were not late (for the train). Were you angry?

Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:

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"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."

This page shows the use of the simple past tense to talk about past events. But note that there are some other uses for the simple past tense, for example in conditional or if sentences.

6. Past Continuous TenseI was singing

The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.

Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.

 How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?The structure of the past continuous tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb BE + main verb

conjugated in simple past tense

present participle

waswere

base + ing

For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past continuous tense:

  subjectauxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I was   watching TV.

+ You were   working hard.

-He, she, it

was not helping Mary.

- We were not joking.  

? Were you   being silly?

? Were they   playing football?

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The spelling rules for adding ing to make the past continuous tense are the same as for the present continuous tense.

How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment.For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.

At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.

past present Future

8pm

At 8pm, I was in the middle of watching TV.

   

When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

I was working at 10pm last night. They were not playing football at 9am this morning. What were you doing at 10pm last night? What were you doing when he arrived? She was cooking when I telephoned her. We were having dinner when it started to rain. Ram went home early because it was snowing.

Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive tenses.We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example:

" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box..."

Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past TenseWe often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.In the following example, we have two actions:

1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense 2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense

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past present Future

Long action.    

I was watching TV at 8pm.8pm

You telephoned at 8pm.

Short action.    

We can join these two actions with when: I was watching TV when you telephoned.

(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm].)We use:

when + short action (simple past tense) while + long action (past continuous tense)

There are four basic combinations:

 I was walking past the car

when

it exploded.

When

the car exploded  I was walking past it.

  The car explodedwhile

I was walking past it.

While

I was walking past the car

  it exploded.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative. "Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds. "Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few

milliseconds.

7. Past Perfect TenseI had sung

The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the "past in the past".

How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?The structure of the past perfect tense is:

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subject +

auxiliary verb HAVEconjugated in simple past tense

+ main verbpast participle

Ihad been

For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I had   finished my work.

+ You had   stopped before me.

- She had not gone to school.

- We had not left.  

? Had you   arrived?  

? Had they   eaten dinner?

When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:

I had I'd

you had you'd

he hadshe hadit had

he'dshe'dit'd

we had we'd

they had they'd

  The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd can mean:

We hador We would

But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example: We had arrived (past participle) We would arrive (base)

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It is always clear from the context.

How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in the past. For example:

The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left.

The train had left when we arrived.

past present Future

Train leaves in past at 9am.

   

9  9.15 

We arrive in past at 9.15am.

   

Look at some more examples: I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten. They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours. I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before. "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived."

"Really? Where had she gone?"

You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.

past perfect tense   present perfect tensehad |done |> |

have |done |> |

past now future   past now Future

For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster says to you:

"You are too late. The train has left."Later, you tell your friends:

"We were too late. The train had left."

We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought, wondered.Look at these examples:

He told us that the train had left. I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong. He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain. I wondered if I had been there before. I asked them why they had not finished.

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8. Past Perfect Continuous TenseI had been singing

How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb HAVE +auxiliary verb BE

+ main verb

conjugated in simple past tense

past participle

present participle

had been base + ing

For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect continuous tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I had   been working.  

+ You had   been playingtennis.

- It had not been working well.

- We had not been expecting her.

? Had you   been drinking?  

? Had they   been waiting long?

When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the subject and first auxiliary verb:

I had been I'd been

you had been you'd been

he hadshe had beenit had been

he'd beenshe'd beenit'd been

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we had been we'd been

they had been they'd been

How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:

Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting for two hours.

Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.

past present Future

Ram starts waiting in past at 9am.

   

9  11

I arrive in past at 11am.

   

Here are some more examples: John was very tired. He had been running. I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking. Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been

running well for a long time. Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?

You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.

past perfect continuous tense

 present perfect continuous tense

had |been |doing |>>>> |

||||

||||

have |been |doing |>>>> |

past now future   past now Future

For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you: "I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."

Later, you tell your friends: "Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."

9. Simple Future TenseI will

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sing

The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense with the modal auxiliary will.

How do we make the Simple Future Tense?The structure of the simple future tense is:

subject +auxiliary verb WILL

+main verb

invariable base

will V1

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the simple future tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I will   open the door.

+ You will   finish before me.

- She will not beat school tomorrow.

- We will not leave yet.

? Will you   arrive on time?

? Will they   want dinner?

When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:

I will I'll

you will you'll

he willshe willit will

he'llshe'llit'll

we will we'll

they they'l

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will l

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this:

I will not I won't

you will not you won't

he will notshe will notit will not

he won'tshe won'tit won't

we will not we won't

they will not

they won't

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?No PlanWe use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:

Hold on. I'll get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking.We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:

I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. I think I will have a holiday next year. I don't think I'll buy that car.

PredictionWe often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:

It will rain tomorrow. People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. Who do you think will get the job?

BeWhen the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:

I'll be in London tomorrow. I'm going shopping. I won't be very long. Will you be at work tomorrow?

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Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the future, we usually use other tenses or expressions, such as the present continuous tense or going to

10. Future Continuous TenseI will be singing

How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?The structure of the future continuous tense is:

subject +auxiliary verb WILL

+auxiliary verb BE

+ main verb

invariable invariablepresent participle

will be base + ing

For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future continuous tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I will   be working at 10am.

+ You will   be lyingon a beach tomorrow.

- She will not be using the car.

- We will not be having dinner at home.

? Will you   be playing football?

? Will they   be watching TV?

When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and will:

I will I'll

you will you'll

he willshe willit will

he'llshe'llit'll

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we will we'll

they will

they'll

For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this:

I will not I won't

you will not you won't

he will notshe will notit will not

he won'tshe won'tit won't

we will not we won't

they will not

they won't

  We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:

At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.

past present future

4pm

   At 4pm, I will be in the middle of working.

When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow. They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight. What will you be doing at 10pm tonight? What will you be doing when I arrive? She will not be sleeping when you telephone her. We 'll be having dinner when the film starts. Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return

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11. Future Perfect TenseI will have sung

The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.

How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?The structure of the future perfect tense is:

subject +auxiliary verb WILL

+auxiliary verb HAVE

+ main verb

invariable invariablepast participle

will have gone

Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I will   have finished by 10am.

+ You will   have forgottenme by then.

- She will not have gone to school.

- We will not have left.  

? Will you   have arrived?  

? Will they   have received it?

In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:

I will have I'll have I'll've

you will have you'll have you'll've

he will haveshe will haveit will have

he'll haveshe'll haveit'll have

he'll'veshe'll'veit'll've

we will have we'll have we'll've

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they will have

they'll have

they'll've

  We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:

The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.

The train will have left when you arrive.

past present future

   Train leaves in future at 9am.

9  9.15 

   You arrive in future at 9.15am.

Look at some more examples: You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by

8. They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a

long time. "Mary won't be at home when you arrive."

"Really? Where will she have gone?"

You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:

present perfect tense   future perfect tense|have |done |> |

will |have |done |> |

past now future   past now future

12. Future Perfect Continuous TenseI will have been singing

How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:

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subject +auxiliary verb WILL

+auxiliary verb HAVE

+auxiliary verb BE

+ main verb

invariable invariablepast participle

present participle

will have been base + ing

For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future perfect continuous tense:

 subject

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I will   have been workingfor four hours.

+ You will   have been travellingfor two days.

- She will not have been using the car.

- We will not have been waiting long.

? Will you   have been playing football?

? Will they   have been watching TV?

When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:

I will I'll

you will you'll

he willshe willit will

he'llshe'llit'll

we will we'll

they will

they'll

For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this:

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I will not I won't

you will not you won't

he will notshe will notit will not

he won'tshe won'tit won't

we will not we won't

they will not

they won't

How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in the future. Look at these examples:

I will have been working here for ten years next week. He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for

24 hours

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VERBS1)What are Verbs?The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb.You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.

Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all convey action.

But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.

A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:

action (Ram plays football.) state (Anthony seems kind.)

There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example, the verb to work has five forms:

to work, work, works, worked, working

Verb ClassificationWe divide verbs into two broad classifications:

Helping VerbsImagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:

I can. People must. The Earth will.

Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own.

Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basic groups:

o Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:

be o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.) o to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)

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have o to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

do o to make negatives (I do not like you.) o to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?) o to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.) o to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks

faster than she does.)

o Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:

can, could may, might will, would, shall, should must ought to

Here are examples using modal verbs: I can't speak Chinese. John may arrive late. Would you like a cup of coffee? You should see a doctor. I really must go now.

Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they are partly like modal helping verbs and partly like main verbs:

need dare used to

Main VerbsNow imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:

I teach. People eat. The Earth rotates.

Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own.

Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs". Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:

o Transitive and intransitive verbsA transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:

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transitive: I saw an elephant. We are watching TV. He speaks English.

intransitive: He has arrived. John goes to school. She speaks fast.o Linking verbs

A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to a different state or place (>). Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).

Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher) Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful) That sounds interesting. (that = interesting) The sky became dark. (the sky > dark) The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)

o Dynamic and stative verbsSome verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used with continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation). They are called "stative", and cannot normally be used with continuous tenses (though some of them can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning).dynamic verbs (examples):

hit, explode, fight, run, gostative verbs (examples):

be like, love, prefer, wish impress, please, surprise hear, see, sound belong to, consist of, contain, include, need

appear, resemble, seem

In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs. Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping verb.

  helping verb   main verb  

John     likes coffee.

You     lied to me.

They     are happy.

The children are   playing.  

We must   go now.

I do not want any.

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Regular and irregular verbsThis is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms.

For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.

regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle look, looked, looked work, worked, worked

irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle buy, bought, bought cut, cut, cut do, did, done

One way to think of regular and irregular verbs is like this: all verbs are irregular and the so-called regular verbs are simply one very large group of irregular verbs.

Often the above divisions can be mixed. For example, one verb could be irregular, transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular, transitive and stative.

Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs.

o Regular Verbs ListEnglish regular verbs change their form very little (unlike irregular verbs). The past tense and past participle of regular verbs end in -ed, for example:work, worked, worked

But you should note the following points:1. Some verbs can be both regular and irregular, for example:learn, learned, learnedlearn, learnt, learnt1. Some verbs change their meaning depending on whether they are

regular or irregular, for example "to hang":

regularhang, hanged, hanged

to kill or die, by dropping with a rope around the neck

irregular

hang, hung, hung

to fix something (for example, a picture) at the top so that the lower part is free

2. The present tense of some regular verbs is the same as the past tense of some irregular verbs:

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regularfound, founded, founded

irregular

find, found, found

Regular Verbs ListThere are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is a list of 600 of the more common regular verbs. Note that there are some spelling variations

accept add admire admit advise afford agree alert

allow amuse analyse announce annoy answer apologise appear

applaud appreciate approve argue arrange arrest arrive ask

attach attack attempt attend attract avoid

  back bake balance ban bang bare bat bathe battle beam

beg behave belong bleach bless blind blink blot blush boast

boil bolt bomb book bore borrow bounce bow box brake

brake branch breathe bruise brush bubble bump burn bury buzz

  calculate call camp care carry carve cause challenge change charge chase cheat check cheer chew

choke chop claim clap clean clear clip close coach coil collect colour comb command communicate

compare compete complain complete concentrate concern confess confuse connect consider consist contain continue copy correct

cough count cover crack crash crawl cross crush cry cure curl curve cycle

  dam damage dance dare decay deceive

deliver depend describe desert deserve destroy

disapprove disarm discover dislike divide double

dress drip drop drown drum dry

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decide decorate delay delight

detect develop disagree disappear

doubt drag drain dream

dust

  earn educate embarrass employ empty encourage

end enjoy enter entertain escape examine

excite excuse exercise exist expand expect

explain explode extend

  face fade fail fancy fasten fax fear fence

fetch file fill film fire fit fix flap

flash float flood flow flower fold follow fool

force form found frame frighten fry

  gather gaze glow glue

grab grate grease greet

grin grip groan guarantee

guard guess guide

  hammer hand handle hang happen harass

harm hate haunt head heal heap

heat help hook hop hope hover

hug hum hunt hurry

  identify ignore imagine impress improve include

increase influence inform inject injure instruct

intend interest interfere interrupt introduce invent

invite irritate itch

  jail jam

jog join

joke judge

juggle jump

  kick kill

kiss kneel

knit knock

knot

  label land last laugh launch

learn level license lick lie

lighten like list listen live

load lock long look love

  man matter milk move

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manage march mark marry match mate

measure meddle melt memorise mend mess up

mine miss mix moan moor mourn

muddle mug multiply murder

  nail name

need nest

nod note

notice number

  obey object observe

obtain occur offend

offer open order

overflow owe own

  pack paddle paint park part pass paste pat pause peck pedal peel peep perform

permit phone pick pinch pine place plan plant play please plug point poke polish

pop possess post pour practise pray preach precede prefer prepare present preserve press pretend

prevent prick print produce program promise protect provide pull pump punch puncture punish push

  question queue

  race radiate rain raise reach realise receive recognise record reduce reflect

refuse regret reign reject rejoice relax release rely remain remember remind

remove repair repeat replace reply report reproduce request rescue retire return

rhyme rinse risk rob rock roll rot rub ruin rule rush

  sack sail satisfy save saw scare scatter scold scorch scrape

shiver shock shop shrug sigh sign signal sin sip ski

soothe sound spare spark sparkle spell spill spoil spot spray

stop store strap strengthen stretch strip stroke stuff subtract succeed

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scratch scream screw scribble scrub seal search separate serve settle shade share shave shelter

skip slap slip slow smash smell smile smoke snatch sneeze sniff snore snow soak

sprout squash squeak squeal squeeze stain stamp stare start stay steer step stir stitch

suck suffer suggest suit supply support suppose surprise surround suspect suspend switch

  talk tame tap taste tease telephone tempt terrify test thank

thaw tick tickle tie time tip tire touch tour tow

trace trade train transport trap travel treat tremble trick trip

trot trouble trust try tug tumble turn twist type

  undress unfasten

unite unlock

unpack untidy

use

  vanish visit

  wail wait walk wander want warm warn wash

waste watch water wave weigh welcome whine whip

whirl whisper whistle wink wipe wish wobble wonder

work worry wrap wreck wrestle wriggle

  x-ray

  yawn yell

  zip zoom

o Irregular Verbs ListIrregular verbs are an important feature of English. We use irregular verbs a lot when speaking, less when writing. Of course, the most famous English verb of all, the verb "to be", is irregular.What is the difference between regular verbs and irregular verbs?

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Base Form

Past Simple

Past Participle

With regular verbs, the rule is simple...

The past simple and past participle always end in -ed:

finish finished finished

stop stopped stopped

work worked worked

But with irregular verbs, there is no rule...

