English Lexicology (IV) English lexicology (III)2 Contents 10. Changes in Meaning 11. American English To be continued

English Lexicology (IV)

English lexicology (III) 2

Contents

10. Changes in Meaning 11. American English

To be continued


Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively, the content is even more unstable than the form.

This chapter will deal with the major patterns that changes in meaning follow and the causes of changes.


10.1 Types of changesExtension / Generalization

lady Economy Orientation influence holidays slogan Scene


10.1 Types of changes

Narrowing / Specialization Deer girl garage liquor instant reply



Elevation / AmeliorationSth. Low, humble, unpleasant------sth. Noble,

agreeable, pleasant Marshall Shrewd Angel Minister



Degradation / Degeneration Silly Villain, boor, churl Cunning



Degradation / Degeneration Intensifiers

terrific, fantastic, marvelous, splendid, magnificent, wonderful, superb, tremendous, overpowering, fabulous……

horrible, outrageous, awful, dreadful…. Weakening of meaning of intensifiers



Transference Subjectiveness and objectiveness

He is doubtful of success. The future looks doubtful. …an honourable gentleman …an honourable invitation



Transference subjectiveness objectiveness

hateful: a hateful job, a hateful crime painful:a painful experience, a painful task pompous language/style/manner a pompous man solemn music/oath/duty a solemn judge



Transference Subjectiveness and objectiveness depend on the

collocation a suspicious character/truth/condition a suspicious look/glance/attitude a dubious answer a dubious look



Transference

Subject Object

respectful respectable

imaginative imaginary

unexpressive inexpressible

contemptuous contemptible


10.2 Causes of changes

Social development Pen Manuscript Straw Atom Computer



Class reason Language is just like a mirror, reflecting

everything that exists in human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social class.

Villain, clown, churl Democracy, revolution, liberalism,

communism, landlord, trade union


10.2 Causes of changes National Psychology

Some words or expressions shows the national psychology, especially a feeling of dislike, contempt, irony towards other nationalities.

To take French leave Spanish athlete Irish bull To talk Dutch, Dutch comfort, Dutch bargain, in

Dutch An American will go to hell for a bag of coffee.



Racial discrimination or prejudices Black

Black Power, Black is beautiful, Black English, Black history

Negro African Americans, Afro-Americans Native Americans (Indians)



Sexism Man: chairman, salesman, spaceman… Poet-poetess, hero-heroine, student-girl student,

novelist-lady novelist, doctor-woman doctor, president-female president…

Chairperson, businessperson, draftsperson..



Social values Euphemism: The substitution of a mild, indirect,

or vague expression for one that may be offensive, disagreeable, harsh, or blunt.



Social values garbage collector------sanitation engineer gardener-----landscape architect servant----domestic engineer hairdresser---beautician old people----senior citizens, mature people,

pensioner war----conflict



Social values the poor people----the disadvantage, the

underprivileged “I used to think I was poor. Then they told

me I wasn’t poor, I was needy, I was deprived. Then they told me underprivileged was overused. I was disadvantaged. I still don’t have a dime. But I have a great vocabulary.”



Linguistic factors Borrowing

pig, cow, sheep-----pork, beef, mutton deer-----animal, beast


10.2 Causes of changesLinguistic factors

Simplifying as a matter of course-----of course above all things-----above all God gives you a good morning---Good

morning private soldier----private general officer----general periodical paper----periodical fall of leaves----fall

Chapter 11 American English


In this chapter, we aim to understand the characteristics of American English, to distinguish the differences between American English and British English. It is a laborious job, while it is important that American English be addressed in English learning.

American English or British English?


Questions What is American English? Is it American English or British English we are speaking

as non-native speakers? Is there essential difference between British English and

American English? What are the major differences between them? As non-native speakers, what is the significance for us to

distinguish the differences between them?


11.1 English as an international language

Users of English English as a native language: Britain, the United States,

Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the West Indies and South Africa.

ESL: India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other countries.

EFL: Large numbers of people in the world speak and write English as a foreign language for the purpose of science, technology, and international communication. It has become a universal language of international communication.



Varieties of English As an international language, the English

language has a number of varieties. British English American English Australian English Canadian English Singapore English ………



Two major varieties of English British English (BrE) and American English(AmE) These two varieties differ in certain details, but there is

no essential difference between them because of the similarities of the basic word stock, the basic grammar and the basic phonetic system. English is unmistakable one language, with two major national dialects.

