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ENGLISHGRAMMAR DRILLS
ON
MINIMUM ESSENTIALS
By
CARL HOLLIDAYProfessor of English, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio
SOPHIA CAMENISCHr^ *
Chairman of English Department, Parker High School, Chicago
LAIRD & LEE, Inc., PUBLISHERS
CHICAGO
-r£.v\<->
Copyright, 1922
LAIRD & LEEChicago, 111.
JAN A 1922
MADE IN U. S. A.
©CU653634
PREFACE
I. The Material: Minimum Essentials
A crying need of English teachers in the highschools today is an abundance of 'laboratory material"on grammar, exercises for profitable drill. This is
recognized in the valuable Reports on Minimum Essen-tials published recently. This need was studied in thepreparation of these fifty exercises, which aim at com-pleteness in covering those grammatical facts under-lying correct English emphasized in the Reports. Thenomenclature is, as far as seemed practicable, that of
the N. E. A. Report on Grammatical Nomenclature,referred to in the exercises as the G. N. Report.
The exercises cover two points: (1) the study of
the sentence as a whole to develop "sentence sense,"
and (2) the study of the correct forms of words andtheir relation to one another in the sentence. Enoughexplanation of the grammatical principles involvedis given to make the exercises intelligible. They coverthe grammar requirements for the early years of thehigh school.
The exercises were evolved out of class work.They were used originally as separate drill laboratorysheets and were used in individual adjustment in
revision or consultation periods.
The aim has been to make the illustrations simpleenough to meet the most elementary demands found in
the high school. Some, however, especially the ReviewExercises, are difficult enough for the most advancedstudents. The sentences for illustration have beentaken largely from students' themes and the errors
(the emphasis always being on the correct form) are
such as students have made or do make. The vocabu-
lary is largely theirs, and some attention has beengiven to making the content valuable, and suitable to
the "teen" age. By their nature and variety, the exer-
cises challenge the pupils' power of thought. They canbe so used as to carry over the results of the drill into
the application of the principles to the natural lan-
guage in composition.
II. The Spirit of the Book: Practical Projects andAdaptation to Individual Differences
Two outstanding thoughts have been kept in mind
:
(1) making the material available for practical proj-
ect work, and (2) adapting it for use in adjusting"individual differences."
Every teacher feels the necessity of adapting the
work (because of the great variety of local conditionswhich prevail) to meet the problems created by the
influence of the non-school environment. The projectconstantly before the pupil is that of studying his ownspeech and that of others with a view to eradicatinghis own common, persistent errors.
Students vary so greatly in their home environ-ment, previous preparation, and natural ability thatthe problem of group teaching becomes tremendouslydifficult. Probably the best means of adjustment is thesupervised study period. These exercises are numer-ous and adapted to meet individual needs. The wiseteacher will continue to sift exercises and to add newones until the adaptation to the individual situationis as perfect as possible.
III. Method: Some Suggestions for Use
This book may be used with any grammar or com-position book. Its aim is to supplement a text-book,
but it can be used alone. The exercises were arrangedin accordance with Holliday's The Grammar ofPresent Bay English.
As the order presented is the logical one, someteachers will prefer to begin with Part II, "The Partsof Speech," after some simple work in Part I on sen-
tence faults. Throughout the book the more difficult
parts are marked "Optional." The cross references,
it is believed, are a valuable time-saver.
While the exercises may be used in various ways,a school procedure which should yield good results is
somewhat as follows: (1) discovery of errors in theoral and written composition by pupil, class, andteacher; (2) a grammar lesson based on these; (3)further drill as a lesson assignment; (4) after furthercomposition, repetition of drill for those who need it.
No one need mark time. Some pupils will need to
return repeatedly to exercises which involve the mostcommon errors. These exercises are the most numer-ous.
In the meantime all the exercises cover precedingpoints so that the whole class has considerable repeti-
tion of drill on the common, persistent errors.
If these exercises help in determining the minimumessentials of English grammar and aid the pupil inmastering them ; if they help to foster, though ever solittle, in our high school pupils a respect for and pridein good English, the aims of the writers will have beenrealized.
Cael Holliday,University of Toledo, Toledo.
Sophia Camenisch,Parker High School, Chicago.
Table of Contents
PART I. THE SENTENCETo develop "Sentence Sense." For recognition of
the relationships of the various parts of the sentence
to one another.
PAGE
Exercise 1. Word Groups. 11
The sentence.
The "comma sentence" error (commablunder).
The sentence and the phrase.
The sentence and the clause.
Exercise 2. Subject and Predicate. 16
Complete subject and complete predicate.
Skeleton: subject substantive and predi-
cate verb.
Exercise 3. Clauses. 20
As parts of sentences.
Principal and subordinate.
Exercise 4. Parts of speech in sentences. 22
The parts.
Their simple uses.
Exercise 5. Kinds of sentences as to use. 26
Declarative and interrogative.
Exclamatory and non-exclamatory.
Usual classification: declarative, inter-
rogative, imperative, exclamatory.
Exercise 6. Kinds of sentences as to form. 27
Simple.
Compound.Complex.
7
Exercise 7. Modifiers.Words.Phrases.
Clauses.
Exercise 8. Complements.Direct object.
Predicate nominative.
Predicate adjective.
Exercise 9. Phrases.As to Form.
Verb.Prepositional.
Infinitive.
Participial.
Absolute.
Exercise 10.
As to Use.
Adjective.
Adverb.Noun.Verb.
Exercise 11. Clauses as to Use.Adjective.
Adverb.Noun.
Exercise 12. Independent Elements,
Exercise 13. Analysis of Sentences.
PAGE30
33
35
37
38
42
44
PART II. THE PARTS OF SPEECHTo develop ability to understand the relation of
words in sentences ; and to know the correct forms, andhow to use them.