Sometimes the verb changes completely:

sing sang sung

Sometimes there is "half" a change: buy bought bought

Sometimes there is no change: cut cut cut

One good way to learn irregular verbs is to try sorting them into groups, as above.

Here is a list of irregular verbs in English.

V1Base Form

V2Past Simple

V3Past Participle

awake awoke awoken

be was, were been

beat beat beaten

become became become

begin began begun

bend bent bent

bet bet bet

bid bid bid

bite bit bitten

blow blew blown

break broke broken

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bring brought brought

broadcast broadcast broadcast

build built built

burn burned/burnt burned/burnt

buy bought bought

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

come came come

cost cost cost

cut cut cut

dig dug dug

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt

drive drove driven

drink drank drunk

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

fly flew flown

forget forgot forgotten

forgive forgave forgiven

freeze froze frozen

get got gotten

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give gave given

go went gone

grow grew grown

hang hung hung

have had had

hear heard heard

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

keep kept kept

know knew known

lay laid laid

lead led led

learn learned/learnt learned/learnt

leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

lie lay lain

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

pay paid paid

put put put

read read read

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ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

run ran run

say said said

see saw seen

sell sold sold

send sent sent

show showed showed/shown

shut shut shut

sing sang sung

sit sat sat

sleep slept slept

speak spoke spoken

spend spent spent

stand stood stood

swim swam swum

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought

throw threw thrown

understand

understood understood

wake woke woken

wear wore worn

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win won won

write wrote written

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2)Verb FormsEnglish verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. English tenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to make the tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb to be, English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To be has 9 forms. Do not confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different verb forms to make the tenses, but they are not the same thing.In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping (auxiliary) verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

13. Forms of Main Verbs, remember Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs". Main verbs (except the verb "be") have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. "Be" has 9 forms.

    V1 V2 V3    

 infinitive

basepast simple

past participle

present participle

present simple, 3rd person singular

regular(to) work

work worked worked working works

irregular

(to) sing(to) make(to) cut

singmakecut

sangmadecut

sungmadecut

singingmakingcutting

singsmakescuts

(to) do*(to) have*

dohave

didhad

donehad

doinghaving

doeshas

infinitive

basepast simple

past participle

present participle

present simple

(to) be* bewas, were

been being am, are, is

In the above examples: to cut has 4 forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts to work has 5 forms: to work, work, worked, working, works to sing has 6 forms: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing, sings to be has 9 forms: to be, be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are

The infinitive can be with or without to. For example, to sing and sing are both infinitives. We often call the infinitive without to the "bare infinitive".

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Example SentencesThese example sentences use main verbs in different forms.Infinitive

I want to work He has to sing. This exercise is easy to do. Let him have one. To be, or not to be, that is the question:

Base - Imperative Work well! Make this. Have a nice day. Be quiet!

Base - Present simple(except 3rd person singular)

I work in London. You sing well. They have a lot of money.

Base - After modal auxiliary verbs I can work tomorrow. You must sing louder. They might do it. You could be right.

Past simple I worked yesterday. She cut his hair last week. They had a good time. They were surprised, but I was not.

Past participle I have worked here for five years. He needs a folder made of plastic. It is done like this. I have never been so happy.

Present participle I am working. Singing well is not easy. Having finished, he went home. You are being silly!

3rd person singular, present simple He works in London. She sings well. She has a lot of money. It is Vietnamese.

14. Forms of Helping Verbs: All helping verbs are used with a main verb (either expressed or understood*). There are 2 groups of helping verbs:

Primary helping verbs, used mainly to change the tense or voice of the main verb, and in making questions and negatives.

Modal helping verbs, used to change the "mood" of the main verb.

Study the table below. It shows the prinicipal forms and uses of helping verbs, and explains the differences between primary and modal helping verbs.

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* Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems to have no main verb. In fact, the main verb is "understood". Look at the following examples:

Question: Can you speak English? (The main verb speak is "expressed".)

Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speak is not expressed. It is "understood" from the context. We understand: Yes, I can speak English.

But if somebody walked into the room and said "Hello. I can", we would understand nothing!

Helping Verbs

Primary Modal

Do(to make simple tenses, and questions and negatives)

can could

Be(to make continuous tenses, and the passive voice)

may might

Have (to make perfect tenses) will would

shall should

must

ought (to)

"Do", "be" and "have" as helping verbs have exactly the same forms as when they are main verbs (except that as helping verbs they are never used in infinitive forms).

Modal helping verbs are invariable. They always have the same form.

Primary helping verbs are followed by the main verb in a particular form:

do + V1 (base verb) be + -ing (present participle) have + V3 (past participle)

"Ought" is followed by the main verb in infinitive form. Other modal helping verbs are followed by the main verb in its base form (V1).

ought + to... (infinitive) other modals + V1 (base

verb)

"Do", "be" and "have" can also function as main verbs.

Modal helping verbs cannot function as main verbs.

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3)Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbsPhrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language.

These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase" - which is why these verbs are often all called "phrasal verbs".

The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb. "Get" is a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get" and "get up" are two different verbs. They do not have the same meaning. So you should treat each multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these examples.

You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb:

single-word verb lookdirect your eyes in a certain direction

You must look before you leap.

Multi-word verbs

prepositional verbs

look after

take care ofWho is looking after the baby?

phrasal verbs look upsearch for and find information in a reference book

You can look up my number in the telephone directory.

phrasal-prepositional verbs

look forward to

anticipate with pleasure

I look forward to meeting you.

Phrasal VerbsPhrasal verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words.

Phrasal verbs are made of:verb + adverb

Phrasal verbs can be: intransitive (no direct object) transitive (direct object)

Here are some examples of phrasal verbs:

phrasal verbs

meaning

Examples

 Direct object

intransitiv get up rise from bed I don't like to get up.  

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e phrasal verbs

break down

cease to function

He was late because his car broke down.

 

transitive phrasal verbs

put off postpone We will have to put offthe meeting.

turn down

refuse They turned down my offer.

Separable Phrasal VerbsWhen phrasal verbs are transitive (that is, they have a direct object), we can usually separate the two parts. For example, "turn down" is a separable phrasal verb. We can say: "turn down my offer" or "turn my offer down". Look at this table:

transitive phrasal verbs areseparable

They

turned

  downmy offer.

They

turned

my offer

down.

 

However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice. We must separate the phrasal verb and insert the pronoun between the two parts. Look at this example with the separable phrasal verb "switch on":

Direct object pronouns must go between the two parts of transitive phrasal verbs

Johnswitched

  onthe radio.

These are all possible.

Johnswitched

the radio

on.

 

Johnswitched

iton.

 

Johnswitched

on it.This is not possible.

  Separable or inseparable phrasal verbs? Some dictionaries tell you when phrasal verbs are separable. If a dictionary writes "look (something) up", you know that the phrasal verb "look up" is separable, and you can say "look something up" and "look up something". It's a good idea to write "something/somebody" as appropriate in your vocabulary book when you learn a new phrasal verb, like this:

get up break down put something/somebody off turn sthg/sby down

This tells you whether the verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

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Prepositional VerbsPrepositional verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words.

Prepositional verbs are made of:verb + preposition

Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct objects. Here are some examples of prepositional verbs:

prepositional verbs

meaning

examples

 direct object

believe inhave faith in the existence of

I believe in God.

look after take care ofHe is looking after

the dog.

talk about discussDid you talk about

me?

wait for awaitJohn is waiting for

Mary.

Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the direct object between the two parts. For example, we must say "look after the baby". We cannot say "look the baby after":

prepositional verbs are inseparable

Who is looking after the baby?

This is possible.

Who is looking the baby after?

This is not possible.

  It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book when you learn a new prepositional verb, like this:

believe in something/somebody look after sthg/sby

This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

Phrasal-prepositional VerbsPhrasal-prepositional verbs are a small group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words.

Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:verb + adverb + preposition

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Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs:

phrasal-prepositional verbs

meaning

examples

 direct object

get on withhave a friendly relationship with

He doesn't get on with

his wife.

put up with tolerateI won't put up with

your attitude.

look forward toanticipate with pleasure

I look forward to

seeing you.

run out of use up, exhaustWe have run out of

eggs.

Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is always a direct object. And, like prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs cannot be separated. Look at these examples:

phrasal-prepositional verbs areinseparable

We ran out of fuel.

We ran out of it.

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book when you learn a new phrasal-prepositional verb, like this:

get on with somebody put up with sthg/sby run out of something

This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

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4)English ConditionalsThere are several structures in English that are called conditionals."Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is true, then a particular result happens.

If y = 10 then 2y = 20 If y = 3 then 2y = 6

There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more conditionals that we do not use so often.

People sometimes call conditionals " IF " structures or sentences, because there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence.

Structure of Conditional SentencesThe structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic possibilities. Of course, we add many words and can use various tenses, but the basic structure is usually like this:

IF

condition

result

IF y = 102y = 20

or like this:

resultIF

condition

2y = 20

IF y = 10

First Conditional: real possibilityWe are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen.

For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?

IF

condition Result

 present simple

WILL + base verb

If it rainsI will stay at home.

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Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain.

We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result.

The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?):

IF

Condition result

  present simple WILL + base verb

If I see Mary I will tell her.

If Tara is free tomorrow he will invite her.

Ifthey do not pass their exam

their teacher will be sad.

If it rains tomorrow will you stay at home?

If it rains tomorrow what will you do?

 

resultIF

condition

WILL + base verb   present simple

I will tell Mary if I see her.

He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow.

Their teacher will be sad

ifthey do not pass their exam.

Will you stay at home if it rains tomorrow?

What will you do if it rains tomorrow?

  Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV tonight.

Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dreamThe second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future,

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and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will happen.

For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future.

IF

condition result

  past simpleWOULD + base verb

IfI won the lottery

I would buy a car.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.

Here are some more examples:

IF

condition result

  past simple WOULD + base verb

If I married Mary I would be happy.

If Ram became rich she would marry him.

Ifit snowed next July

would you be surprised?

Ifit snowed next July

what would you do?

 

resultIF

condition

WOULD + base verb   past simple

I would be happy If I married Mary.

She would marry Ram If he became rich.

Would you be surprised

Ifit snowed next July?

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What would you do Ifit snowed next July?

  Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working.

Third Conditional: no possibilityWith the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true.

Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win.

condition result

  Past PerfectWOULD HAVE + Past Participle

IfI had won the lottery

I would have bought a car.

We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now.

Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won.Look at some more examples in the tables below:

IF

Condition result

  past perfect WOULD HAVE + past participle

If I had seen Mary I would have told her.

If Tara had been free yesterday I would have invited her.

Ifthey had not passed their exam

their teacher would have been sad.

If it had rained yesterday would you have stayed at home?

If it had rained yesterday what would you have done?

 

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ResultIF

condition

WOULD HAVE + past participle   past perfect

I would have told Mary if I had seen her.

I would have invited Tara if she had been free yesterday.

Their teacher would have been sad

ifthey had not passed their exam.

Would you have stayed at home if it had rained yesterday?

What would you have done if it had rained yesterday?

Zero Conditional: certaintyWe use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact.

IF

condition Result

 present simple

present simple

If you heat ice it melts.

Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always has the same result.

We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I miss my bus.

Look at some more examples in the tables below:

IF

Condition result

  present simple present simple

IfI miss the 8 o'clock bus

I am late for work.

If I am late for workmy boss gets angry.

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If people don't eat they get hungry.

If you heat ice does it melt?

 

resultIF

condition

present simple   present simple

I am late for work ifI miss the 8 o'clock bus.

My boss gets angry

if I am late for work.

People get hungry if they don't eat.

Does ice melt if you heat it?

Conditionals: SummaryHere is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not take the 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you.

probability conditional example time

100%

zero conditional

If you heat ice, it melts.any time

50%first conditional

If it rains, I will stay at home.

future

10%second conditional

If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.

future

0%third conditional

If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.

past

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5)Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").

Can, Could, Be able toCan and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.

CanCan is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:

talk about possibility and ability make requests ask for or give permission

o Structure of Cansubject + can + main verbThe main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ I can play tennis.

- Hecannot

play tennis.can't

? Can you playtennis?

Notice that: Can is invariable. There is only one form of can. The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). We cannot say: I CAN TO PLAY TENNIS

o Use of Cancan: Possibility and AbilityWe use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:

She can drive a car. John can speak Spanish. I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.) Can you hear me?

Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.

A. Can you help me with my homework? (present) B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

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can: Requests and OrdersWe often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):

Can you make a cup of coffee, please. Can you put the TV on. Can you come here a minute. Can you be quiet!

can: PermissionWe sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:

A. Can I smoke in this room? B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.

(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)

CouldCould is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:

talk about past possibility or ability make requests

o Structure of Couldsubject + could + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

  subject auxiliary verbmain verb

+My grandmother

could swim.

- Shecould not

walk.couldn't

? Couldyour grandmother

swim?

Notice that: Could is invariable. There is only one form of could. The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:I COULD TO PLAY TENNIS

o Use of Couldcould: Past Possibility or AbilityWe use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do:

I could swim when I was 5 years old. My grandmother could speak seven languages.

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When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.)

Could you understand what he was saying?

We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able to (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:

Past

General Specific Occasion

+My grandmother could speak Spanish.

A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able to save him.

-My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish.

A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn't save him.

o could: RequestsWe often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):

Could you tell me where the bank is, please? Could you send me a catalogue, please?

Be able toAlthough we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.We use be able to:

to talk about ability

o Structure of Be able toThe structure of be able to is:

subject + be + able + infinitive

 subject

bemain verb

ableadjective

infinitive

+ I am able to drive.

- Sheis not

able to drive.isn't

? Are you ableto drive?

Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example: I was able to drive... I will be able to drive...

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I have been able to drive...

Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form: I would like to be able to speak Chinese.

o Use of Be able toBe able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for convenience, because it is often used like "can" and "could", which are modal auxiliary verbs.

be able to: abilityWe use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses - but "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples:

I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect) You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple) I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)

Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't

Must is a modal auxiliary verb.Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.

Have to (objective obligation)We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, for example:

Children have to go to school.

o Structure of Have toHave to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb.

In the have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to)

Look at these examples in the simple tense:

subject

auxiliary verb

main verb have

infinitive (with to)

+ She has to work.  

- I do not have to see the doctor.

? Did you have to go to school?

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o Use of Have toIn general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:

In France, you have to drive on the right. In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform. John has to wear a tie at work.

In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.

We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:

 subject

auxiliary verb

main verb have

infinitive  

past simple I   had to workyesterday.

present simple I   have to work today.

future simple I will have to work tomorrow.

present continuous

She is having to wait.  

present perfect We have hadto change

the time.

modal (may) They may have to do it again.

