English Lexicology (III) English lexicology (III)2 Contents 8. Word Meaning 9. Sense Relations To be continued

English Lexicology (III)

English lexicology (III) 2

Contents

8. Word Meaning 9. Sense Relations

To be continued

Chapter 8 Word Meaning

8.1 Types of Word Meaning8.2 Grammatical Meaning8.3 Lexical meaning8.4 Conceptual meaning8.5 Associative meaning


8.1 Types of Word Meaning

Conceptual Meaning

Associative Meaning

Stylistic meaning

Collocative meaning

Affective meaning

Connotative meaningGrammatical

MeaningLexical Meaning

Word Meaning


8.2 Grammatical Meaning Grammatical meaning( 语法意义 )refers to that

part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting).


8.3 Lexical meaning Lexical meaning( 词汇意义 ) is the meaning of

an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word.

E.g. ‘go, goes, went, gone, going’ possess different grammatical meaning. But they have the same lexical meaning expressing the process of movement.

Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.


8.4 Conceptual meaning Conceptual meaning( 概念意义 ) (also known as

denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language.

Sun: a heavenly body which gives off light, heat,and energy

Mother: a female parent


8.5 Associative meaning Associate meaning( 关联意义 ) is the secondary

meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education,etc.

Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, and collocative meaning.


8.5 Associative meaning Connotative meaning ( 内涵意义 )

In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests or implies.

Mother (a female parent) is often associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, ‘tenderness’, ‘forgiving’, etc.

Home (a dwelling place) may suggest ‘family, warmth, safety, love, convenience’, etc. ‘East or west, home is best’.

Statesman implies ‘loyalty, devotion to public welfare’; politician implies ‘deceit, power-drunk, bragging, villainy’.


8.5 Associative meaningConnotative meaning

For people with different cultural backgrounds, a word might evoke different associations.

China Britain

magpie Good luck, good will wordiness

owl bad luck, malignance composure, wisdom

red happiness, good luck, success

unfavoured state

‘red-light district’

‘red flags’

‘in the red”


8.5 Associative meaning

Stylistic meaning( 文体意义 ) Words may have stylistic features, which make

them appropriate for different contexts. This stylistic difference is especially true of

synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and stylistic meaning.



Stylistic meaning Degrees of formality

Formal Neutral/Common Informal/ Colloquial

Examples male parent, father, daddy residence, home, pad



Stylistic meaning bodily----corporal brotherly---fraternal tooth----dental blood----sanguinary hereby, thereby, therefore, however, moreover,

furthermore


8.5 Associative meaning Affective meaning( 情感意义 )

Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.

Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories:

Appreciative or commendatory( 褒义 ): words of positive overtones used to show appreciation or approval.

Pejorative or derogatory( 贬义 ): words of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.



Affective meaning Appreciative

love, cherish, prize, treasure, admire, worship, charm, fascinate, attract

Pejorative hate, detest, loathe, abominate, vicious,

good-for-nothing



Affective meaning This affective difference is especially true of

synonyms.

Appreciative Neutral Pejorative

gathering crowd mob

senior citizen old person fossil

slender,slim thin skinny

unique unusual bizarre



Collocative meaning( 搭配意义 ) Collocative meaning consists of the associations

a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.



Collocative meaning ‘A bit or a little’ collocates with words of negative

connotations: drunk, jealous, gloomy, tired, worried…

‘Highly’ collocates with words of positive connotations: important, significant, intelligent, sensitive…



Collocative meaning wide awake, fully awake, sound asleep, far apart

(‘Very’ is inappropriate here) tremble with fear, quiver with excitement

Chapter 9 Sense Relations

9.1 Sense Relations9.2 Hyponymy9.3 Synonymy9.4 Antonymy9.5 Homonymy


9.1 Sense Relations

What are sense relations( 语义关系 )? Words are arbitrary symbols and are

independent identities so far as heir outer facet---spelling and pronunciation, is concerned. But semantically, all words are related in one way or another, hence sense relations. In light of sense relations, words can be classified semantically.


9.1 Sense Relations

Types of sense relations Hyponymy( 上下义关系 )---semantic inclusion Synonymy( 同义关系 )---semantic similarity Antonymy( 反义关系 )---semantic opposition Homonymy( 同形或同音异义关系 )


9.2 Hyponymy

The definition of hyponymy Hyponymy deals with the relationship of

semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items).

The general lexical item is called the superordinate( 上义词 ).

The specific words are known as hyponyms( 下义词 ).