Exercise 14. The Noun.Common.Proper.
47
Exercise 15. Collective.
PAGE52
Exercise
Exercise
16.
17.
Gender.Number.
Ordinary Plurals.
53
55
Exercise 18.
Exercise 19.
Unusual Plurals.
Case.Genitive (Possessive).
57
62
Exercise 20. Nominative.
Accusative (Objective).
The Pronoun.
68
Exercise 21. Personal. 71
Exercise 22. (Compound Personal.) 78
Exercise 23. Relative. 79
Exercise 24. Interrogative. 83
Exercise 25. (Exercise on "who" and "whom. ') 85
Exercise 26. Demonstrative and Indefinite. 86
Exercise 27. Review of Pronouns. 89
Exercise 28. The Adjective.Kinds and Uses.
Phrases and Clauses.
90
Exercise 29. The Article.
The Verb.94
Exercise 30. Transitive, Intransitive, Linking\ 95
Exercise 31.
Exercise 32.
Exercise 33.
Exercise 34.
Regular, Irregular. 100Auxiliary.
Person and Number. 106Agreement of Subject and Predicate.
Tense. IllConjugation.
("shall" and "will.") 113
9
Exercise 35.
Exercise 36.
Exercise 37.
Exercise 38.
Exercise 39.
Exercise 40.
Exercise 41.
Exercise 42.
Exercise 43.
Exercise 44.
Exercise 45.
Exercise 46.
Exercise 47.
Exercise 48.
Exercise 49.
Exercise 50.
PAGE
Voice. 115
Mood. 117
Indicative.
Imperative.
Subjunctive.
The Verbal. 119
Infinitive.
Gerund.Participle.
Troublesome Forms of Verbs. 125
"Lie," "lay," etc.
Review of Verbs. 127
Correction of Errors in SentenceStructure. 130
The Adverb.s
134
Kinds.
Simple or Conjunctive. 138
Comparison of Adjectives andAdverbs. 139
Distinction between Adjective andAdverb. 140
The Preposition. 142
The Conjunction. 144
Correct Uses of "like" and "as." 147
Eeview of Connectives. 148
Contractions. 148
Miscellaneous : Homonyms, etc. 149
10
PART I.
THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLETo help develop "sentence sense."
Some teachers prefer to begin with a review of theparts of speech and their simple nses. (See Ex. 4.)
The purpose of this early work with phrase andclanse is merely to distinguish between the sentenceand other word groups.
Exercise 1
WOED GROUPSA. The "Comma Sentence' ' Error
A sentence is a group of words that expresses acomplete thought. It makes an assertion.
Complete sentences should be followed by the cor-
rect end punctuation. They should not be run to-
gether, separated only by commas.
Correct. Incorrect.
1. Give her the book. It's Give her the book, it's hers.
hers.
2. This may not be done. It's This may not be done, it's
against the rules. against the rules.
3. The teams were tied. Then The teams were tied, then the
the whistle blew. whistle blew.
4. For a while neither spoke. For a while neither spoke,
Both were out of breath. both were out of breath.
5. Do it now. Why do you Do it now, why do you wait?wait ?
For further examples, see Ex. 40 and pupils'
themes.
11
B. The Sentence and the Phrase
A phrase is a group of words not making an asser-
tion and used as a part of a sentence.
I ran down the hill. Sentence.
Running down the hill is The italicized expressions are
fun. phrases.
In the beginning God ere- To be a well-balanced stu-
ated the heavens and the dent, one should take part in
earth. school activities.
Having provided ourselves
with copies of the play, webegan to practice.
Which of the following expressions are phrasesand which are sentences? In determining this be sure
to consider separately each expression that is punc-tuated as a sentence. Sometimes reading it aloud will
help you to determine whether it makes an assertion.
1. A large swarm of hornets were emerging from their
broken home. Making a noise like an aeroplane.
2. Soon they arrived in town with the swarm behind.Passing the drug store, the grocery, and the hardware store
like a flash.
3. The boys ran away in a great hurry. The little fellows
following them breathlessly.
4. The dog entered the room and ran around excitedly.
Up one aisle and down the other.
(See further examples in Ex. 40.)
C. The Sentence and the Clause
A portion of a sentence that makes an assertion is
called a clause.
The part of the sentence that expresses the impor-tant thought is called the main or principal or inde-pendent clause.
12
A word group that lias a subject and predicate, andthat does not express the main thought, is a sub-
ordinate or dependent clause.
Sometimes a sentence consists of two or more mainclauses. (See Ex. 6.) If the clauses are closely con-
nected, they are sometimes separated by a semicolon.
If they have connectives, the latter are co-ordinatingconjunctions. (See Ex. 46.) These are usually pre-
ceded by commas.
Mary sang and Gertrude played.
The girls were bright, but the boys were brighter.
Everyone trusts him, for he is always reliable.
I'll catch that rascal, or I'll know the reason.
Sometimes a subordinate clause is a part of a mainclause. What we want is fair play. (See Ex. 11.)
Study the following:
I attended that game, which tvas the first ive ivon. (Sub-ordinate clause.)
They stopped playing when the whistle Mew. (Subor-dinate clause.)
The ponies ran, but the burros stood still. (Two mainclauses.)
I know what I want. (Subordinate clause used as part of
main clause.)
A subordinate clause is always introduced by someconnecting word which makes it impossible for the
clause to stand alone.
Revise the Following:1. He then read a book with fine print. "Which was the
worst thing he could have done for his eyes.
2. The boys were far ahead. While the girls laughinglybrought up the rear.
13
3. He never does as well as he can. Because he always
gets behind at the beginning of the semester and never gets
caught up.