Must (subjective obligation)We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for example:

I must go.

o Structure of MustMust is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure is:

subject + must + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to"). Look at these examples:

subject

auxiliary must

main verb

I must go home.

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You must visit us.

We must stop now.

  Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by to. So, we say:

I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)

o Use of MustIn general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these examples:

I must stop smoking. You must visit us soon. He must work harder.

In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside.

It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule or a law. But generally we use have to for this.We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these examples:

I must go now. (present) I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)

We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about the past.

Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:

Passengers must not talk to the driver.

o Structure of Must notMust is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for must not is:

subject + must not + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").Must not is often contracted to mustn't. Look at these examples:

subjectauxiliary must + not

main verb

I mustn't forgetmy keys.

You mustn't disturb him.

Students

must not be late.

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NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say: You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)

o Use of Must notMust not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not allowed.

The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law or rule). Look at these examples:

I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective) You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective) Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective) Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)

We can use must not to talk about the present or the future: Visitors must not smoke. (present) I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)

We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures to talk about the past, for example:

We were not allowed to enter. I couldn't park outside the shop.

Shall versus WillThe difference between shall and will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:

1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)

  PersonVerb

ExampleContraction

Singular

I shall I shall be in London tomorrow. I'll

you willYou will see a large building on the left.

You'll

he, she, it

will He will be wearing blue. He'll

Plural

we shallWe shall not be there when you arrive.

We shan't

you willYou will find his office on the 7th floor.

You'll

they will They will arrive late. They'll

2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or

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command)

  PersonVerb

ExampleContraction

Singular

I willI will do everything possible to help.

I'll

you shall You shall be sorry for this. You'll

he, she, it

shall It shall be done. It'll

Plural

we will We will not interfere. We won't

you shall You shall do as you're told. You'll

they shallThey shall give one month's notice.

They'll

It is true that this difference is not universally recognized.

WouldWould is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to:

talk about the past talk about the future in the past express the conditional mood

We also use would for other functions, such as: expressing desire, polite requests and questions, opinion or hope,

wish and regret...

Structure of Wouldsubject + would + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

 subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

 

+ Shewould

like tea.'d

- Shewould not

like whisky.wouldn't

? Would she like coffee?

Notice that: Would is never conjugated. It is always would or 'd (short form).

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The main verb is always the bare infinitive.The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:I would to like coffee.  Be careful! Would and had have the same short form 'd:He'd finished. (He had finished.)He'd like coffee. (He would like coffee.)

o Use of Would would: Talking about the pastWe often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:

Even as a boy, he knew that he would succeed in life. I thought it would rain so I brought my umbrella.

Using would as as a kind of past tense of will or going to is common in reported speech:

She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.") The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase

taxes.") Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's

going to rain.")

We often use would not to talk about past refusals: He wanted a divorce but his wife would not agree. Yesterday morning, the car wouldn't start.

We sometimes use would (rather like used to) when talking about habitual past behaviour:

Every weekday my father would come home from work at 6pm and watch TV.

Every summer we'd go to the seaside. Sometimes she'd phone me in the middle of the night. We would always argue. We could never agree.

would: Future in pastWhen talking about the past we can use would to express something that has not happened at the time we are talking about:

In London she met the man that she would one day marry. He left 5 minutes late, unaware that the delay would save his life.

would: ConditionalsWe often use would to express the so-called second and third conditionals:

If he lost his job he would have no money. IfI had won the lotteryI would have bought a car.

Using the same conditional structure, we often use would when giving advice:

I wouldn't eat that if I were you. If I were in your place I'd refuse. If you asked me I would say you should go.

Sometimes the condition is "understood" and there does not have to be an "if" clause:

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Someone who liked John would probably love John's father. (If someone liked John they would probably love John's father.)

You'd never know it. (for example: If you met him you would never know that he was rich.)

Why don't you invite Mary? I'm sure she'd come. Although there is always a main verb, sometimes it is understood (not stated) as in:

I'd like to stay. | I wish you would. (would stay) Do you think he'd come? | I'm sure he would. (would come) Who would help us? | John would. (would help us)

would: Desire or inclination I'd love to live here. Would you like some coffee? What I'd really like is some tea.

would: Polite requests and questions Would you open the door, please? (more polite than: Open the door,

please.) Would you go with me? (more polite than: Will you go with me?) Would you know the answer? (more polite than: Do you know the

answer?) What would the capital of Nigeria be? (more polite than: What is the

capital of Nigeria?)

would: Opinion or hope I would imagine that they'll buy a new one. I suppose some people would call it torture. I would have to agree. I would expect him to come. Since you ask me I'd say the blue one is best.

would: Wish I wish you would stay. (I really want you to stay. I hope you will stay.) They don't like me. I'm sure they wish I'd resign.

Note that all of these uses of would express some kind of distance or remoteness:

remoteness in time (past time) remoteness of possibility or probability remoteness between speakers (formality, politeness)

would: Presumption or expectation That would be Jo calling. I'll answer it. We saw a police helicopter overhead yesterday morning. | Really?

They would have been looking for those bank robbers.

would: Uncertainty He would seem to be getting better. (less certain than: He seems to

be getting better.) It would appear that I was wrong. (less certain than: It appears that I

was wrong.)

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would: Derogatory They would say that, wouldn't they? John said he didn't steal the money. | Well, he would, wouldn't he?

would that: Regret (poetic/rare) - with clause This rare, poetic or literary use of would does not have the normal structure:

Would that it were true! (If only it were true! We wish that it were true!)

Would that his mother had lived to see him become president.

ShouldShould is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly to:

give advice or make recommendations talk about obligation talk about probability and expectation express the conditional mood replace a subjunctive structure

Structure of Shouldsubject + should + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

 subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

+ He should go.

- Heshould not

go.shouldn't

?Should

he go?

Notice that: Should is invariable. There is only one form of should. The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:He should to go.  There is no short form for should. The negative should not can be shortened to shouldn't.

o Use of Should should: Giving advice, opinions We often use should when offering advice or opinions (similar to ought to):

You should see the new James Bond movie. It's great! You should try to lose weight. John should get a haircut.

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He shouldn't smoke. And he should stop drinking too. What should I wear? They should make that illegal. There should be a law against that. People should worry more about global warming.

should: Obligation, duty, correctness Another use of should (also similar to ought to) is to indicate a kind of obligation, duty or correctness, often when criticizing another person:

You should be wearing your seat belt. (obligation) I should be at work now. (duty) You shouldn't have said that to her. (correctness) He should have been more careful. Should you be driving so fast?

should: Probability, expectation We use should to indicate that we think something is probable (we expect it to happen):

Are you ready? The train should be here soon. $10 is enough. It shouldn't cost more than that. Let's call Mary. She should have finished work by now.

should: ConditionalsWe sometimes use should (instead of would) for the first person singular (I) and first person plural (we) of some conditionals:

If I lost my job I should have no money.(If he lost his job he would have no money.)

We should be grateful if you could send us your latest catalogue.

should: (If I were you I should...) We often use the conditional structure "If I were you I should..." to give advice.

If I were you, I should complain to the manager. If I were you I shouldn't worry about it. I shouldn't say anything if I were you.

Note that we can omit "If I were you..." and just say: I should complain to the manager. I shouldn't worry about it. I shouldn't say anything.

In these cases, the phrase "I should" really means something like "you should".

should: Pseudo subjunctive We often use a special verb form called the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody wants to happen, hopes will happen or imagines happening, for example:

The president insists that the prime minister attend the meeting.

However, this is much more common in American English. British English speakers would probably convey the same idea using should:

The president insists that the prime minister should attend the meeting.

Here are some more examples:

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Subjunctivetypically American English

Using shouldtypically British English

The president is insisting that pollution be reduced.

The president is insisting that pollution should be reduced.

The manager recommended that Mary join the company.

The manager recommended that Mary should join the company.

It is essential that we decide today.It is essential that we should decide today.

It was necessary that everyone arrive on time.

It was necessary that everyone should arrive on time.

should: Why should..? | How should..? If we don't understand (or agree with) something, we may use "Why should..?":

Why should it be illegal to commit suicide? It's your life. "Why should..?" and "How should..?" can also indicate anger or irritation:

"Help me with this." | "Why should I?" "Where are my keys?" | "How should I know?"

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6)Gerunds (-ing)When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand that they are not the same.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund: Fishing is fun.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present participle:

Anthony is fishing. I have a boring teacher.

Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns".

In this lesson, we look at how we use gerunds, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Gerunds as Subject, Object or ComplementTry to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:

Smoking costs a lot of money. I don't like writing. My favourite occupation is reading.

But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence.

Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money. I don't like writing letters. My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.

Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other determiners):

pointless questioning a settling of debts the making of Titanic his drinking of alcohol

But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:

a settling of debts (not a settling debts) Making "Titanic" was expensive. The making of "Titanic" was expensive.

Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb).

My favourite occupation is reading. My favourite niece is reading.

Gerunds after PrepositionsThis is a good rule. It has no exceptions!

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If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:

I will call you after arriving at the office. Please have a drink before leaving. I am looking forward to meeting you. Do you object to working late? Tara always dreams about going on holiday.

Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns: I will call you after my arrival at the office. Please have a drink before your departure. I am looking forward to our lunch. Do you object to this job? Tara always dreams about holidays.

The above rule has no exceptions!So why is "to" followed by "driving" in 1 and by "drive" in 2?

1. I am used to driving on the left. 2. I used to drive on the left.

Gerunds after Certain VerbsWe sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form, for example:

I want to eat.

But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example: I dislike eating.

This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund form:

admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand

Look at these examples: She is considering having a holiday. Do you feel like going out? I can't help falling in love with you. I can't stand not seeing you.

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start

I like to play tennis. I like playing tennis. It started to rain. It started raining.

Gerunds in Passive SenseWe often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the gerund has a passive sense.

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I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed) This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed) The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)

The expression "something wants doing" is British English.

Many grammarians do not like to use the expression "gerund". That is because there is sometimes no clear difference between a gerund and a present participle.

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7)Questions or Interrogative

What is a question?A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence that asks for information. Questions are also called "interrogative".

Statement:

I like EnglishClub.com.

Question:

Do you like EnglishClub.com?

A written question in English always ends with a question mark: ?In this lesson we look at basic questions in English, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Basic Question StructureThe basic structure of a question in English is very simple:auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

auxiliary verb

subjectmain verb

 

Do you like Mary?

Are they playing football?

Will Anthony goto Tokyo?

Have you seen ET?

Exception!For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an auxiliary verb. We simply reverse the positions of be and subject:

Statement:

He is German.

Question:

Is he German?

Basic Question TypesThere are 3 basic types of question:

1. Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No") 2. Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is

"Information") 3. Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")

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1. Yes/No Questions

auxiliary verb

subject

main verb

 AnswerYes or No

Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.

Can you drive?   No, I can't.

Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.

Did they go home?No, they didn't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

  Is Anne French? Yes, she is.

  Was Ram at home? No, he wasn't.

2. Question Word Questions

question word

auxiliary verb

subject

main verb

 AnswerInformation

Where do you live?   In Paris.

When will we have lunch? At 1pm.

Who did she meet?   She met Ram.

Why hasn't Tara done it?Because she can't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Where is Bombay? In India.

How was she? Very well.

3. Choice Questions

auxiliary verb

subject

main verb

 OR

 AnswerIn the question

Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee, please.

Will we meet John or James? John.

Did she go to or New She went to

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London York? London.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

  Is your car white or black? It's black.

  Were they $15 or $50? $15.

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8)Tag QuestionsYou speak English, don't you?

A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag".

A "tag" is something small that we add to something larger. For example, the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or washing instructions is a tag.

We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English.

The basic structure is:

+Positive statement,

-negative tag?

Snow is white, isn't it?

-Negative statement,

+positive tag?

You don't like me, do you?

Look at these examples with positive statements:

positive statement [+] negative tag [-] notes:

subjectauxiliary

main verb

 auxiliary

not

personalpronoun(same as subject)

 

You are coming,   are n't you?  

We havefinished,

  have n't we?  

You do like coffee, do n't you?  

You like coffee, do n't you?You (do) like...

They will help,   wo n't they?won't = will not

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I can come,   can 't I?  

We must go,   must n't we?  

He should try harder, should n't he?  

You   areEnglish,

are n't you?no auxiliary for main verb be present & pastJohn   was there, was n't he?

Look at these examples with negative statements:

negative statement [-] positive tag [+]

subject

auxiliary

 main verb

   auxiliary

personalpronoun(same as subject)

It is n't raining,     is it?

We havenever

seen   that, have we?

You do n't like   coffee, do you?

They will not help,     will they?

They wo n't report   us, will they?

I cannever

do  it right,

can I?

We must n't tell   her, must we?

He should n't drive  so fast,

should he?

You     are n'tEnglish,

are you?

John     was not there, was he?

Some special cases:

I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)

You have to go, don't you (do) have to go...

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you?

I have been answering, haven't I?

use first auxiliary

Nothing came in the post, did it?

treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative statements

Let's go, shall we? let's = let us

He'd better do it, hadn't he?

he had better (no auxiliary)

Here are some mixed examples: But you don't really love her, do you? This will work, won't it? Well, I couldn't help it, could I? But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you? We'd never have known, would we? The weather's bad, isn't it? You won't be late, will you? Nobody knows, do they?

Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request.

For example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite), we could say: "You wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?"

Here are some more examples: You don't know of any good jobs, do you? You couldn't help me with my homework, could you? You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?

IntonationWe can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real answer:

intonation  

You don't know where my wallet is,

do you? / rising real question

It's a beautiful view, isn't it? \ fallingnot a real question

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Answers to tag questions

A question tag is the "mini-question" at the end. A tag question is the whole sentence.

How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and reverse it (..., do they? Yes, they do).

Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an oposite system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your answer reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question.

For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the correct answers:

tag question

correct answer

   

Snow is white, isn't it?

Yes (it is). the answer is the

same in both cases - because snow IS WHITE!

but notice the change of stress when the answerer does not agree with the questioner

Snow isn't white, is it?

Yes it is!

Snow is black, isn't it?

No it isn't! the answer is the

same in both cases - because snow IS NOT BLACK!Snow isn't

black, is it?No (it isn't).

In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!

Here are some more examples, with correct answers: The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does. The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes. The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't! Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do! Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't! Men don't have babies, do they? No. The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.

Question tags with imperativesSometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders.

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imperative + question tag

notes:

invitation

Take a seat, won't you? polite

order

Help me, can you? quite friendly

Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would you?

quite polite

Do it now, will you? less polite

Don't forget, will you?with negative imperatives only will is possible

Same-way question tagsAlthough the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-positive, it is sometime possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative structure.