There is no superiority or inferiority as regards BrE and AmE.


11.2 Growth of American English Colonial America

The establishment in 1607 of the settlement which the explorers called Jamestown marked the beginning of British colonization in America.

By 1732 the original thirteen English colonies had been set up. The language the early immigrants brought with them was Elizabethan English, the language spoken by Shakespeare, Milton and Bunyan, which belonged to the early stage of Modern English.


11.2 Growth of American English

Colonial America The original thirteen colonies

Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Connecticut.


11.2 Growth of American English After independence

Following American independence, famous persons like Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Noah Webster begin to consider that the country should have a language of its own.

The independence led to the emergence a sense of nationality. In the field of language, this patriotic feeling was manifested by the argument for the recognition of the American variety or standard of English.



In 1806, Noah Webster first used “American English”.Webster proclaimed that his countrymen had not only the right to adopt new words but were obliged to modify the language to suit the new circumstances, geographical and political, in which they were placed.

Many great writers, such as Washington Irving, Walt Whitman, Ralph W. Emerson, mark Twain, and O. Henry helped to promote the development of the American English.



American English has developed a character of its own, reflecting the life and the physical and social environment of the American people.

The Americans invented large numbers of new words to meet their various needs.

representative, assembly, president, Congress, senator…

department store, telephone, lynch to advocate, to antagonize, to demoralize, to donate


11.2 Growth of American English The future of American English

Since the Second World War, the United States has become literally the leader of the western world, American English has been developing and changing. There is no doubt that American English will enrich the English language greatly.

With the rapid development of modern mass media and the common needs of economic, cultural and political exchanges, American English will be more widely used in the world than British English.


11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE

Major differences Differences in grammar Differences in spelling Differences in pronunciation Differences in vocabulary



Differences in grammar On the whole BrE and AmE use the same

grammar system. Differences in grammar are few in number and trifling in nature. However, it is important for non-native speakers to understand these distinctions.



Differences in grammar Differences in prepositions

Mary aims to become a writer. Mary aims at becoming a writer. Please fill out the form. Please fill in the form. At weekends I like to ….. On weekends I like to……

AmE

BrE

BrE

BrE

AmE

AmE




BrE AmE

different from… different than…

talk to… talk with…

at college in college

late for work late to work

the key of the door the key to the door

five minutes past six five minutes after six




Let’s stay home. Let’s stay at home. The new term begins September 1. The new term begins on September 1. I’ll see you Sunday. I’ll see you on Sunday. We’re trying to plan our future. We’re trying to plan for the future.



Differences in grammar The use of subjunctive

I suggest that the meeting should be postponed.

I suggest that the meeting be postponed. It is important that the motion should be

placed on the agenda. It is important that the motion be placed on

the agenda.



Differences in grammar The use of articles

Today is July first, nineteen ninety-seven. Today is July the first, nineteen ninety-

seven. My uncle had the flu last year. My uncle had flu last year. It’s in bad condition. It’s in a bad condition.



Differences in spelling

BrE AmE

-re -er Centre, theatre Center, theater

-ise -ize Realise, modernize Realize, modernize

-ce -se Defence, practice Defense, practise

-our -or Favour, labour Favor, labor

e- i- Enquire, enclose Inquire, inclose




BrE AmE

-gue -g Catalogue, dialogue Catalog, dialog

-il -l Travelling, jeweller Traveler, jeweler

-mme -m Programme, gramme Program, gram

-xion -ction Connextion, inflexion

Connection, inflection

Omission of silent -e

Axe, judgement Ax, judgment




BrE AmE

cheque check

draught draft

plough plow

cigarette cigaret

tyre tire



Difference in vocabulary

BrE AmE

flat apartment

lift elevator

torch flashlight

Tin can

note bill



Difference in vocabulary

BrE AmE

silencer muffler

lorry truck

windscreen windshield

sweets candy

luggage baggage



Difference in vocabulary Three terms-----two semesters or four quarters The first year, the second year, the third year-----

freshman, sophomore, junior, senior Post-graduate-----graduate Staff-----faculty



Difference in vocabulary Billion First floor Public school(BrE)------private school(AmE) Public school (AmE)----Council school (BrE) Cupboard



Differences in pronunciation See page 199-200

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English Lexicology (IV) English lexicology (III)2 Contents 10. Changes in Meaning 11. American English To be continued