4. I have heard all about it. Although I was not there.
5. The storm suddenly broke out in great fury. Just as
we were getting ready to seek shelter.
Which of the following groups of words are sen-
tences ?
(1) In the moon. (2) The moon is shining. (3)
Having seen the moon. (4) From the moon. (5) See-
ing the moon. (6) To the moon. (7) The moon comesat night. (8) The moon is sometimes round. (9) Theroundness of the moon. (10) Much about the moon.(11) This is enough about the moon.
Project
During a class period or as an assignment examinein your themes all the groups of words that are punc-tuated as sentences. Make a list of those that haveerrors in structure. Correct them. Have a committeecollect these from the class and make a report.
As a class which error (comma sentence or detachedphrase) do you make more frequently?
Each week select one or more articles about half acolumn in length, from newspapers or discarded mag-azines. Select them for interest to you and value asconstructive news. Prepare to read them to the class.
Keep them in envelopes. As each point in grammaris illustrated by these exercises, add to them examplesfrom your clippings. Underline the constructionsunder consideration. Go back over the old clippingsfor new points as they arise.
Point out examples of phrases in your clippings.
Write five phrases and use them in sentences.
Detekminative and Descriptive Phkases andClauses
(Optional at this point. Given to draw attention of stu-
dents from the beginning to the correct punctuation.)
If phrases and clauses are closely connected with the wordsthey modify so as to restrict or limit the meaning or to point
out the object in contrast to others, they are not set off bycommas. They are called determinative phrases and clauses.
(G. N. Report.) (Commonly called restrictive.) (See Ex.3 and 13.)
If they are loosely attached, parenthetical in form, andadd to the thought by describing, they are set off by commas(one before and one after). They are called descriptive
phrases and clauses. (G. N. Report.) (Commonly called
non-restrictive.
)
Note the clauses and their punctuation in the fol-
lowing. Discuss them in class. Add other illustra-
tions.
1. That is the man whom I saw yesterday.
2. He who would rule others must first rule himself.
3. He that is unselfish has many friends.
4. "We all admire a boy who will stand up for his prin-
ciples.
5. The point which I cannot understand is why the angles
are equal.
6. Give it to Marv, whom you will find at the end of the
hall.
7. Franklin, who was closely identified with Philadelphia,
was born in Boston.
8. We can trust those who have never been guilty of ashadow of deceit.
9. The road which led to the left looked better than the
other.
10. The one who worked the hardest got the most out of
the course.
15
11. Boys, who are sometimes more trying than girls, have
their redeeming qualities.
12. Ye who believe in affection, list to a tale of Acadie.
13. The boy who made the touchdown injured his knee.
14. Elizabeth, who was the brightest in the class, was very
frail.
15. His son, who was all that his father could wish, was a
great comfort to him.
FOR REVIEWIn the following sentences point out the principal
and subordinate clauses
:
(1) The day is bright when the heart is light. (2) Theheart of lightness brings the day of brightness. (3) The heart
that is light brings the day that is bright. (4) He who hasa light heart sees that every day is bright. (5) The day is
brightest when the heart is lightest. (6) In lightness of heartwe find the brightness of day. (7) Brightness of day comeswhen lightness of heart comes.
Exercise 2
SUBJECT AND PREDICATEEvery sentence must have a subject and a predi-
cate. The subject names that about which somethingis asserted. The predicate is the assertion that is
made. The main word in the subject is a substantive(a noun or pronoun or group of words used as a noun).The predicate always contains a verb, which makes theassertion. This is sometimes a form of the verb "to be"(See Ex. 30) or a word used similarly, and sometimesa verb that expresses action or some other attribute.
In finding the simple subject (subject substantive)and the simple predicate (predicate verb), it is well to
16
locate the verb first. (Ex. 30.) Then inquire who orwhat performed the action or about whom or what the
assertion is made.
The hunter killed a deer. Complete subject : The hunter.
Complete predicate : killed a deer.
Predicate verb : killed.
Who or what killed ? Subject substantive : hunter.
The first word in the sentence is not always the sub-
ject.
The word "it" is sometimes used impersonally as
in "It is raining." It is called the subject.
Sometimes "it" and "there" introduce the sentence,
taking the place of some other expression in the sen-
tence. They are then called expletives.
There are fifty-two weeks in a year.
It is a bad practice to borrow material.
In the interrogative sentence the order is alwaysinverted.
Where are you going? = You are going where!
In an imperative sentence the subject is always"you," understood. (See Ex. 5.)
A sentence may have a compound subject or com-pound predicate or both. (See Ex. 6.)
In the following point out the complete subject andcomplete predicate, and the predicate verb and sub-ject substantive. Underscore subject substantive onceand predicate verb twice.
1. A good student complies cheerfully with a request of
his teacher.
2. The elephant is the giant of the animal world.
3. A merry heart doeth good like a medicine.
17
4. The dog saved the boy's life.
5. High school pupils should be careful and accurate.
6. Sweet are the uses of adversity.
7. Westward the course of empire takes its way.
8. After the dance the rugs were put in place again.
9. The book was read eagerly.
10. It is time to go to luncheon.
11. There have been five issues of Liberty Bonds.
12. There was a big tree in the pasture.
13. There is no use in whining about it.
14. There followed a dispute as to who had thrown the
ball.
15. There was an accident at the corner.
16. Where in the world is my book?
17. Where are you going in such a hurry ?
18. What do you want from me ?
19. Do you ever hope to sing again?
20. Are you not eager for school to begin ?
21. Frank, please open the door. (See Ex. 4.)
22. Look in both directions before you cross the street.
23. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
24. Play the game squarely.
25. Take heed that ye do not your alms before men to beseen of them.
26. In the forests are many beautiful trees.
27. It is a bad thing to procrastinate.
28. Where are you going?
29. How happy the children are ! (See Ex. 4.)
30. There are twelve men on a jury.
18
31. Into the valley of death rode the Six Hundred.
32. Did yon see the parade on Armistice Day?
33. Are yon going to the class play?
34. John, please close the window.
35. Walter, the blacksmith, is a singer.
36. When I saw him, I was mnch pleased.
37. The ship was wrecked on the rocks.
38. In writing a letter always do the best you can.
39. What is your full name ?
40. The capital of Illinois is Springfield, and the capital
of the United States is Washington.