We use same-way question tags to express interest, surprise, anger etc, and not to make real questions.

So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful! She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance! So you think that's amusing, do you? Think again.

Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile: So you don't like my looks, don't you?

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9) SubjunctiveThe subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English.

Structure of the SubjunctiveThe structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"):

be (past)be (present)

all other verbs (past & present)

I wereyou werehe, she, it werewe wereyou werethey were

I beyou behe, she, it bewe beyou bethey be

I workyou workhe, she, it workwe workyou workthey work

The subjunctive does not change according to person (I, you, he etc).

Use of the SubjunctiveWe use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody:

wants to happen hopes will happen imagines happening

Look at these examples: The President requests that you be present at the meeting. It is vital that you be present at the meeting. If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.

The subjunctive is typically used after two structures: the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend,

request, suggest + that the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary,

vital + that

Here are some examples with the subjunctive: The manager insists that the car park be locked at night. The board of directors recommended that he join the company. It is essential that we vote as soon as possible. It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the

weekend.

Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does not matter whether the sentence is past or present. Look at these examples:

Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation. Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation. Present: It is essential that she be present.

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Past: It was essential that she be present.

The use of the subjunctive as above is more common in American English than in English, where should + infinitive is often used:

The manager insists that the car park should be locked at night. It was essential that we should vote as soon as possible.

We usually use the subjunctive were instead of "was" after if (and other words with similar meaning). Look at these sentences:

If I were you, I would ask her. Suppose she were here. What would you say?

Why do we say "I were", "he were"?We sometimes hear things like "if I were you, I would go" or "if he were here, he would tell you".

Normally, the past tense of the verb "to be" is: I was, he was. But the if I were you structure does not use the past simple tense of the verb "to be".

It uses the past subjunctive of the verb "to be". In the following examples, you can see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of "was" after:

if as if wish súpose

Formal

(The were form is correct at all times.)

Informal

(The was form is possible in informal, familiar conversation.)

If I were younger, I would go. If I was younger, I would go.

If he weren't so mean, he would buy one for me.

If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one for me.

I wish I weren't so slow! I wish I wasn't so slow!

I wish it were longer. I wish it was longer.

It's not as if I were ugly. It's not as if I was ugly.

She acts as if she were Queen.

She acts as if she was Queen.

If I were you, I should tell her.

Note: We do not normally say "if I was you", even in familiar conversation.

Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples: Long live the King! God bless America! Heaven forbid!

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Be that as it may, he still wants to see her. Come what may, I will never forget you. We are all citizens of the world, as it were

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10) Active Voice, Passive VoiceThere are two special forms for verbs called voice:

1. Active voice 2. Passive voice

The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:

active

subject

verb

object

  >

Cats eat fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:

passive

subject

verb object

<  

Fish are eaten by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:

subject verb object

activeEverybody

drinks water.

passive

Wateris drunk

by everybody

Passive VoiceThe passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.

Construction of the Passive VoiceThe structure of the passive voice is very simple:

subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)

The main verb is always in its past participle form.

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Look at these examples:

subjectauxiliary verb (to be)

 main verb (past participle)

 

Water is   drunk by everyone.

100 people

are   employedby this company.

I am   paid in euro.

We are not paid in dollars.

Are they   paid in yen?

Use of the Passive VoiceWe use the passive when:

we want to make the active object more important we do not know the active subject

subject verb object

give importance to active object (President Kennedy)

President Kennedy

was killedby Lee Harvey Oswald.

active subject unknown My wallethas been stolen.

?

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).

Look at this sentence: He was killed with a gun.

Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun.

In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".

Conjugation for the Passive VoiceWe can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be.

To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:

present simple: It is made present continuous: It is being made

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present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

infinitive to be washed

simple

present It is washed.

past It was washed.

future It will be washed.

conditional It would be washed.

continuous

present It is being washed.

past It was being washed.

future It will be being washed.

conditional It would be being washed.

perfect simple

present It has been washed.

past It had been washed.

future It will have been washed.

conditional It would have been washed.

perfect continuous

present It has been being washed.

past It had been being washed.

futureIt will have been being washed.

conditionalIt would have been being washed

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11) Infinitive or -ing?Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its:

-ing form (doing, singing)

or infinitive form (to do, to sing).

For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one? I dislike working late. (???) I dislike to work late. (???)

When to use the infinitiveThe infinitive form is used after certain verbs:- forget, help, learn, teach, train- choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like- agree, encourage, pretend, promise- allow, can/can't afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse

I forgot to close the window. Mary needs to leave early. Why are they encouraged to learn English? We can't afford to take a long holiday.

The infinitive form is always used after adjectives, for example:- disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised

I was happy to help them. She will be delighted to see you.

This includes too + adjective: The water was too cold to swim in. Is your coffee too hot to drink?

The infinitive form is used after adjective + enough: He was strong enough to lift it. She is rich enough to buy two.

When to use -ingThe -ing form is used when the word is the subject of a sentence or clause:

Swimming is good exercise. Doctors say that smoking is bad for you.

The -ing form is used after a preposition: I look forward to meeting you. They left without saying "Goodbye."

The -ing form is used after certain verbs:- avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise

I dislike getting up early. Would you mind opening the window?

Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form or the infinitive without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.

It started to rain.

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It started raining. I like to play tennis. I like playing tennis.

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12) Plural Verbs with Singular SubjectsWe often use singular nouns that refer to groups of people (for example: team, government, committee) as if they were plural.

This is particularly true in English and less true in USA English. This is because we often think of the group as people, doing things that people do (eating, wanting, feeling etc).

In such cases, we use: plural verb they (not it) who (not which)

Here are some examples: The committee want sandwiches for lunch. They have to leave

early. My family, who don't see me often, have asked me home for

Christmas. The team hope to win next time.

Here are some examples of words and expressions that can be considered singular or plural:

choir, class, club, committee, company, family, government, jury, school, staff, team, union, the BBC, board of directors, the Conservative Party, Manchester United, the Ministry of Health

But when we consider the group as an impersonal unit, we use singular verbs and pronouns:

The new company is the result of a merger. An average family consists of four people. The committee, which was formed in 1999, is made up of four men

and four women.

Notice that this is often a question of style and logic. The important thing is to be consistent.

Using a plural verb with singular subject is less common in American English.

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13) Verb Meanings with Continuous TensesThere are some verbs that we do not normally use in the continuous tense. And there are other verbs that we use in the simple tense with one meaning and in the continuous tense with another meaning.

In this lesson we look at various uses of continuous tenses, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Verbs not Used with Continuous TensesThere are some verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses. We usually use the following verbs with simple tenses only (not continuous tenses):

hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish believe, imagine, know, mean, realize, recognize, remember,

suppose, understand belong, concern, consist, contain, depend, involve, matter, need, owe,

own, possess appear, resemble, seem, hear, see

Here are some examples:

I want a coffee. not I am wanting a coffee.

I don't believe you are right.

not I am not believing you are right.

Does this pen belong to you?

not Is this pen belonging to you?

It seemed wrong. not It was seeming wrong.

I don't hear anything. not I am not hearing anything.

Notice that we often use can + see/hear: I can see someone in the distance.

(not I am seeing someone in the distance.) I can't hear you very well.

(not I am not hearing you very well.)

With verbs that we don't use in the continuous tense, there is no real action or activity. Compare "to hear" and "to listen". "To hear" means "to receive sound in your ears". There is no real action or activity by you. We use "to hear" with simple tenses only. But "to listen" means "to try to hear". You make an effort to hear.

There is a kind of action or activity. We can use "to listen" with simple or continuous tenses.

Verbs with Two Meanings

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Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we must use a simple tense. For the other sense we can use a continuous or simple tense.For example, the verb to think has two different senses:

1. to believe, to have an opinionI think red is a sexy colour.

2. to reflect, to use your brain to solve a problemI am thinking about my homework.

In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called "stative". In sense 2 there is a kind of action, a kind of activity. This sense is called "dynamic".

When we use the stative sense, we use a simple tense. When we use the dynamic sense, we can use a simple or continuous tense, depending on the situation.

Look at the examples in the table below:

Stative sense(no real action)

Dynamic sense(a kind of action)

Simple only Continuous Simple

I think she is beautiful.

Be quiet. I'm thinking.I will think about this problem tomorrow.

I don't consider that he is the right man for the job.

We are considering your job application and will give you our answer in a few days.

We consider every job application very carefully.

This table measures 4 x 6 feet.

She is measuring the room for a new carpet.

A good carpenter measures his wood carefully.

Does the wine taste good?

I was tasting the wine when I dropped the glass.

I always taste wine before I drink it.

Mary has three children.

Please phone later. We are having dinner now.

We have dinner at 8pm every day.

If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: "Is there any real action or activity?"

Be and Continuous TensesThe verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main verb (Marie is French). On this page we look at the verb be as a main verb.

Usually we use simple tenses with the verb be as a main verb. For example, we say:

London is the capital of the UK.(not London is being the capital of the UK.)

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Is she beautiful?(not Is she being beautiful?)

Were you late?(not Were you being late?)

Sometimes, however, we can use the verb be with a continuous tense. This is when the real sense of the verb be is "act" or "behave". Also, of course, the action is temporary. Compare the examples in the table below:

Mary is a careful person. (Mary is always careful - it's her nature.)

John is being careful. (John is acting carefully now, but maybe he is not always careful - we don't know.)

Is he always so stupid? (Is that his personality?)

They were being really stupid. (They were behaving really stupidly at that moment.)

Andrew is not usually selfish. (It is not Andrew's character to be selfish.)

Why is he being so selfish? (Why is he acting so selfishly at the moment?)

Notice that we also make a difference between "to be sick" and "to be being sick":

She is sick (= she is not well) She is being sick (= she is vomiting)

Here is the structure of the verb be in the continuous present tense:I am beingYou are beingHe, she, it is beingWe are beingThey are being

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14) Used to do & Be used toThese two expressions look the same, but in fact they are completely different.In this lesson we look at the structure and use of both expressions, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Used to doWe use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a tense. It is a special expression. We use the expression used to do for the past only.Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be used to. They have different meanings.

Structure of Used to doThe structure is:

 subject

auxiliarydid

not

main verbuse

infinitive

+ I     used to do.

- I did not use to do.

? Did you   use to do?

  Used or use?

when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d) when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d)

Use of Used to doWe use the used to do expression to talk about:

an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit) a situation that was true in the past

I used to smoke.//////past present future

Look at these examples.

the past the present

She used to work in a shop. Now she works in a bank.

He used to watch a lot of TV.Now he doesn't watch much TV.

They used to be married. Now they are divorced.

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There used to be a cinema here.

Now there is a supermarket here.

I didn't use to go swimming. Now I go swimming.

Did you use to smoke?  

Be used toBe used to somethingBe used to doingBe used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to Thailand", it is like saying "I am accustomed to Thailand."

Do not confuse be used to with with the special construction used to do. They have different meanings.

Structure of Be used toThe structure is:

subject + be + used to + object

 subject

main verbbe

not

used to object

+ I am  used to

horses.

-

He is notused to

horses.

We aren'tused to

horses.

? Are you  used to

horses?

If the object invoves a verb, we use the -ing form:

I am not used to being lied to.

He is   used to working late.

We aren't used totaking the bus.

Are you   used to cooking?

  Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always use -ing for a verb after a preposition - and the to is a preposition.

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Use of Be used toThe be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar to us or easy for us. For example:

I am used to driving on the left.

It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I am Japanese. In Japan, people drive on the left. Now I am living in the USA where people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the right in the USA, but when I go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because "I am used to it".

Look at these examples. I am used to hard work. I am used to working hard. He is not used to New York. He isn't used to living in New York. Are you used to fast food? Are you used to eating quickly?

TensesWe can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the tense that we need. Look at these examples:

When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather. I have been used to snakes for a long time. You will soon be used to living alone

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15) Going toGoing to is not a tense. It is a special expression to talk about the future.

Structure of Going toThe structure is:

subject + be + going + infinitive

The verb be is conjugated (past, present or future).

subject

be(not)

going

infinitive

 

+ I am   going to buy a new car.

+ I'm   going to go swimming.

- He is not going to take the exam.

- It isn't going to rain.  

? Are you   going to paint the house?

Use of Going toGoing to - intentionWe use going to when we have the intention to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these examples:

Jo has won the lottery. He says he's going to buy a Porsche. We're not going to paint our bedroom tomorrow. When are you going to go on holiday?

In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision was made before speaking.

Going to - predictionWe often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is based on present evidence. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:

The sky is very black. It's going to snow. It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train! I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!

In these examples, the present situation (black sky, the time, damaged car) gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.

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16) Future TimeThe future is uncertain. We know the past. We know the present. We do not know the future. We can be 100% sure or certain about the past and the present. But we can never be 100% certain about the future. In English there are several structures and tenses to talk about the future. It is usually the degree of certainty about the future that decides our choice of structure or tense.

Although we often talk about "future tenses", technically there are no future tenses in English - only different ways of talking about the future, using special constructions, other tenses or modal verbs.

In this lesson we look at four of the most common ways to talk about the future, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

WillOne of the most common ways to talk about the future is with will, for example: I will call you tonight.

We often call this the "future simple tense", but technically there are no future tenses in English. In this construction, the word will is a modal auxiliary verb.

Here are the three main ways that we use will to talk about the future.

No planWe use will when there is no prior plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:

Hold on. I'll get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision was made at the time of speaking.

We often use will with the verb think: I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. I think I'll have a holiday next year. I don't think I'll buy that car.

PredictionWe often use will to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:

It will rain tomorrow. People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. Who do you think will get the job?

BeThe verb be is an exception with will. Even when we have a very firm plan, and we are not speaking spontaneously, we can use will with be. Look at these examples:

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I will be in London tomorrow. There will be 50 people at the party. The meeting will be at 9.30 am.

The verb be is always exceptional!

Going toIntentionWe use the special going to construction when we have the intention to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these examples:

I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV. We're not going to see my mother tomorrow. When are you going to go on holiday?

In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision was made before we spoke.

PredictionWe often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure to happen. Here are some examples:

The sky is very black. It is going to snow. It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train! I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!

In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the time/damaged car) gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.

We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It will rain tomorrow." (It's my feeling but I can't be sure.)

We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence: "It's going to rain." (There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it doesn't rain I'll be very surprised.)

Present Continuous for PlanWe often use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. Of course, we normally use the present continuous to talk about action happening in the present, but if we add a future word, we can use it to talk about the future. (By "future word" we mean words or expressions like tomorrow, next week, in June.