9.2 Hyponymy

literature

prose fiction drama

short storynovelettenovel

poetry


9.2 Hyponymy

swimming

boxingrunning racewrestlingweight-lifting

hurdle racerunning

relaysprintinglong-distance race

gymnasticsathleticsball games

sports


9.2 Hyponymy The semantic field theory( 语义场理论 )

The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas or fields, the members of which are joined together by some common semantic component. The whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields. Words in each field are semantically related and define one another. Vocabulary is seen as ‘ an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense’.

------Jost Trier (a German linguist)


9.2 Hyponymy The semantic field theory

Most languages share same semantic fields. Time Space Age Kinship Food Color Emotion ………


9.2 Hyponymy

The semantic field theory The semantic field of the same concept may not

have the same members in different languages, thus lexical gaps( 词汇空缺 ) occur.


9.2 Hyponymy

The semantic field theory The semantic field of kinship

Members in English: 13----father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, cousin, husband, wife.

Members in Chinese: ………. The semantic field of food

hot dog, sandwich, hamburger 豆腐 , 馒头


9.2 Hyponymy

The semantic field theory

emotion

joy lovehate fear grief


9.2 Hyponymy

Implications of semantic field for vocabulary learning

character/ virtue

easy-going, aggressive, arrogant, self-conceited, modest,considerate, sympathetic, extrovert, introvert,amicable, Ambitious, honest, loyal, obedient, strong-willed, Iron-willed, trustworthy, obstinate,stubborn, unyielding, confident


9.3 Synonymy

Types of synonyms Absolute or perfect synonyms: words which are

identical in meaning in all its aspects, I.e. both in grammatical and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meaning. Such synonyms are rare in natural languages.

compounding and composition; word building and word-formation; malnutrition and undernourishment


9.3 Synonymy

Types of synonyms Relative or partial synonyms: words which are

similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degree of a given quality. It is this type of synonyms we shall deal with here.


9.3 Synonymy

Sources of synonyms Borrowing

Native Borrowed

room chamber

foe enemy

help aid

leave depart

bodily corporal


9.3 Synonymy

Sources of synonyms Borrowing

Native French Latin

time age epoch

belly stomach abdomen

fire flame conflagration

ask question interrogate


9.3 Synonymy

Sources of synonyms Dialects and regional English

lift elevator

tube subway

petrol gasoline

call box telephone booth

charm glamour (ScotE)


9.3 Synonymy

Sources of synonyms Figurative and euphemistic of words

occupation walk of life

dreamer star-gazer

drunk elevated

lie distort the fact


9.3 Synonymy

Sources of synonyms Coincidence with idiomatic expressions

pick up choose

give up abandon

go on with continue

put off postpone

win gain the upper hand

hesitate be in two minds


9.3 SynonymySemantically synonymous field

( 同义语义场 ) Base on semantic similarity, synonyms are usually

arranged into synonymic groups or sets. Within this groups there is the most general term known as “synonymic dominant”( 主导同义词 ). The synonymic dominant is the common denotational component that brings two or more words together into a synonymic group( 同义词群 ), which can be called a semantically synonymous field.


9.3 Synonymy

Semantically synonymous field

synonymic dominant

synonymic group

Leave depart, quit, retire, withdraw, exit…

Look stare, gaze, eye, peep, glance…

Picture painting, photo, drawing…


9.3 Synonymy Implications of Semantically

synonymous field General------specific

Say/speak: murmur, scream, retort, argue, protest, claim, state, declare

Monotony----vividness We have but one aim and one single, irrevocable purpose.

We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. From this nothing will turn us, nothing. We will never parley, we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gangs.

-------Winston Churchill Barbie doll’s fashion: fashions, costumes, outfits, apparel,

dress…..


9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms

Difference in denotation

------look: stare, gaze, eye, peep, glance

------laugh: chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, snicker/snigger, titter

------extend, increase, expand

-------make one’s way: thread one’s way, dig one’s way, break one’s way, push one’s way, shoulder one’s way, elbow one’s way, worm one’s way


9.3 Synonymy

Discrimination of synonyms Difference in denotation

-----let, allow, permit

-----want, wish, desire

-----rich, wealthy

-----big, large, huge


9.3 Synonymy

Discrimination of synonyms Difference in denotation

------chilly, frigid, icy, cold, frosty, cool

Cool-----chilly-----cold-----frosty-----frigid-----icy


9.3 Synonymy

Discrimination of synonyms Difference in connotation

Differ in emotional coloring Differ in stylistic coloring


9.3 Synonymy

Discrimination of synonyms Difference in collocation

-----empty (box, street, room), vacant (seat, chair, apartment), blank (check, a blank sheet of paper)