41. Up the river a short distance is a sleepy little old town.
42. The color of the books was green.
43. The ship with its crew was sinking.
44. The fleet of submarines was in the harbor.
45. In what part of Europe have you traveled?
46. I shall leave to-morrow.
47. Elephants eat peanuts.
48. It is healthful to eat apples.
49. It is more blessed to give than to receive.
50. I should have been delighted to see you there.
PkojectPoint out the simple subject and simple predicate
in the shorter sentences from a clipping. Which doyou find similar to the above in arrangement! Whichseem to be the more common forms?
REVIEWIn the following point out both complete and simple
subjects and predicates
:
19
(1) Many books are written each year. (2) One of all
your books is your favorite. (3) Too many books are worth-
less. (4) Everywhere in the room were books. (5) To some
people the writing of books is easy. (6) The price of books
rises when paper is high. (7) Where are the favorite books
of other days? (8) I shall read what books you like. (9)
There is much information in books. (10) It is delightful to
read some books. (11) From floor to ceiling were books.
(12) Who would not havei been surprised at so many books?
(13) It seemed to have rained books in that room.
Exercise 3
CLAUSES : PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE(Recommended for class discussion at this point.)
A principal clause expresses the main thought of
the sentence. Sometimes two or more principalclauses are joined in one sentence. The connection in
thought must be very close or it would be better to
make separate sentences. Such clauses are separatedby semicolons or by co-ordinating conjunctions. Thecomma is not enough. (See "compound sentence" inEx. 6.)
A subordinate clause is a group of words with asubject and predicate used to take the place of a wordsuch as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.
A dependent clause is connected with the mainclause by subordinating conjunctions (Ex. 46), or byrelative connectives (relative pronouns, Ex. 23, andconjunctive adverbs, Ex. 42).
Laugh and the world laughs with Two principal clauses.you) weep and you weep alone.
Seek ye first the kingdom of heaven Two principal clauses,and all these things shall beadded unto you.
20
The boy who has the black coat on Subordinate clause usedis Frank. as an adjective.
The clause == the black-coated
boy.
He went as soon as he, could. Subordinate clause usedas an adverb.
What we want is fair play. Subordinate clause usedas a noun, subject of
verb "is."
Point out the clauses in the following and state if
they are principal or subordinate
:
1. One of the chapters which I read told of the instincts
of birds.
2. When night came, we were all tired.
3. The one who had accomplished the most bragged the
least.
4. The night has a thousand eyes and the day has but one.
5. Come where the lilies bloom.
6. He said that all was well.
7. All is well and we shall go ahead.
8. This happened when the storm was over.
9. I told him what I knew about it.
10. He who gives himself with his alms feeds three.
For further examples, see Ex. 46 and 23.
Co-ordinating conjunctions must not be confusedwith adverbs like then, therefore, however, etc.
First we heard a loud crash; then came silence.
The "then" may not be preceded by a comma.
ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES
Sometimes a portion of a clause is omitted but is under-stood.
She is taller than I [am tall].
21
ABSOLUTE PHRASE
Some expressions are equivalent to clauses. Theyare not to be classified as clauses. These construc-
tions have been called abridged clauses. Some of themare called absolute phrases. Note the following. (See
further examples under Ex. 37.)
We expected him to be ca- = We expected that he would be
pable. capable.
We wish her to return. = We wish that she may return.
The bell having rung, we = As the bell had rung, we wentwent in. in.
She being the leader, we = As she was the leader, we left
left the plans to her. the plans to her.
(See Ex. 37.)
REVIEWIn the following point out the principal clauses and
the subordinate clauses
:
(1) English is the language that you speak. (2) TheEnglish that you speak should be plain. (3) English is goodwhen you speak it correctly and plainly. (4) Consider the
fact that you should write and speak good English. (5) Doyou believe that the study of English is important? (6) Eng-lish is easier than Latin is. (7) Ask yourself if you are sureof your English. (8) English, which is the language of real
Americans, is now a world language.
Exekcise 4
THE PARTS OF SPEECHA. The Parts
1. A noun is a name.
2. A pronoun is a word used for a noun.
3. An adjective is a word used to describe or limita noun or pronoun.
22
4. A verb is a word that asserts.
5. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, anadverb, or an adjective, or a modifier of one of these.
6. A preposition is a word that shows the relation
of a substantive to some other part of the sentence.
7. A conjunction is a word used to connect words,phrases, or clauses.
8. An interjection is a word that merely expressesstrong feeling.
Nouns and pronouns are called substantives. If
some other part of speech is used as a noun it shouldbe called a substantive.
B. Their Use
The parts of speech may be grouped as follows
:
Substantives
:
Connecting words
:
Nouns. Prepositions.
Pronouns. Conjunctions.
(Some kinds of pro-
nouns and ad-
verbs. )
Modifying Words
:
Independent Words
:
Adjectives. Interjections (no re-
Adverbs, lation to other
words in sen-
tence).
What parts of speech are the italicized words?Westminster Ab~bey is in London.
She is a widow and that is her son.
What do we not owe to our ancestors?
Everyone should honor him who does his work well.
The leaves of the tulip tree are large.
23
Rich is he who is content with his lot.
Misery loves company.
There is no room for drones in the hive.