The future word may be clearly expressed or understood from the context.)Sometimes there is no real difference between an intention (going to) and a plan (present continuous). In this case, it doen't matter which we use.

We're going to paint the bedroom tomorrow. We're painting the bedroom tomorrow.

We use the present continuous only when a plan exists before we speak. Look at these examples:

Mary is taking her music exam next year. They can't play tennis with you tomorrow. They 're working. We're going to the theatre on Friday.

Present Simple for Schedules

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When an event is on a schedule or timetable (for example, the take-off time for a plane), we often use the present simple to express the future. We usually also use a future word (expressed or understood) like tomorrow, at 6.30pm, next week.

Only a few verbs are used in this way, for example: be, open, close, begin, start, end, finish, arrive, come, leave, return

Look at these sentences: The train leaves Detroit at 9pm tonight. John starts work next week. Tomorrow is Thursday.

Future Time: SummaryWhen we speak, we choose the tense that we use. This is important in English, because the tense we choose expresses more than just a simple fact. When we speak about the future, the tense we choose can express how we "see" the future, even our personal feelings about the future. It certainly expresses what we believe to be the probability (the chance, the reality) of something happening or whether we have already decided to do it.

This table gives a simple scale of probability for each structure. It is not exact because language is not a science, and there are many variables. This table should help you to think about the "concept" of the future in English. This concept does not exist in all languages, but it is rather important in English.

% probability before speaker speaks of event happening structure

used for example

0% will no planDon't get up. I'll answer the phone.

70% going tointention

We're going to watch TV tonight.

90%present continuous

planI'm taking my exam in June.

99.999%present simple

schedule

My plane takes off at 6.00am tomorrow.

It is impossible in English to express the future with 100% certainty. (The speakers of any language that can do this must all be billionaires!)

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17) For and Since for TimeWe often use for and since when talking about time.

for + periodA period is a duration of time, for example: 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. For means "from the beginning of the period until the end of the period." For can be used with all tenses.

since + pointA point is a precise moment in time, for example: 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday. Since means "from a point in the past until now." Since is normally used with perfect tenses.

fora period(from start to end)>===<

sincea point(up to now)x===>|

for 20 minutesfor three daysfor 6 monthsfor 4 yearsfor 2 centuriesfor a long timefor everetc

since 9amsince Mondaysince Januarysince 1997since 1500since I left schoolsince the beginning of timeetc

all tenses perfect tenses only

For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples: They study for two hours every day. They are studying for three hours today. He has lived in Bangkok for a long time. He has been living in Paris for three months. I worked at that bank for five years. Will the universe continue for ever?

For is NOT used with "all day", "all the time" etc. I was there all day. (not *for all day)

Since is normally used with perfect tenses: He has been here since 9am. He has been working since he arrived. I had lived in New York since my childhood.

Since can also be used in the structure "It is [period] since...": It is a year since I saw her. How long is it since you got married?

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Both for and since also have other meanings, with no reference to time. Here are some examples:

This is for you. Is this the train for London? Since you ask, I'll say yes. Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam.

Grammar hot linksVerbs | Passive voice | Modal verbs | Conditionals | Questions | Irregular verbs | Going to | Gerunds | Phrasal Verbs | Tenses | Nouns | (Un)Countable nouns | Adjectives | Articles | Preposition List

Adjectives

An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns and noun phrases.)

An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog).

Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard).

We can often use two or more adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady).

Determiners

The determiner is an important noun modifier which contextualizes a noun, often in terms of quantity and possession. Determiners in English precede a noun phrase and include demonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers.

Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase.

Articles:

a, an, the

Possessive Adjectives:

my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose

Other determiners:

each, every either, neither

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some, any, no much, many; more, most little, less, least few, fewer, fewest what, whatever; which, whichever both, half, all several enough

Adjective Order

There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:

1. before the noun2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)

    adj. noun verb adj.

1 I like big cars.    

2     My car is big.

In this lesson we look at the position of adjectives in a sentence, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Adjective Before Noun

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:

I like big black dogs. She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.

What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?

1. The general order is: opinion, fact:

a nice French car (not a French nice car)

("Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely true about something.)

2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour, origin and material:

a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table

3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:

articles (a, the) possessives (my, your...)

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demonstratives (this, that...) quantifiers (some, any, few, many...) numbers (one, two, three)

Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:

adjectives noun

deter-miner

opinion fact

age shape colour

two nice old round red candles

When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":

Many newspapers are black and white. She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.

Adjective After Certain Verbs

An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smell, sound

Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it always refers to and qualifies the subject of the sentence, not the verb.

Look at the examples below: subject verb adjective

Ram  is English. Because she had to wait, she became impatient. Is it getting dark? The examination  did not seem difficult. Your friend  looks nice. This towel  feels damp. That new film  doesn't sound very interesting. Dinner  smells good tonight. This milk  tastes sour. It  smells bad.

These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change of state, not "dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that some verbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), and dynamic in another (she looked at him | he got the money). The above examples do not include all stative verbs.

Note also that in the above structure (subject verb adjective), the adjective can qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun.

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Comparative Adjectives

When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences.

We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things).

In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big":

A1 A2A1 is bigger than A2.

In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives, and then at how we use them:

Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:

short adjectives: add "-er" long adjectives: use "more"

Short adjectives

1-syllable adjectives old, fast

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy

Normal rule: add "-er" old → older

Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r late → later

Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant

big → bigger

Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i

happy → happier

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Long adjectives

2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant

all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual

Normal rule: use "more" modern → more modernexpensive → more expensive

 With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':

quiet → quieter/more quiet clever → cleverer/more clever narrow → narrower/more narrow simple → simpler/more simple

ExceptionThe following adjectives have irregular forms:

good → better well (healthy) → better bad → worse far → farther/further

Use of Comparative Adjectives

We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things).

Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".

Look at these examples:

John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John. America is big. But Russia is bigger. I want to have a more powerful computer. Is French more difficult than English?

If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them as shown in the table below:

  Earth Mars  

Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 Mars is smaller than Earth.

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Distance from Sun (million km)

150 228 Mars is more distant from the Sun.

Length of day (hours) 24 25 A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on Earth.

Moons 1 2 Mars has more moons than Earth.

Surface temperature (degrees Celcius)

22 -23 Mars is colder than Earth.

 Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things.

Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.

Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).

Superlative Adjectives

A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group of things.

In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big":

A B 

CA is the biggest.

In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives, and then at how we use them:

Formation of Superlative Adjectives

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As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:

short adjectives: add "-est" long adjectives: use "most"

We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.

Short adjectives

1-syllable adjectives old, fast

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy

Normal rule: add "-est" old → the oldest

Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st late → the latest

Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant

big → the biggest

Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i

happy → the happiest

Long adjectives

2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant

all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual

Normal rule: use "most" modern → the most modernexpensive → the most expensive

 With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':

quiet → the quietest/most quiet clever → the cleverest/most clever narrow → the narrowest/most narrow simple → the simplest/most simple

ExceptionThe following adjectives have irregular forms:

good → the best bad → the worst far → the furthest

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Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or more things. Look at these examples:

John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest. Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the

biggest. Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlative adjectives as shown in the table below:

  Earth Mars Jupiter  

Dia-meter (km)

12,760 6,790 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest.

Dis-tance from Sun (million km)

150 228 778 Jupiter is the most distant from the Sun.

Length of day (hours)

24 25 10 Jupiter has the shortest day.

Moons 1 2 16 Jupiter has the most moons.

Surface temp.(degrees Celcius)

22 -23 -150 Jupiter is the coldest.

 When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest) My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most

generous)

Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives

Adjectives describe qualities (characteristics) of nouns.

Some qualities can vary in intensity or grade (for example: rather hot, hot, very hot; hot, hotter, the hottest).

The adjective hot is gradable.

Other qualities cannot vary in intensity or grade because they are:a. extremes (for example: freezing)b. absolutes (for example: dead)

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c. classifying (for example: nuclear)

The adjectives freezing, dead and nuclear are non-gradable.

Gradable Adjectives

A gradable adjective can be used with "grading adverbs" that vary the adjective's grade or intensity. Look at these examples:

grading adverbsa little, dreadfully, extremely, fairly, hugely, immensely, intensely, rather, reasonably, slightly, unusually, very

+ gradable adjectivesangry, big, busy, clever, cold, deep, fast, friendly, good, happy, high, hot, important, long, popular, rich, strong, tall, warm, weak, young

A gradable adjective can also have comparative and superlative forms:

EC Tip: "Gradable adjectives" are also called "qualitative adjectives". "Grading adverbs" are also called "submodifiers".

big, bigger, the biggest hot, hotter, the hottest important, more important, the most important

Look at these example sentences:

My teacher was very happy with my homework. That website is reasonably popular. But this one is more

popular. He said that Holland was a little cold and Denmark was rather

cold. But Sweden was the coldest.

EC Tip: The adjective dead is non-gradable because it is anabsolute. Dead is dead. We cannot be more or less dead. One person cannot be "deader" than another. Other absolutes include: correct, unique, perfect

Non-gradable Adjectives

A non-gradable adjective cannot be used with grading adverbs:

It was rather freezing outside. The dog was very dead. He is investing in slightly nuclear energy.

Non-gradable adjectives do not normally have comparative and superlative forms:

freezing, more freezing, the most freezing dead, deader, the deadest nuclear, more nuclear, the most nuclear

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Often, non-gradable adjectives are used alone:

EC Tip: Don't try to learn lists of gradable and non-gradable adjectives! It's better to understand what makes an adjective gradable or non-gradable. This is a matter of logic and common sense. Most native-speakers have never heard of gradable and non-gradable adjectives. They just "feel" that it doesn't make sense to say "fairly excellent" or "very unique". You probably have the same idea in your language.

It was freezing outside. The dog was dead. He is investing in nuclear energy.

However, a non-gradable adjective can be used with "non-grading adverbs" (which usually just give the adjective extra impact), for example:

non-grading adverbs non-gradable adjectives

absolutely awful extreme

utterly excellent

completely terrified

totally dead absolute

nearly impossible

virtually unique

essentially chemical classifying

mainly digital

almost domestic

Here are some example sentences with non-gradable adjectives:

Her exam results were absolutely awful. She will have to take the exam again.

Is there anything like it in the world? It must be virtually unique. It starts an essentially chemical reaction.

Adjectives that can be gradable and non-gradable

Some adjectives may have more than one meaning or sense. It's possible for the same adjective to be gradable with one sense and non-gradable with another sense. For example:

  adjective common =

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He's got a very old car. gradable not young

I saw my old boyfriend yesterday. non-gradable

former, ex-

He has some dreadfully common habits. gradable vulgar

"The" is a very common word in English. gradable prevalent

The two countries' common border poses problems.

non-gradable

shared

Adverbs used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives

The adverbs really (very much) and fairly and pretty (both meaning "to a significant degree, but less than very") can often be used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives:

gradable non-gradable

Please don't forget! It's really important.

He was really terrified.

He's a fairly rich man. It's a fairly impossible job.

He's pretty tall. It's pretty ridiculous when you think about it.

"Quite" with gradable and non-gradable adjectives

The meaning of the adverb "quite" changes according to the type of adjective we use it with:

  adjective quite =

It's quite warm today. gradable fairly, rather

Are you quite certain? non-gradable completely, absolutely

Reference 

Non-gradable adjectives

Although we don't recommend that you learn lists of non-gradable adjectives, here are some for reference. You can decide for yourself whether they are extreme, absolute or classifying.

alive, awful, black, boiling, certain, correct, dead, domestic, enormous, environmental, excellent, freezing, furious, gigantic, huge, immediately,

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impossible, miniscule, mortal, overjoyed, perfect, pregnant, principal, ridiculous, superb, terrible, terrified, unique, unknown, white, whole

 

Non-grading adverbs

Again, no need to learn lists. Here are a few examples. There are many more. Remember that you cannot use all non-grading adverbs with all non-gradable adjectives. Some collocate (go together). Some don't.

absolutely, almost, completely, entirely, exclusively, fully, largely, mainly, nearly, perfectly, practically, primarily, utterly, virtually

see also:

Noun as Adjective

As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that describes a noun:

adjective noun

clever teacher

small office

black horse

Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an adjective.

nounas adjective noun

history teacher

ticket office

race horse

The "noun as adjective" always comes first

If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about:

a race horse is a horse that runs in races a horse race is a race for horses a boat race is a race for boats a love story is a story about love a war story is a story about war a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers

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a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles

The "noun as adjective" is singular

Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular form.

Right Wrong

boat race boat races NOT boats race, boats races

toothbrush toothbrushes NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes

shoe-lace shoe-laces NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces

cigarette packet cigarette packets

NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets

In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only.

A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they are unchanged:

a news reporter, three news reporters one billiards table, four billiards tables an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers

Exceptions:When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:

clothes shop, clothes shops sports club, sports clubs customs duty, customs duties accounts department, accounts departments arms production

How do we write the "noun as adjective"?

We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways:

two separate words (car door) two hyphenated words (book-case) one word (bathroom)

There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)

How do we say the "noun as adjective"?

For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word:

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shoe shop boat-race bathroom

Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"?

Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective" together. Look at these examples:

car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

noun

    costs

  production costs

car production costs

England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who trains the team that plays football for England

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

noun

      coach

    team coach

football team coach

England football team coach

Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other dictionaries do not.

government road accident research centre: we are talking about a centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

noun

        centre

      research centre

accident research centre

road accident research centre

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government road accident research centre

Newpapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look at this example:

BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY

To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The above headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS.

Note, too, that we can still use a real adjective to qualify a "noun as adjective" structure:

empty coffee jar honest car salesman delicious dog food rising car production costs famous England football team coach

Examples of AdjectivesLooking at examples of adjectives can make it easier to understand how these important parts of speech are used within the English language.