------a large (not big) amount/number/quantity of…

------great courage/confidence/wisdom

------make efforts, take measures



Difference in collocation-----accuse….of, charge…with, rebuke…for, reproach…

with/for

-----a lump of sugar, a sheet of paper, a slice of meat/bread, a cake of soap, a chunk of wood

-----a flock of sheep/goats/birds, a herb of cows/elephants/zebras/antelopes, a school of fish/whales/dolphins, a swarm of ants/bees/wasps/locusts, a stable of horses, a pride of lions


9.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonyms

Difference in distribution Pre-modifier VS post-modifier---He is the greatest living novelist in England.---He is the greatest novelist alive in England.---Don’t disturb the sleeping old man.---Don’t disturb the old man asleep.


9.3 Synonymy

Discrimination of synonyms

The losing team was from further competition.

Firefighters a big fire. The meeting has been because of

the flu. The government the tax on alcohol.

abolish, cancel, extinguish, eliminate

extinguished

eliminated

cancelled

abolished


9.3 Synonymy


She made an of ideas she wanted to present in her talk.

I have read the of his book. The chemistry book had a at the end

of each chapter.

abstract, outline, summary

outline

abstract

summary


9.3 Synonymy


It is to judge a foreign culture only by its food.

There was an idea that the earth was flat and motionless.

You were very to trust him.

absurd, ridiculous, silly

ridiculous

absurd

silly



Reading the mind only with materials of knowledge, it is thinking that makes what we read ours.

This hotel can up to 500 guests. We can't that expensive sports car. The company the customer's wish and

sent the delivery overnight. The tall building a beautiful view of the

ocean.

accommodate, afford, furnishfurnishes

accommodateafford

accommodated

affords


9.3 Synonymy


The boss him strongly for his negligence

The police him of theft. The police him with murder.

accuse, charge, rebuke

rebuked

accused

charged


9.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonyms

An lack of food brought hunger to the Iraqi people.

It is that you study hard for the exam or you will fail it.

Improved consumer confidence is to an economic recovery.

We have an need for help; we are running out of water.

acute, critical, crucial, urgentacute

critical

crucial

urgent



It is whether the economy will get better. His changes of recovery from illness are . He has some ideas about what to do, but nothing

specific. His directions confused us; we did not know which

of the two roads to take. The poetry of Ezra Pound is sometimes difficult to understand

because it contains so many ------------ - ------ references.

ambiguous, obscure, vague, unclear, dimunclear

dim

vague

ambiguous

obscure


9.4 Antonymy

The definition of antonymy Antonymy is concerned with semantic

opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. They are a variety of “oppositeness”. They can be classified into three major groups.


9.4 Antonymy

Types of antonyms Contraries Complementaries Conversives Semantic incompatibles


9.4 Antonymy

Contraries( 相对反义词 / 两极反义词 ) Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms

of a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable.

hot, warm, cool, cold beautiful, pretty, good-looking, plain, ugly old-young, open-close, big-small, poor-rich


9.4 Antonymy

Complementaries( 绝对反义词 / 互补反义词 ) These antonyms truly represent oppositeness.

They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them (non-gradable).

dead-alive, present-absent, male-female, true-false, approval-disapproval, capable-incapable

Prefixes: dis-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, un-……


9.4 Antonymy

Conversives( 换位反义词 / 关系反义词 ) This third type consists of relational opposites.

Husband-wife, fiancé-fiancée, employer-employee, debtor-creditor

Above-below, in front of-behind, up-down Buy-sell, give-receive, go-come, gain-lose


9.4 Antonymy

Semantic incompatibles( 多项不相容词 ) North, south, east, west Spring, summer, autumn, winter January, February, March,……December Sunday, Monday, ….Saturday


9.4 Antonymy

A word can have more than one antonyms Fresh bread------stale bread Fresh air-----stuffy air Fresh flowers-----faded flowers Fresh look----tired look


9.4 Antonymy

Stylistic purpose of the use of antonyms To achieve emphasis by putting contrasting

ideas together, to express economically the opposite of a particular thought.


9.4 Antonymy

Stylistic purpose of the use of antonyms United we stand, divided we fall. Hope for the best and prepare for the worst. Visible darkness, a victorious defeat, a clever

fool, an open secret, painful pleasure, cruel kindness.


9.4 Antonymy

Stylistic purpose of the use of antonyms

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the Spring of Hope, it was the Winter of Despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way.

(Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)

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English Lexicology (III) English lexicology (III)2 Contents 8. Word Meaning 9. Sense Relations To be continued