The machine went too slowly.
The lecture was very interesting.
I have good news for you.
Some were in the wagon and some were under it.
First the flash comes and then comes the report.
Some books are1 good, but many are harmful.
Hurrah! it's snowing.
Father, I hear the sound of guns
!
"To" used with a substantive is a preposition, as
in "to school," "to me." When used with a verb, as in
"to study," it is not a preposition. It is called the sign
of the infinitive. (See Ex. 37.)
It cannot always be determined what part of speecha word is unless it is used in a sentence. Many wordsmay be used as different parts of speech.
Point out in the following the words or expressionsthat act as nouns:
We love the red, white, and blue.
We honor the great.
None but the brave deserves the fair.
Then isn't now.
To prepare well is the best plan.
Now is better.
Its faded hangings had once been a deep rose.
That he is a good man is doubted by no one.
To swim is good exercise.
Out of sight is out of mind.
24
Use the following as several different parts ofspeech
:
Good, fly, lead, time, mail, sound, fast, sail.
Add others from your clippings or ones that youuse or hear used.
Some words are used incorrectly as other parts ofspeech
:
They were afraid that he would suspicion him.(Noun used for verb. Correct word is suspect.)
I want to go some place.
(Adjective and noun used for adverb. Correct word is
somewhere.)
Fish were plenty there.
(Noun used for adjective. Correct word is plentiful.)
The human is the only animal that stands erect.
(Adjective used for noun. The word "being" shouldfollow' human.)
That was a good buy.
(Verb used for noun. Correct word is purchase.)
They formed a combine.(Verb used as noun. Correct word is combination.)
For use of real for very, etc., see Ex. 41.
EEVIEWIn the following point out as many parts of speech
as you can and tell why you believe each part of speechis what you have named it. Do the same for Ex. 2, 13,
24, etc.
(1) To him who knows animal and plant life the woodsand fields will reveal many strange secrets. (2) To observethe bird building her nest, to see the squirrel hiding his winterstore, to watch the spider patiently awaiting his prey, is to
gain many a thought for our own life. (3) And thus think-ing leads to doing, and in time we find ourselves growing
better because we have observed the ways of Nature. (4)
John Burroughs, sitting quietly on a hillside and watching a
redbreast in the brush, probably gained more thought for life
than the banker in the city, counting men's money. (5) It
has been truly said that love of Nature and loving observation
of it, elevates the soul. (6) Oh, that all believed this !
Exercise 5
THE KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO USEAll sentences are either declarative or interrog-
ative. A declarative sentence may express an entreaty
or a command.
All sentences are either exclamatory or non-exclam-atory.
It is, however, useful to consider four kinds of
sentences as to whether they (1) declare a fact, (2) aska question, (3) express a command or entreaty, or
(4) besides doing one of these, express deep emotion.
Classify the following sentences and give reasons.Justify the punctuation.
1. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
2. Please, sir, may we borrow your hammer?
3. How beautiful the moon is to-night
!
4. Advance, then, ye future generations
!
5. May I give you a bit of my own experience ?
6. Who would wish that his country's existence hadotherwise begun?
7. Last but not least, do not let other activities interferewith your school work.
8. "Who would wish for an origin obscured in the dark-ness of antiquity?
9. All that breathe will share thy destiny.
10. Wave again the dear old banner.
2G
Pkoject
Note the kind of sentence and punctuation for eacli
in some page of a home-reading book. Discuss thosewhich are hard to classify or as to the correct punc-tuation of which there may be a difference of opinion.
REVIEWExplain to your classmates why the following sen-
tences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, orexclamatory
:
(1) To be strong does not necessarily mean to be noisy.
(2) Have you not seen people who thought that if they simplymade fuss and noise, they would impress others with the idea
of strength and importance? (3) Oh, how silent the gen-
uinely strong often are! (4) Napoleon was a very silent
man; Washington said no more than was necessary; Lincolnwas a quiet man. (5) Yet how strong they were! (6) Bequiet. (7) Be gentle. (8) Do your work steadily, but with-
out undue show and display. (9) God does His daily workwithout blare of trumpets. (10) Do you hear the earth hurryabout the sun, or the stars move in their courses? (11) Whocan say that he has heard them in their might? (12) Wouldthat man might learn from God and Nature the quietness of
strength
!
Exeecise 6
THE KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO FORMSimple: With one subject and one predicate, either or
both of which may be compound.
Mary sang. Simple subject and simple
predicate.
Mary and John sang. Compound subject and sim-
ple predicate.
Mary played and sang. Simple subject and compoundpredicate.
Mary and John played and Compound subject and com-sang. pound predicate.
27
Compound : With two or more separate statements.
Mary played and John sang.
(See Ex. 13 and 46.)
Complex : A principal clause and at least one subordinate
clause.
Mary, who played, also sang.
Compound-complex (for advanced work only) : Two or
more principal clauses, one or more subordinate clauses.
Mary, who played, also sang, and John was her accom-panist.
Important! Distinguish between a simple sentence
with a compound predicate, and a compound sentence.
Mary finished her work and Simple sentence with corn-
then read a good book. pound predicate.
Mary finished her work and Compound sentence — twothen she read a good book. complete statements.
Friendship redoubleth joys; Simple sentence with com-but cutteth griefs in pound predicate,
sunder.
Find other illustrations in your clippings.
Classify the following sentences as to form
:
1. A penny saved is a penny earned.
2. A dark sky and a forbidding shore greeted the Pil-
grims.
3. Lochinvar seized the bride and dashed away.
4. The lads and lassies danced and sang merrily.
5. Stoop as you go through life, and you will avoid manyhard knocks.
6. Where there's a will, there's a way.
7. Unto the pure all things are pure.
8. The boy who was sick has come back to school.
9. When she has finished her lessons, she may go skating.
10. He who would rule others, must first rule himself.
28
Often sentences are strung along with "and's" or
"so's," when it is better to make the clauses subordi-
nate.