Popular AdjectivesAn adjective is a word that describes, identifies or further defines a noun or a pronoun. There are thousands of adjectives available to describe how something feels, looks, sounds, tastes and acts. Here are a few examples:

To Describe Taste 

Bitter Lemon-flavored Spicy

Bland Minty Sweet

Delicious Pickled Tangy

Fruity Salty Tasty

Gingery Sour Yummy

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To Describe Touch

Auricular Fluffy Sharp

Boiling Freezing Silky

Breezy Fuzzy Slick

Bumpy Greasy Slimy

Chilly Hard Slippery

Cold Hot Smooth

Cool Icy Soft

Cuddly Loose Solid

Damaged Melted Steady

Damp Painful Sticky

Dirty Plastic Tender

Dry Prickly Tight

Dusty Rough Uneven

Filthy Shaggy Warm

Flaky Shaky Wet

To Describe Sound

Blaring Melodic Screeching

Deafening Moaning Shrill

Faint Muffled Silent

Hoarse Mute Soft

High-pitched Noisy Squealing

Hissing Purring Squeaking

Hushed Quiet Thundering

Husky Raspy Voiceless

Loud Resonant Whispering

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To Describe Color  

Azure Gray Pinkish

Black Green Purple

Blue Indigo Red

Bright Lavender Rosy

Brown Light Scarlet

Crimson Magenta Silver

Dark Multicolored Turquoise

Drab Mustard Violet

Dull Orange White

Gold Pink Yellow

To Describe Size

Abundant Jumbo Puny

Big-boned Large Scrawny

Chubby Little Short

Fat Long Small

Giant Majestic Tall

Gigantic Mammoth Teeny

Great Massive Thin

Huge Miniature Tiny

Immense Petite Vast

To Describe Shape 

Blobby Distorted Rotund

Broad Flat Round

Chubby Fluffy Skinny

Circular Globular Square

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Crooked Hollow Steep

Curved Low Straight

Cylindrical Narrow Triangular

Deep Oval Wide

To Describe Time

Annual Futuristic Rapid

Brief Historical Regular

Daily Irregular Short

Early Late Slow

Eternal Long Speed

Fast Modern Speedy

First Old Swift

Fleet Old-fashioned Waiting

Future Quick Young

To Describe an Amount

All Heavy One

Ample Hundreds Paltry

Astronomical Large Plentiful

Bountiful Light Profuse

Considerable Limited Several

Copious Little Sizable

Countless Many Some

Each Measly Sparse

Enough Mere Substantial

Every Multiple Teeming

Few Myriad Ten

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Full Numerous Very

To Describe an Emotion

Abrasive Embarrassed Grumpy

Abrupt Energetic Kind

Afraid Enraged Lazy

Agreeable Enthusiastic Lively

Aggressive Envious Lonely

Amiable Evil Lucky

Amused Excited Mad

Angry Exhausted Manic

Annoyed Exuberant Mysterious

Ashamed Fair Nervous

Bad Faithful Obedient

Bitter Fantastic Obnoxious

Bewildered Fierce Outrageous

Boring Fine Panicky

Brave Foolish Perfect

Callous Frantic Persuasive

Calm Friendly Pleasant

Calming Frightened Proud

Charming Funny Quirky

Cheerful Furious Relieved

Combative Gentle Repulsive

Comfortable Glib Rundown

Defeated Glorious Sad

Confused Good Scary

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Cooperative Grateful Selfish

Courageous Grieving Silly

Cowardly Gusty Splendid

Crabby Gutless Successful

Creepy Happy Tedious

Cross Healthy Tense

Cruel Heinous Terrible

Dangerous Helpful Thankful

Defeated Helpless Thoughtful

Defiant Hilarious Thoughtless

Delightful Homeless Tired

Depressed Hungry Troubled

Determined Hurt Upset

Disgusted Immoral Weak

Disturbed Indignant Weary

Eager Irate Wicked

Elated Itchy Worried

Embarrassed Jealous Zany

Enchanting Jolly Zealous

To Describe a Person or Personality

Aggressive Famous Restless

Agoraphobic Fearless Rich

Ambidextrous Fertile Righteous

Ambitious Fragile Ritzy

Amoral Frank Romantic

Angelic Functional Rustic

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Brainy Gabby Ruthless

Breathless Generous Sassy

Busy Gifted Secretive

Calm Helpful Sedate

Capable Hesitant Shy

Careless Innocent Sleepy

Cautious Inquisitive Somber

Cheerful Insane Stingy

Clever Jaunty Stupid

Common Juicy Super

Complete Macho Swanky

Concerned Manly Tame

Crazy Modern Tawdry

Curious Mushy Terrific

Dead Naughty Testy

Deep Odd Uninterested

Delightful Old Vague

Determined Open Verdant

Different Outstanding Vivacious

Diligent Perky Wacky

Energetic Poor Wandering

Erratic Powerful Wild

Evil Puzzled Womanly

Exuberant Real Wrong

To Describe Appearance 

Ablaze Distinct Quirky

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Adorable Drab Ruddy

Alluring Dull Shiny

Attractive Elegant Skinny

Average Embarrassed Sloppy

Awkward Fancy Smiling

Balanced Fat Sparkling

Beautiful Filthy Spotless

Blonde Glamorous Strange

Bloody Gleaming Tacky

Blushing Glossy Tall

Bright Graceful Thin

Clean Grotesque Ugly

Clear Handsome Unattractive

Cloudy Homely Unbecoming

Clumsy Interior Uncovered

Colorful Lovely Unsightly

Confident Magnificent Unusual

Cracked Murky Watery

Crooked Old-fashioned Weird

Crushed Plain Wild

Curly Poised Wiry

Cute Pretty Wooden

Debonair Puffy Worried

Dirty Quaint Zaftig

To Describe Situations   

Accidental Doubtful Main

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Achievable Elementarty Minor

Advantageous Finger-printed Nasty

Alcoholic Groundless Nutritious

Animated Hard Obsolete

Aquatic Harmful Optimal

Aromatic High Organic

Aspiring Honest Premium

Bad Horrible Quizzical

Bawdy Illegal Rainy

Biographical Illegible Redundant

Bizarre Imperfect Remarkable

Broken Impossible Simple

Careful Internal Tangible

Credible Inventive Tricky

Creepy Jazzy Wholesale

Cumbersome Juvenile Worse

Disastrous Legal Wry

Dismissive Logical X-rated

Using Adjectives in WritingWhile it’s important to understand how adjectives add to the descriptions of the nouns and pronouns, it’s also wise to understand how to effectively use these parts of speech in your own writing.

Adjectives are best used sparingly. Generally, nouns and verbs should do the bulk of the descriptive work in your prose. Don’t simply tell your reader that something is beautiful, exciting, or interesting. Use your words to show why these descriptive labels are appropriate.

Pronouns

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Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:

• Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too pompous.

With pronouns, we can say:

• Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:

• number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)

• person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he)

• gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)

• case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)

We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.

Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:

number person gender personal pronouns

subject object

singular 1st male/female I me

2nd male/female you you

3rd male he him

female she her

neuter it it

plural 1st male/female we us

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2nd male/female you you

3rd male/female/neuter they them

Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun):

• I like coffee.

• John helped me.

• Do you like coffee?

• John loves you.

• He runs fast.

• Did Ram beat him?

• She is clever.

• Does Mary know her?

• It doesn't work.

• Can the engineer repair it?

• We went home.

• Anthony drove us.

• Do you need a table for three?

• Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?

• They played doubles.

• John and Mary beat them.

When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:

• This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.

• The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.

• My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.

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• Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.

For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this:

• If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.

• If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.

• If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

We often use it to introduce a remark:

• It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.

• It is important to dress well.

• It's difficult to find a job.

• Is it normal to see them together?

• It didn't take long to walk here.

We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:

• It's raining.

• It will probably be hot tomorrow.

• Is it nine o'clock yet?

• It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.

Demonstrative Pronouns

demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to

A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:

• near in distance or time (this, these)

• far in distance or time (that, those)

near far

singular this that

plural these those

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Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:

• This tastes good.

• Have you seen this?

• These are bad times.

• Do you like these?

• That is beautiful.

• Look at that!

• Those were the days!

• Can you see those?

• This is heavier than that.

• These are bigger than those.

Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.

• That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)

• That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)

Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:

• This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?

• That sounds like John.

Possessive Pronouns

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).

We use possessive pronouns depending on:

• number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)

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• person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)

• gender: male (his), female (hers)

Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:

• be subject or object

• refer to a singular or plural antecedent

number person gender (of "owner") possessive pronouns

singular 1st male/female mine

2nd male/female yours

3rd male his

female hers

plural 1st male/female ours

2nd male/female yours

3rd male/female/neuter theirs

• Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)

• I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)

• I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)

• My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)

• All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)

• John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)

• John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)

• Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)

• Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)

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• Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)

• I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your garden)

• These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)

• John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)

Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's, your's, their's

Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples:

• There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was.

• This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it?

Interrogative Pronouns

We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).

There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which

Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).

subject object

person who whom

thing what

person/thing which

person whose (possessive)

Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal, spoken English we rarely usewhom. Most native speakers would say (or even write): "Who did you see?"

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Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.

question answer

Who told you? John told me. subject

Whom did you tell? I told Mary. object

What's happened? An accident's happened. subject

What do you want? I want coffee. object

Which came first? The Porsche 911 came first. subject

Which will the doctor see first? The doctor will see the patient in bluefirst. object

There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? John's (car) hasn't arrived. subject

We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find? I found John's (keys). object

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:

• Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?

• Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?

• They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

Reflexive Pronouns

reflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror

We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).

There are eight reflexive pronouns:

reflexive pronoun

singular myself

yourself

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himself, herself, itself

plural ourselves

yourselves

themselves

Look at these examples:

reflexive pronouns

the underlined words are NOT the same person/thing the underlined words are the SAME person/thing

John saw me. I saw myself in the mirror.

Why does he blame you? Why do you blame yourself?

David sent him a copy. John sent himself a copy.

David sent her a copy. Mary sent herself a copy.

My dog hurt the cat. My dog hurt itself.

We blame you. We blame ourselves.

Can you help my children? Can you help yourselves?

They cannot look after the babies. They cannot look after themselves.

Intensive pronouns

Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples:

• I made it myself. OR I myself made it.

• Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?

• The President himself promised to stop the war.

• She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.

• The exam itself wasn't difficult, but exam room was horrible.

• Never mind. We'll do it ourselves.

• You yourselves asked us to do it.

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• They recommend this book even though they themselves have never read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have never read it themselves.

Reciprocal Pronouns

reciprocal (adj.): given or done in return; [grammar] expressing mutual action

We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say:

• A and B are talking to each other.

The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog.

There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:

• each other

• one another

When we use these reciprocal pronouns:

• there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and

• they must be doing the same thing

Look at these examples:

• John and Mary love each other.

• Peter and David hate each other.

• The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.

• Both teams played hard against each other.

• We gave each other gifts.

• Why don't you believe each other?

• They can't see each other.

• The gangsters were fighting one another.

• The boats were bumping against each other in the storm.

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You probably notice that each other is used in more examples above than one another. That's because in general we use each other more often than one another, which sounds a little formal. Also, some people say that we should use one another only for three or more people or things, but there is no real justification for this.

Indefinite Pronouns

That's Not My Job!

This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.

An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns are:

• all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone

Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at "another" in the following sentences:

• He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)

• I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)

Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with examples, as singular, plural or singular/plural.

Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal pronoun should also agree(in number and gender). Look at these examples:

• Each of the players has a doctor.

• I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.

Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement:

• Many have expressed their views.

pronoun meaning example

singular

another an additional or different person or thing That ice-cream was good. Can I haveanother?

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anybody/anyone no matter what person Can anyone answer this question?

anything no matter what thing The doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last two hours.

each every one of two or more people or things, seen separately Each has his own thoughts.

eitherone or the other of two people or things Do you want tea or coffee? / I don't mind. Either is good for me.

enough as much or as many as needed Enough is enough.

everybody/everyone all people We can start the meeting becauseeverybody has arrived.

everything all things They have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the earthquake.

less a smaller amount "Less is more" (Mies van der Rohe)

little a small amount Little is know about his early life.

much a large amount Much has happend since we met.

neither not one and not the other of two people or things I keep telling Jack and Jill but neitherbelieves me.

nobody/no-one no person I phoned many times but nobodyanswered.

nothing no single thing, not anything If you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing.

one an unidentified person Can one smoke here? | All the students arrived but now one is missing.

other a different person or thing from one already mentioned One was tall and the other was short.

somebody/someone an unspecified or unknown person Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide.

something an unspecified or unknown thing Listen! I just heard something! What could it be?

you an unidentified person (informal) And you can see why.

plural

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both two people or things, seen together John likes coffee but not tea. I thinkboth are good.

few a small number of people or things Few have ever disobeyed him and lived.

fewer a reduced number of people or things Fewer are smoking these days.

many a large number of people or things Many have come already.

others other people; not us I'm sure that others have tried before us.

several more than two but not many They all complained and several left the meeting.

they people in general (informal) They say that vegetables are good for you.

singular or plural

all the whole quantity of something or of some things or people All is forgiven.

All have arrived.

any no matter how much or how many Is any left?

Are any coming?

more a greater quantity of something; a greater number of people or things There is more over there.

More are coming.

most the majority; nearly all Most is lost.

Most have refused.

none not any; no person or persons They fixed the water so why is nonecoming out of the tap?

I invited five friends but none have come.*

some an unspecified quantity of something; an unspecified number of people or things Here is some.

Some have arrived.

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such of the type already mentionedHe was a foreigner and he felt that he was treated as such.

* Some people say that "none" should always take a singular verb, even when talking about countable nouns (eg five friends). They argue that "none" means "no one", and "one" is obviously singular. They say that "I invited five friends but none has come" is correct and "I invited five friends but none havecome" is incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is little to support this view. "None" has been used for hundreds of years with both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context and the emphasis required.

Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it modifies. Here is an example:

• The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.

In the above example, "who":

• relates to "person", which it modifies

• introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"

There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*

Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information).

Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and female.

Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses:

example sentences

S=subject, O=object, P=possessive notes

defining S - The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.

- The person that phoned me last night is my teacher. That is preferable

- The car which hit me was yellow.

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- The cars that hit me were yellow. That is preferable

O - The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher.

- The people who I phoned last night are my teachers.

- The person that I phoned last night is my teacher.

- The person I phoned last night is my teacher. Whom is correct but very formal. The relative pronoun is optional.

- The car which I drive is old.

- The car that I drive is old.

- The car I drive is old. That is preferable to which. The relative pronoun is optional.

P - The student whose phone just rang should stand up.

- Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra.

- The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked.

- The police are looking for the car of which the driver was masked.Of which is usual for things, butwhose is sometimes possible

non-defining S - Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher.

- The car, which was a taxi, exploded.

- The cars, which were taxis, exploded.

O - Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher.

- Mr and Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, are my teachers. Whom is correct but very formal.Who is normal.

- The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly caught fire.

P - My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor.

- The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed.

- The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed. Of which is usual for things, butwhose is sometimes possible

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*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun.

**Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use "who/whom"; there is no good reason for such a claim.

Pronoun Case

Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their function in the sentence. Their function can be:

• subjective (they act as the subject)

• objective (they act as the object)

• possessive (they show possession of something else)

The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case.

subjective case objective case possessive case

personal pronouns singular 1st I me mine

2nd you you yours

3rd he

she

it him

her

it his

hers

its

plural 1st we us ours

2nd you you yours

3rd they them theirs

relative/interrogative pronouns who whomwhose

whoever whomever

which/that/what which/that/what

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indefinite pronouns everybody everybody everybody's

A problem of case: Mary and I or Mary and me?

1. Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)

2. The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)

In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case ("I"). In 2, Mary and I are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective case ("me"). An easy way to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say "I am delighted to be here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say "The letter was addressed to me" or "The letter was addressed to I"?

Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, Nobody

That's Not My Job!

This is a story about four people named Everybody,Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.

There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it. Somebody got angry about that, because it was Everybody's job. Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn't do it.

It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done.

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Glossary of English Grammar Terms This glossary of English grammar terms relates to the English language. Some terms here may have additional or extended meanings when applied to other languages. For example, "case" in some languages applies to pronouns and nouns. In English, nouns do not have case and therefore no reference to nouns is made in its definition here.

Term Definition

active voice

one of two voices in English; a direct form of expression where the subject performs or "acts" the verb; see also passive voiceeg: "Many people eat rice"

adjectivepart of speech that typically describes or "modifies" a nouneg: "It was a big dog."

adjective clause seldom-used term for relative clause

adjunct word or phrase that adds information to a sentence and that can be removed from the sentence without

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making the sentence ungrammaticaleg: I met John at school.

adverbword that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverbeg: quickly, really, very

adverbial clause

dependent clause that acts like an adverb and indicates such things as time, place or reasoneg: Although we are getting older, we grow more beautiful each day.

affirmativestatement that expresses (or claims to express) a truth or "yes" meaning; opposite of negativeeg: The sun is hot.

affixlanguage unit (morpheme) that occurs before or after (or sometimes within) the root or stem of a wordeg: un- in unhappy (prefix), -ness in happiness (suffix)

agreement(also known as "concord")

logical (in a grammatical sense) links between words based on tense, case or numbereg: this phone, these phones

antecedent

word, phrase or clause that is replaced by a pronoun (or other substitute) when mentioned subsequently (in the same sentence or later)eg: "Emily is nice because she brings me flowers."

appositive

noun phrase that re-identifies or describes its neighbouring nouneg: "Canada, a multicultural country, is recognized by its maple leaf flag."

articledeterminer that introduces a noun phrase as definite (the) or indefinite (a/an)

aspect

feature of some verb forms that relates to duration or completion of time; verbs can have no aspect (simple), or can have continuous or progressive aspect (expressing duration), or have perfect or perfective aspect (expressing completion)

auxiliary verb(also called "helping verb")

verb used with the main verb to help indicate something such as tense or voiceeg: I do not like you. She has finished. He can swim.

bare infinitive

unmarked form of the verb (no indication of tense, mood, person, or aspect) without the particle "to"; typically used after modal auxiliary verbs; see also infinitiveeg: "He should come", "I can swim"

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base formbasic form of a verb before conjugation into tenses etceg: be, speak

case

form of a pronoun based on its relationship to other words in the sentence; case can be subjective, objective or possessiveeg: "I love this dog", "This dog loves me", "This is my dog"

causative verb

verb that causes things to happen such as "make", "get" and "have"; the subject does not perform the action but is indirectly responsible for iteg: "She made me go to school", "I had my nails painted"

clausegroup of words containing a subject and its verbeg: "It was late when he arrived"

comparative,comparative adjective

form of an adjective or adverb made with "-er" or "more" that is used to show differences or similarities between two things (not three or more things)eg: colder, more quickly

complementpart of a sentence that completes or adds meaning to the predicateeg: Mary did not say where she was going.

compound nounnoun that is made up of more than one word; can be one word, or hyphenated, or separated by a spaceeg: toothbrush, mother-in-law, Christmas Day

compound sentence

sentence with at least two independent clauses; usually joined by a conjunctioneg: "You can have something healthy but you can't have more junk food."

concord another term for agreement

conditional

structure in English where one action depends on another ("if-then" or "then-if" structure); most common are 1st, 2nd, and 3rd conditionalseg: "If I win I will be happy", "I would be happy if I won"

conjugate

to show the different forms of a verb according to voice, mood, tense, number and person; conjugation is quite simple in English compared to many other languageseg: I walk, you walk, he/she/it walks, we walk, they walk; I walked, you walked, he/she/it walked, we walked, they walked

conjunction word that joins or connects two parts of a sentence

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eg: Ram likes tea and coffee. Anthony went swimming although it was raining.

content word

word that has meaning in a sentence, such as a verb or noun (as opposed to a structure word, such as pronoun or auxiliary verb); content words are stressed in speecheg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME"

continuous(also called "progressive")

verb form (specifically an aspect) indicating actions that are in progress or continuing over a given time period (can be past, present or future); formed with "BE" + "VERB-ing"eg: "They are watching TV."

contractionshortening of two (or more) words into oneeg: isn't (is not), we'd've (we would have)

countable nounthing that you can count, such as apple, pen, tree (see uncountable noun)eg: one apple, three pens, ten trees

dangling participle

illogical structure that occurs in a sentence when a writer intends to modify one thing but the reader attaches it to anothereg: "Running to the bus, the flowers were blooming." (In the example sentence it seems that the flowers were running.)

declarative sentence

sentence type typically used to make a statement (as opposed to a question or command)eg: "Tara works hard", "It wasn't funny"

defining relative clause(also called "restrictive relative clause")

relative clause that contains information required for the understanding of the sentence; not set off with commas; see also non-defining clauseeg: "The boy who was wearing a blue shirt was the winner"

demonstrative pronoundemonstrative adjective

pronoun or determiner that indicates closeness to (this/these) or distance from (that/those) the speakereg: "This is a nice car", "Can you see those cars?"

dependent clause

part of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb but does not form a complete thought and cannot stand on its own; see also independent clauseeg: "When the water came out of the tap..."

determiner word such as an article or a possessive adjective or other adjective that typically comes at the beginning of

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noun phraseseg: "It was an excellent film", "Do you like my new shirt?", "Let's buy some eggs"

direct speech saying what someone said by using their exact words; see also indirect speecheg: "Lucy said: 'I am tired.'"

direct object

noun phrase in a sentence that directly receives the action of the verb; see also indirect objecteg: "Joey bought the car", "I like it", "Can you see the man wearing a pink shirt and waving a gun in the air?"

embedded question

question that is not in normal question form with a question mark; it occurs within another statement or question and generally follows statement structureeg: "I don't know where he went," "Can you tell me where it is before you go?", "They haven't decided whether they should come"

finite verb verb form that has a specific tense, number and personeg: I work, he works, we learned, they ran

first conditional"if-then" conditional structure used for future actions or events that are seen as realistic possibilitieseg: "If we win the lottery we will buy a car"

fragment

incomplete piece of a sentence used alone as a complete sentence; a fragment does not contain a complete thought; fragments are common in normal speech but unusual (inappropriate) in formal writingeg: "When's her birthday? - In December", "Will they come? - Probably not"

function

purpose or "job" of a word form or element in a sentenceeg: The function of a subject is to perform the action. One function of an adjective is to describe a noun. The function of a noun is to name things.

future continuous(also called "future progressive")

tense* used to describe things that will happen in the future at a particular time; formed with WILL + BE + VERB-ingeg: "I will be graduating in September."

future perfecttense* used to express the past in the future; formed with WILL HAVE + VERB-edeg: "I will have graduated by then"

future perfect tense* used to show that something will be ongoing

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continuous

until a certain time in the future; formed with WILL HAVE BEEN + VERB-ingeg: "We will have been living there for three months by the time the baby is born"

future simple

tense* used to describe something that hasn't happened yet such as a prediction or a sudden decision; formed with WILL + BASE VERBeg: "He will be late", "I will answer the phone"

gerundnoun form of a verb, formed with VERB-ingeg: "Walking is great exercise"

gradable adjective

adjective that can vary in intensity or grade when paired with a grading adverb ; see also non-gradable adjectiveeg: quite hot, very tall

grading adverbadverb that can modify the intensity or grade of a gradable adjectiveeg: quite hot, very tall

hanging participle another term for dangling participle

helping verb another term for auxiliary verb

imperativeform of verb used when giving a command; formed with BASE VERB onlyeg: "Brush your teeth!"

indefinite pronoun pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite".eg: anything, each, many, somebody

independent clause(also called "main clause")

group of words that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence; see also dependent clauseeg: "Tara is eating curry.", "Tara likes oranges and Joe likes apples."

indirect object

noun phrase representing the person or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb; see also direct objecteg: "She showed me her book collection", "Joey bought his wife a new car"

indirect question another term for embedded question

indirect speech(also called "reported speech")

saying what someone said without using their exact words; see direct speecheg: "Lucy said that she was tired"

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infinitive

base form of a verb preceded by "to"**; see also bare infinitiveeg: "You need to study harder", "To be, or not to be: that is the question"

inflectionchange in word form to indicate grammatical meaningeg: dog, dogs (two inflections); take, takes, took, taking, taken (five inflections)

interjection

common word that expresses emotion but has no grammatical value; can often be used alone and is often followed by an exclamation markeg: "Hi!", "er", "Ouch!", "Dammit!"

interrogative(formal) sentence type (typically inverted) normally used when asking a questioneg: "Are you eating?", "What are you eating?"

interrogative pronoun

pronoun that asks a question.eg: who, whom, which

intransitive verbverb that does not take a direct object; see also transitive verbe.g. "He is working hard", "Where do you live?"

inversion

any reversal of the normal word order, especially placing the auxiliary verb before the subject; used in a variety of ways, as in question formation, conditional clauses and agreement or disagreementeg: "Where are your keys?","Had we watched the weather report, we wouldn't have gone to the beach", "So did he", "Neither did she"

irregular verbsee irregular verbs list

verb that has a different ending for past tense and past participle forms than the regular "-ed"; see also regular verbeg: buy, bought, bought; do, did, done

lexicon, lexis all of the words and word forms in a language with meaning or function

lexical verb another term for main verb

linking verbverbs that connect the subject to more information (but do not indicate action), such as "be" or "seem"

main clause another term for independent clause

main verb(also called "lexical verb")

any verb in a sentence that is not an auxiliary verb; a main verb has meaning on its owneg: "Does John like Mary?", "I will have arrived by 4pm"

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modal verb(also called "modal")

auxiliary verb such as can, could, must, should etc; paired with the bare infinitive of a verbeg: "I should go for a jog"

modifier

word or phrase that modifies and limits the meaning of another wordeg: the house => the white house, the house over there, the house we sold last year

moodsentence type that indicates the speaker's view towards the degree of reality of what is being said, for example subjunctive, indicative, imperative

morphemeunit of language with meaning; differs from "word" because some cannot stand alonee.g. un-, predict and -able in unpredictable

multi-word verb

verb that consists of a basic verb + another word or words (preposition and/or adverb)eg: get up (phrasal verb), believe in (prepositional verb), get on with (phrasal-prepositional verb)

negativeform which changes a "yes" meaning to a "no" meaning; opposite of affirmativeeg: "She will not come", "I have never seen her"

nominative case another term for subjective case

non-defining relative clause(also called "non-restrictive relative clause")

relative clause that adds information but is not completely necessary; set off from the sentence with a comma or commas; see defining relative clauseeg: "The boy, who had a chocolate bar in his hand, was still hungry"

non-gradable adjective

adjective that has a fixed quality or intensity and cannot be paired with a grading adverb; see also gradable adjectiveeg: freezing, boiling, dead

non-restrictive relative clause

another term for non-defining relative clause

noun

part of speech that names a person, place, thing, quality, quantity or concept; see also proper noun and compound nouneg: "The man is waiting", "I was born in London", "Is that your car?", "Do you like music?"

noun clause

clause that takes the place of a noun and cannot stand on its own; often introduced with words such as "that, who or whoever"eg: "What the president said was surprising"

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noun phrase (NP)

any word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun that can function in a sentence as a subject, object or prepositional object; can be one word or many words; can be very simple or very complexeg: "She is nice", "When is the meeting?", "The car over there beside the lampost is mine"

numberchange of word form indicating one person or thing (singular) or more than one person or thing (plural)eg: one dog/three dogs, she/they

object

thing or person affected by the verb; see also direct object and indirect objecteg: "The boy kicked the ball", "We chose the house with the red door"

objective casecase form of a pronoun indicating an objecteg: "John married her", "I gave it to him"

part of speechone of the classes into which words are divided according to their function in a sentenceeg: verb, noun, adjective

participleverb form that can be used as an adjective or a noun; see past participle, present participle

passive voice

one of two voices in English; an indirect form of expression in which the subject receives the action; see also active voiceeg: "Rice is eaten by many people"

past tense(also called "simple past")

tense used to talk about an action, event or situation that occurred and was completed in the pasteg: "I lived in Paris for 10 years", "Yesterday we saw a snake"

past continuoustense often used to describe an interrupted action in the past; formed with WAS/WERE + VERB-ingeg: "I was reading when you called"

past perfecttense that refers to the past in the past; formed with HAD + VERB-edeg: "We had stopped the car"

past perfect continuous

tense that refers to action that happened in the past and continued to a certain point in the past; formed with HAD BEEN + VERB-ingeg: "I had been waiting for three hours when he arrived"

past participle verb form (V3) - usually made by adding "-ed" to the base verb - typically used in perfect and passive

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tenses, and sometimes as an adjectiveeg: "I have finished", "It was seen by many people", "boiled eggs"

perfectverb form (specifically an aspect); formed with HAVE/HAS + VERB-ed (present perfect) or HAD + VERB-ed (past perfect)

person

grammatical category that identifies people in a conversation; there are three persons: 1st person (pronouns I/me, we/us) is the speaker(s), 2nd person (pronoun you) is the listener(s), 3rd person (pronouns he/him, she/her, it, they/them) is everybody or everything else

personal pronounpronoun that indicates personeg: "He likes my dogs", "They like him"

phrasal verb

multi-word verb formed with a verb + adverbeg: break up, turn off (see phrasal verbs list)NB: many people and books call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs" (see multi-word verbs)

phrasetwo or more words that have a single function and form part of a sentence; phrases can be noun, adjective, adverb, verb or prepositional

plural

of a noun or form indicating more than one person or thing; plural nouns are usually formed by adding "-s"; see also singular, numbereg: bananas, spoons, trees

position

grammatically correct placement of a word form in a phrase or sentence in relation to other word formseg: "The correct position for an article is at the beginning of the noun phrase that it describes"

positivebasic state of an adjective or adverb when it shows quality but not comparative or superlativeeg: nice, kind, quickly

possessive adjective

adjective (also called "determiner") based on a pronoun: my, your, his, her, its, our, theireg: "I lost my keys", "She likes your car"

possessive case case form of a pronoun indicating ownership or possessioneg: "Mine are blue", "This car is hers"

possessive pronoun

pronoun that indicates ownership or possessioneg: "Where is mine?", "These are yours"