The road was closed and we had to make a detour.
Improved: As the road was closed, we had to make a
detour.
Revise the following sentences
:
I had a headache, so I didn't get up.
My mother worries when I stay out late, so I always like
to start home early.
David is a very reliable boy, so we elected him president.
Arthur won the fifty-yard dash and we congratulated himheartily.
The storm came and the ship sank.
Find other illustrations in your themes or in clip-
pings.
EEVIEWTell whether the following sentences are simple,
compound or complex. Point out all the clauses.
(1) What is beauty? (2) It is not prettiness and it is
not handsomeness. ' (3) If you put a large hat upon a verythin man, he does not look beautiful. (4) A very small haton a large man seems ridiculous. (5) A porch with a heavyroof and columns as thin as pipe-stems certainly lacks dig-
nity and makes you ill at ease. (6) Why? Because youfeel that the poor columns are over-burdened and have notthe proper freedom and dignity. (7) Beauty, then, is that
freedom in anything for which you yourself are longing.
(8) If you were longing for freedom from fleshiness, a thin
person might seem beautiful to you; if you were longing for
freedom from leanness, a portly person might seem beautiful
to you. (9) Please remember, then, that beauty is not mereprettiness, but is a form of freedom. (10) Indeed, beauty andfreedom are perhaps the same.
29
Exercise 7
MODIFIERSWord : The sky is blue.
Phrase : The nest in the tree has eggs in it-
Clause : The boy who was hart went home.
Kinds of Words
:
Noun and Pronoun
:
As adherent:
As appositive
:
As possessive modifier
:
As indirect object
:
As adverbial modifier:
Adjective. (See Ex. 28.)
Adherent.Predicate.
Appositive.
Adverb. (See Ex. 41.)
Kinds of Phrases: (See Ex. 9.)
Prepositional.
Participial.
Infinitive.
Gerund.Absolute.
Kinds of Clauses: (See (Ex. 11.)
Noun clause in apposition.
Adjectival.
Adverbial.
The New York Times is a fa-
mous newspaper.
The merchant ship returned.
Poe, the poet, was a skilful
writer of tales.
I mean Poe, him who wrote"The Gold Bug."
A beaver's teeth are like
chisels.
We gave him a gift.
I shall go to-morrow.
30
A noun clause in apposition must be distinguished
from an adjective clause.
John, who often came late, was a poor student.
The clause is an adherent modifier of John. It is
not in apposition.
The saying, "What cannot be cured must be endured" is
a true one.
The clause is in apposition. (See Ex. 11.)
Point out examples of all of the above in your clip-
pings.
In Exercise 2 we saw that the skeleton of a sen-
tence consists of the simple subject (subject substan-
tive) and the simple predicate (predicate verb). All
the words or expressions that limit each of these aremodifiers.
All words, phrases, or clauses that modify the sim-ple subject are like adjectives, which modify substan-tives. They are called adjectival modifiers. Eachadjectival phrase or clause has grammatically thevalue of a single word.
All words or word groups that modify the simplepredicate are called adverbial modifiers. Such wordgroups have grammatically the value of a single word.
In the following pick out the words or expressionsthat modify the subject substantive and the predicateverb.
1. The fast train was wrecked on the bridge.
2. There was great excitement on the day of the big game.
3. Everyone was happy and everyone was sure his school
would win.
4. By skilful passing and good teamwork, the Blues got
the first shot at the basket.
31
5. The third quarter opened amid cheers from all sides.
6. When the quarter ended, the score stood nothing to
nothing.
7. The train was loaded with about fifty girls with bright
faces, looking forward to the joys of a summer camp.
8. At her side sat Faith, a calm, quiet, reserved girl, whotried to sympathize with her.
9. The second day Dotty was miserable, very, very miser-
able.
10. And Gareth bow'd himself with all obedience to the
King, and wrought all kind of service with a noble ease that
graced the lowliest act in doing it.
In determining what an expression modifies, repeat
it with each word nntil yon reach the one with w7hich
it belongs.
A word or group of words used next to a wTord anddenoting the same person or thing is called an apposi-tive. An appositive differs from a predicate nomi-native in that it follows immediately the word it modi-fies, while in the case of a predicate nominative theverb comes between the subject and the complement.
Usually the appositive with its modifiers is set off fromthe rest of the sentence by commas.
In titles, etc., where the connection is very close, the com-mas are omitted. In some cases the expression is a part of
the proper noun.
(Adjectives and clauses may also be used in an appositiverelation.)
A noun in apposition is in the same case as the nounwith which it is in apposition.
1. It was Alfred the Great who said, "So long as I havelived, I have striven to live worthily."
2. His son John went to Harvard.
32
3. Jackson, the short stop, was injured.
4. He himself signed the papers.
5. John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians, translated the
Bible into the Indian language.
6. Hector was a son of King Priam.
7. Hector was a son of the king, Priam.
8. Morrison, our best player, is never ineligible.
9. She loved the works of Whitman, the Good Gray Poet.
10. The trophy was handed to Smith, the captain of the
team.
Exekcise 8
COMPLEMENTSAn expression that is used with the verb to com-
plete the meaning is called a complement.
Complements include (1) direct objects, (2) predi-
cate nominatives, and (3) predicate adjectives.
(See Ex. 30.)
1. Sometimes a verb which expresses action is
accompanied by a noun or pronoun which names that
which received the action. This substantive is called
the direct object.
2. The forms of the verb "to be" (see Ex. 30) anda small number of other verbs do not take an object.
When a noun or pronoun completes the verb, it alwaysmeans the same person or thing as the subject. It is
called a predicate nominative (predicate complement).If the verb is completed by an adjective, the latter is
called a predicate adjective (predicate attribute).