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predicate

one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the predicate is the part that is not the subjecteg: "My brother is a doctor", "Who did you call?", "The woman wearing a blue dress helped me"

prefixaffix that occurs before the root or stem of a wordeg: impossible, reload

preposition

part of speech that typically comes before a noun phrase and shows some type of relationship between that noun phrase and another element (including relationships of time, location, purpose etc)eg: "We sleep at night", "I live in London", "This is for digging"

prepositional verbmulti-word verb that is formed with verb + prepositioneg: believe in, look after

present participle

-ing form of a verb (except when it is a gerund or verbal noun)eg: "We were eating", "The man shouting at the back is rude", "I saw Tara playing tennis"

present simple (also called "simple present")

tense usually used to describe states and actions that are general, habitual or (with the verb "to be") true right now; formed with the basic verb (+ s for 3rd person singular)eg: "Canada sounds beautiful", "She walks to school", "I am very happy"

present continuous (also called "present progressive")

tense used to describe action that is in process now, or a plan for the future; formed with BE + VERB-ingeg: "We are watching TV", "I am moving to Canada next month"

present perfect

tense that connects the past and the present, typically used to express experience, change or a continuing situation; formed with HAVE + VERB-edeg: "I have worked there", "John has broken his leg", "How long have you been in Canada?"

present perfect continuous

tense used to describe an action that has recently stopped or an action continuing up to now; formed with HAVE + BEEN + VERB-ingeg: "I'm tired because I've been running", "He has been living in Canada for two years"

progressive another term for continuous

pronoun word that replaces a noun or noun phrase; there are several types including personal pronouns, relative

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pronouns and indefinite pronounseg: you, he, him; who, which; somebody, anything

proper nounnoun that is capitalized at all times and is the name of a person, place or thingeg: Shakespeare, Tokyo, EnglishClub.com

punctuationstandard marks such as commas, periods and question marks within a sentenceeg: , . ? ! - ; :

quantifierdeterminer or pronoun that indicates quantityeg: some, many, all

question tag final part of a tag question; mini-question at end of a tag questioneg: "Snow isn't black, is it?"

question word another term for WH-word

reciprocal pronoun

pronoun that indicates that two or more subjects are acting mutually; there are two in English - each other, one anothereg: "John and Mary were shouting at each other", "The students accused one another of cheating"

reduced relative clause(also called "participial relative clause")

construction similar to a relative clause, but containing a participle instead of a finite verb; this construction is possible only under certain circumstanceseg: "The woman sitting on the bench is my sister", "The people arrested by the police have been released"

reflexive pronoun

pronoun ending in -self or -selves, used when the subject and object are the same, or when the subject needs emphasiseg: "She drove herself", "I'll phone her myself"

regular verbsee regular verbs list

verb that has "-ed" as the ending for past tense and past participle forms; see also irregular verbeg: work, worked, worked

relative adverb adverb that introduces a relative clause; there are four in English: where, when, wherever, whenever; see also relative pronoun

relative clause

dependent clause that usually starts with a relative pronoun such as who or which, or relative adverb such as whereeg: "The person who finishes first can leave early" (defining), "Texas, where my brother lives, is big" (non-defining)

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relative pronounpronoun that starts a relative clause; there are five in English: who, whom, whose, which, that; see also relative adverb

reported speech another term for indirect speech

restrictive relative clause

another term for defining relative clause

second conditional"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about an unlikely possibility in the futureeg: "If we won the lottery we would buy a car"

sentence

largest grammatical unit; a sentence must always include a subject (except for imperatives) and predicate; a written sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop/period (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!); a sentence contains a complete thought such as a statement, question, request or commandeg: "Stop!", "Do you like coffee?", "I work."

serieslist of items in a sentenceeg: "The children ate popsicles, popcorn and chips"

singular

of a noun or form indicating exactly one person or thing; singular nouns are usually the simplest form of the noun (as found in a dictionary); see also plural, numbereg: banana, spoon, tree

split infinitive

situation where a word or phrase comes between the particle "to" and the verb in an infinitive; considered poor construction by someeg: "He promised to never lie again"

Standard English (S.E.)

"normal" spelling, pronunciation and grammar that is used by educated native speakers of English

structure word

word that has no real meaning in a sentence, such as a pronoun or auxiliary verb (as opposed to a content word, such as verb or noun); structure words are not normally stressed in speecheg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME"

subject one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the subject is the part that is not the predicate; typically, the subject is the first noun phrase in a sentence and is what the rest of the sentence "is about"eg: "The rain water was dirty", "Mary is beautiful",

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"Who saw you?"

subjective casealso called "nominative"

case form of a pronoun indicating a subjecteg: Did she tell you about her?

subjunctive

fairly rare verb form typically used to talk about events that are not certain to happen, usually something that someone wants, hopes or imagines will happen; formed with BARE INFINITIVE (except past of "be")eg: "The President requests that John attend the meeting"

subordinate clause another term for dependent clause

suffixaffix that occurs after the root or stem of a wordeg: happiness, quickly

superlative, superlative adjective

adjective or adverb that describes the extreme degree of somethingeg: happiest, most quickly

SVOsubject-verb-object; a common word order where the subject is followed by the verb and then the objecteg: "The man crossed the street"

syntax sentence structure; the rules about sentence structure

tag question

special construction with statement that ends in a mini-question; the whole sentence is a tag question; the mini-question is a question tag; usually used to obtain confirmationeg: "The Earth is round, isn't it?", "You don't eat meat, do you?"

tense

form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.

third conditional

"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about a possible event in the past that did not happen (and is therefore now impossible)eg: "If we had won the lottery we would have bought a car"

transitive verbaction verb that has a direct object (receiver of the action); see also intransitive verbeg: "The kids always eat a snack while they watch TV"

uncountable nouns thing that you cannot count, such as substances or

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(also called "mass nouns" or "non-count")

concepts; see also countable nounseg: water, furniture, music

usageway in which words and constructions are normally used in any particular language

V1, V2, V3

referring to Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3 - being the base, past and past participle that students typically learn for irregular verbseg: speak, spoke, spoken

verb

word that describes the subject's action or state and that we can change or conjugate based on tense and personeg: (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin

voiceform of a verb that shows the relation of the subject to the action; there are two voices in English: active, passive

WH-question

question using a WH-word and expecting an answer that is not "yes" or "no"; WH-questions are "open" questions; see also yes-no questioneg: Where are you going?

WH-word(also called "question word")

word that asks a WH-question; there are 7 WH-words: who, what, where, when, which, why, how

word order order or sequence in which words occur within a sentence; basic word order for English is subject-verb-object or SVO

yes-no question question to which the answer is yes or no; yes-no questions are "closed" questions; see also WH-questioneg: "Do you like coffee?"

zero conditional"if-then" conditional structure used when the result of the condition is always true (based on fact)eg: "If you dial O, the operator comes on"

* note that technically English does not have a real future tense** some authorities consider the base form of the verb without "to" to be the true infinitive

3. English Grammar Terms Glossary of English Grammar Terms 4. English Grammar Terms (short version) Glossary of English

Grammar TermsEnglish Grammar Terms

Active Voice: In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action (eg They killed the President). See also Passive Voice.

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Adjective: A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.Adverb: A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a verb.Article: The "indefinite" articles are a and an. The "definite article" is the.Auxiliary Verb: A verb that is used with a main verb. Be, do and have are auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc are modal auxiliary verbs.Clause: A group of words containing a subject and its verb (for example: It was late when he arrived).Conjunction: A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for example: and, but, if).Infinitive: The basic form of a verb as in to work or work.Interjection: An exclamation inserted into an utterance without grammatical connection (for example: oh!, ah!, ouch!, well!).Modal Verb: An auxiliary verb like can, may, must etc that modifies the main verb and expresses possibility, probability etc. It is also called "modal auxiliary verb".Noun: A word like table, dog, teacher, America etc. A noun is the name of an object, concept, person or place. A "concrete noun" is something you can see or touch like a person or car. An "abstract noun" is something that you cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A "countable noun" is something that you can count (for example: bottle, song, dollar). An "uncountable noun" is something that you cannot count (for example: water, music, money).Object: In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice, a noun or its equivalent that does the action of the verb.Participle: The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the "present participle". The -ed form is called the "past participle" (for irregular verbs, this is column 3).Part Of Speech: One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction and interjection.Passive Voice: In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb (eg The President was killed). See also Active Voice.Phrase: A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (eg on the table, the girl in a red dress).Predicate: Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The predicate is what is said about the subject.Preposition: A word like at, to, in, over etc. Prepositions usually come before a noun and give information about things like time, place and direction.Pronoun: A word like I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun.Sentence: A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a statement, question, exclamation or command. A sentence contains or implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a sentence must contain a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).Subject: Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is the main noun (or equivalent) in a sentence about which something is said.Tense: The form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.

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Verb: A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an action or state.

Regular Verbs ListThere are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is a list of 600 of the more common regular verbs. Note that there are some spelling variations in American English (for example, "practise" becomes "practice" in American English).

See also irregular verbs list

accept add admire admit advise afford agree

alert

allow amuse analyse announce annoy answer apologise

appear

applaud apprecia

te approve argue arrange arrest arrive

ask

attach attack attempt attend attract

avoid

back bake balance ban bang bare

beg behave belong bleach bless blind

boil bolt bomb book bore borrow

branch breathe bruise brush bubble bump

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bat bathe battle

beam

blink blot blush

boast

bounce bow box

brake

burn bury

buzz

calculate

call camp care carry carve cause challen

ge change charge chase cheat check cheer

chew

choke chop claim clap clean clear clip close coach coil collect colour comb comman

d

communicate

compare

compete

complain

complete

concentrate

concern confess confuse connect consider consist contain continue copy

correct

cough count cover crack crash crawl cross crush cry cure curl curve

cycle

dam damag

e dance dare decay deceive decide decorat

e delay

delight

deliver depend describe desert deserve destroy detect develop disagree

disappear

disapprove

disarm discover dislike divide double doubt drag drain

dream

dress drip drop drown drum dry

dust

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earn educat

e embarr

ass employ empty

encourage

end enjoy enter entertain escape

examine

excite excuse exercise exist expand

expect

explain explode

extend

face fade fail fancy fasten fax fear

fence

fetch file fill film fire fit fix

flap

flash float flood flow flower fold follow

fool

force form found frame frighten

fry

gather gaze glow

glue

grab grate grease

greet

grin grip groan

guarantee

guard guess

guide

hammer

hand handle hang happen

harass

harm hate haunt head heal

heap

heat help hook hop hope

hover

hug hum hunt

hurry

identify ignore imagin

e impress

increase influence inform inject

intend interest interfere interrup

t

invite irritate

itch

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improve

include

injure

instruct

introduce

invent

jail

jam

jog

join

joke

judge

juggle

jump

kick

kill

kiss

kneel

knit

knock

knot

label land last laugh

launch

learn level license lick

lie

lighten like list listen

live

load lock long look

love

man manag

e march mark marry match

mate

matter measure meddle melt memoris

e mend

mess up

milk mine miss mix moan moor

mourn

move muddle mug multiply

murder

nail

name

need

nest

nod

note

notice

number

obey object

observe

obtain occur

offend

offer open

order

overflow

owe

own

pack paddle paint park part

permit phone pick pinch pine

pop possess post pour practise

prevent prick print produce progra

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pass paste pat pause peck pedal peel peep

perform

place plan plant play please plug point poke

polish

pray preach precede prefer prepare present preserv

e press

pretend

m promise protect provide pull pump punch punctur

e punish

push

question

queue

race radiate rain raise reach realise receive recogni

se record reduce

reflect

refuse regret reign reject rejoice relax release rely remain remembe

r

remind

remove repair repeat replace reply report reprodu

ce request rescue retire

return

rhyme rinse risk rob rock roll rot rub ruin rule

rush

sack sail satisfy save saw scare scatter scold scorch scrape scratch

shiver shock shop shrug sigh sign signal sin sip ski skip

soothe sound spare spark sparkle spell spill spoil spot spray sprout

stop store strap strengt

hen stretch strip stroke stuff subtrac

t

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scream screw scribble scrub seal search separat

e serve settle shade share shave

shelter

slap slip slow smash smell smile smoke snatch sneeze sniff snore snow

soak

squash squeak squeal squeeze stain stamp stare start stay steer step stir

stitch

succeed

suck suffer suggest suit supply support suppos

e surprise surroun

d suspect suspen

d

switch

talk tame tap taste tease telepho

ne tempt terrify test

thank

thaw tick tickle tie time tip tire touch tour

tow

trace trade train transpor

t trap travel treat tremble trick

trip

trot trouble trust try tug tumble turn twist

type

undress

unfasten

unite

unlock

unpack

untidy

use

vanish visit

wail wait walk

waste watch water

whirl whisper whistle

work worry wrap

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wander want warm warn

wash

wave weigh welcome whine

whip

wink wipe wish wobble

wonder

wreck wrestle

wriggle

x-ray

yawn yell

zip zoom

Irregular Verbs ListThis is a list of some irregular verbs in English. Of course, there are many others, but these are the more common irregular verbs.

See also regular verbs list

V1Base Form

V2Past Simple

V3Past Participle

awake awoke awoken

be was, were been

beat beat beaten

become became become

begin began begun

bend bent bent

bet bet bet

bid bid bid

bite bit bitten

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blow blew blown

break broke broken

bring brought brought

broadcast broadcast broadcast

build built built

burn burned/burnt burned/burnt

buy bought bought

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

come came come

cost cost cost

cut cut cut

dig dug dug

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt

drive drove driven

drink drank drunk

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

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find found found

fly flew flown

forget forgot forgotten

forgive forgave forgiven

freeze froze frozen

get got got (sometimes gotten)

give gave given

go went gone

grow grew grown

hang hung hung

have had had

hear heard heard

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

keep kept kept

know knew known

lay laid laid

lead led led

learn learned/learnt learned/learnt

leave left left

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lend lent lent

let let let

lie lay lain

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

pay paid paid

put put put

read read read

ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

run ran run

say said said

see saw seen

sell sold sold

send sent sent

show showed showed/shown

shut shut shut

sing sang sung

sit sat sat

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sleep slept slept

speak spoke spoken

spend spent spent

stand stood stood

swim swam swum

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought

throw threw thrown

understand understood understood

wake woke woken

wear wore worn

win won won

write wrote written

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