3. Sometimes the predicate contains a complementthat denotes the effect of action on the direct object.
This is called an objective complement. Examples
:
They named him John. They painted the barn red.
33
Complements are often out of the regular order,
especially in poetry.
Point out the complements in the following sen-
tences :
1. His brother is a physician.
2. Dr. Brown, the minister of our church, gave an excel-
lent address.
3. "I was a Viking bold," said the Skeleton in Armor.
4. "Slim" Saunders was short in height but long in
weight.
5. They called their dog Sport.
6. John Burroughs' description of April is beautiful.
7. Rich is he who is satisfied with his lot.
8. The horse was named Peggy.
9. The clouds were fluffy masses of vapor.
10. She will sing you a song.
11. The children made the candy.
12. Man am I grown; a man's work must 1 do.
13. Only one proof, before thou ask the king to make thee
knight, of thine obedience and thy love to me, thy mother, I
demand.
14. The teacher is at the same time, umpire, counsellor,
and guide.
REVIEWIn the following point out all the modifiers. Tell
why they are adjectives or adverbs. Point out all thecomplements. Explain their construction.
(1) Swiftly the water moves through hills and valleys.
(2) It is never without motion. (3) Made a captive in pondor lake or sea, even then it is not motionless. (4) With rest-
less ripples and waves it seeks to move on, and if an outletis denied, it silently escapes as invisible vapor into the air.
34
(5) Even then it is forever in motion. (6) Into fleecy clouds
it forms ; from the clouds it descends in tiny raindrops ; into
the streams it pours to resume its tireless motion. (7) Thelesson for us is very clear. (8) Only the idle, the motionless,
dies. (9) In activity alone is life. (10) The unmovingthings stagnate; utterly to cease activity, to be idle, to be
useless, means indeed self-extinction. (11) He may truly
call himself master of fate who lives fully.
Exercise 9
PHRASES AS TO FORMLike sentences, phrases are classified as to form
and use. As to form, they are usually named after
the characteristic word.
Verb phrase (a group of He is running fast,
words that asserts). (See Ex. 31.)
Prepositional. He went to school.
Infinitive. I like to work problems.(See Ex. 37.)
Participial. Tampering with the ma-chinery, he ruined his
car. (See Ex. 37.)
Point out the verb phrases in Ex. 39.
Do not confuse "to" followed by a substantive,which is a preposition, with "to" followed by a verb,which forms an infinitive.
Classify the phrases in the following as to form
:
1. At length came the appointed time, bringing with it
unusual severity of cold and rain.
2. The trees on top of the mountain are stunted in
growth.
35
3. The best time to see birds is in the morning and in the
evening.
4. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great
task remaining before us.
5. There is no room for drones in the hives.
6. She liked to run on errands.
7. No man liveth unto himself alone.
8. Worn out and hungry, she sank on the door-step, sob-
bing bitterly.
9. She lived in the shadow of the skyscrapers.
10. Our students' council has helped to solve some prob-
lems.
11. A moment later, hastening her steps to catch the train,
Marie followed.
12. There was a new clerk in the office.
13. She wants to take it to the neighbors.
14. He fell out of the frying-pan into the fire.
15. Making the most of her opportunity, she began breath-
lessly.
16. Determined to oppose him, she laid her plans carefully.
17. Down the long beam stole the Holy Grail all coveredwith a luminous cloud.
18. The troops are going by.
19. Mounting our horses, we proceeded up the mountainroad.
20. My knights are sworn to vows of utter hardihood,utter gentleness, and loving, utter faithfulness in love, anduttermost obedience to the king.
REVIEWCopy in separate lists all the verb, prepositional,
infinitive, and participial phrases in the following
:
36
(1) There is—or should be—in your life and mine someone main purpose or goal toward which all activities maycenter. (2) This is your life ideal. (3) Without it are younot simply drifting? (4) Like a leaf thrown upon a stream,
you will he hurled hither and thither, if you have not this oneguiding ideal. (5) With it, in spite of all obstacles andobstructions, you can go more directly toward success. (6)
Now and then adversities may turn you somewhat from yourpath, but the ideal of your life will bring you back into the
way. (7) To have an abiding purpose is to have a strong
will; a strong will masters life. (8) Make your life success-
ful ; make your existence one of victory.
Exercise 10
PHEASES AS TO USEPrepositional phrases usually are used either as
adjectives or as adverbs.
Participial phrases are always used as adjectives.
Infinitive phrases are usually used as nouns, butthey may have other uses.
Point out the phrases, as to use, in the following:
1. The plant in the window is thriving.
2. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
3. It was an interesting account of an experience in
blackberrying.
4. The top of the mountain is covered with snow.
5. The owner of the car was the boy.
6. Grenfell was adrift on a mass of floating ice.
7. The ball went over the fence.
8. We gathered the apples under the tree.
9. Mary Antin came to the Promised Land.
10. We had a most original program on Pep Day.
11. To be a genius is to have a capacity for hard work.
37
12. In the midst of this, our mortal life, I found me in a
gloomy wood, astray.
13. We do our best work in the morning.
14. The dog crept under the table.
15. He did it for effect.
16. They came in laughingly, bringing the culprit with
them.
17. Her hobby is to crochet.
18. He did well in the beginning but not at the close.
19. The proof of the pudding is in the eating.
20. A stitch in time saves nine.
21. The girl sat in a big arm chair before the cheerful log
fire that burned in the grate.
22. His ambition is to ride well.
23. Searching through the house, he found a candle.
24. Thoreau lived at Walden Pond.
25. During the life of the dog, Scotch, on Long's Peak, he
was once sent by Enos Mills to guide a girl on her trip up the
mountains.
Point out all the phrases in Ex. 2, 9, and 13.
Exercise 11
CLAUSES AS TO USEAs to form, clauses are principal or subordinate.
(See Ex. 3.)
Principal clauses may be co-ordinate.
Subordinate clauses, also, may be co-ordinate.
The moon waxes and then it Co-ordinate principalwanes. clauses.
He told Mm where he must Co-ordinate subordinatego and what he must do. clauses.
Subordinate Clauses as to Use.
As Sub- As subject That I should go was certain,
stantive. of verb. Whatever is important must beemphasized.
With a It depended on what he knew.preposition. He came prepared with what he
!
needed.
As predicate This was what I told him.nominative. Freedom was what he wanted.
As object He read what he liked.
of verb. "What do you wantf" he asked.
In apposition. He repeated the question, "Whereare you goingf
As Adjective. Determinative (restrictive or necessary).
(See Ex. 1.) Descriptive (non-restrictive or forward-moving) .
Adverbial. Modifying verbs. He went where there
was good fishing.
Modifying adjectives. He was as tidy as onecan be.
Modifying adverbs. He ran as swiftly as the
car went.
Avoid the use of a "when" or "where" clause as apredicate nominative clause.
Correct the following:
1. A volcano is where lava and steam come out of the
earth.
2. A "comma sentence" error is where two complete
sentences are separated by a comma.
Introductory subordinate clauses are usually fol-
lowed by commas
:
1. When we had nearly finished eating, a shower came up.
2. Just as we started to eat, the old man came out of the
house.
39
Do not put a comma between a verb and an object
clause that follows it, unless there is a parenthetical
expression between.
Example : He did not see what was in the window.
He did not see, in his hurry, what was in the window.
How are the clauses used in the following sen-
tences ?
1. That I should go was certain.
2. What he asked was this.
3. Whosoever will, may come.
4. He showed his brother how he could solve the
problem.
5. I do not know where John had gone.
6. He gave his attention to what was most necessary.
7. It was now nine o'clock and nothing had happenedexcept that the crowd had gathered.
8. He sold it for whatever he could get for it.
9. He was depending on what he had learned earlier.
10. There is no question about what that means.
11. It is whatever you say it is.
12. He knew that his work wasn't what it had been at first.
13. This is what I want.
14. He became what he expected to become.
15. Life is what we make of it.
16. What I undertake I accomplish.
17. I know what I want.
18. That he was mistaken I soon learned.
19. He wondered what they were going to do to him.
20. Do you know where he lives ?
21. What I have and what I want are two different things.
40
22. While the audience was gathering, the orchestra
played.
23. Thanks be to God, that this spot was honored as the
asylum of religious liberty.
24. Where there is so much smoke there must be some fire.
25. We shall be glad to do what you wish.
26. Frank was told to find a candle which was somewherein the house.
27. The laughter and whispering had an effect on himwhich nothing else would have produced.
28. When beggars die, there are no comets seen.
29. All that glitters is not gold.
30. He who eats his cake cannot keep it.
31. Frank sat thinking until he became drowsy.
32. Whither thou goest, I will go.
33. As soon as he had played the last act, the audiencestood.
34. If you wish to succeed, you must do well from the
beginning.
35. When the boys came to a halt, the one with the bugle
stepped forward.
36. When you say you "get even" with a person, you doexactly that thing : you lower yourself to his level.
37. "Well," he exclaimed, "I can try!"
38. What Burroughs tells in the story entitled "TheMarsh Hawk," could all be true.
39. Enos Mills tells how the return horses are trained andwhat good care they are given.
40. "My country, 'tis of thee," sang the great chorus.
REVIEWPoint out all the clauses in the following. Under-
line them and label them as to use.
41
(1) You sometimes wonder why you go to school. (2) It
is right that you should ask this. (3) For whatever is not
useful is certainly wasteful. (4) You go in order that youmay develop whatever ability you may possess. (5) Thatyour muscles may grow, you take exercise. (6) That yourbody may develop, you eat food. (7) You play when the bodydemands recreation. (8) Education does for the mind whatthese things do for the body. ( 9 ) That the mind may be exer-
cised is the purpose of certain studies. (10) The object of
other studies is that the brain may have food for thought.
(11) You are supplied with mental recreations to be used
when your mind is weary of toil. (12) True education makesa man what he was intended to be. (13) Through education
you draw forth what is in you. (14) He who is educated
knows his resources and is master of them.
Exercise 12
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTSSome words have no grammatical relation to any
other word in the sentence. They are called indepen-dent elements.
Interjections and Oh, see that accident
!
Exclamations. Rob, what shall we do?Human Nature ! howr univer-
sal thou art
!
Vocatives Bichard, please come here,(words independent Please, sir, may we go?by address).Pleonasm. This constant buzzing, what
does it mean?
Parenthetical To-morrow, not Wednesday, is
Elements. (These the day of the festival.
may be words,phrases, or clauses.)
42
The interjection is always capitalized. It is
usually followed directly by a substantive without a
comma.
"Oh" is not always capitalized. It is sometimes fol-
lowed by a comma.
Pleonasm is not permissible in ordinary usage.
Correct : The girl went home. Incorrect : The girl she
went home.
Parenthetical expressions are always set off bycommas, one preceding and one following.
Point out the independent elements in the follow-
ing:
1. death, where is thy sting? grave, where is thyvictory ?
2. My dear, what in the world are you doing?
3. morning star that smilest in the blue,
star, my morning dream hath proven true,
Smile sweetly, thou ! my love hath smiled on me.
4. Boys, let's play ball.
5. Stars, hide your fires.
6. Build thee more stately mansions, my soul.
7. Captain! my Captain!
8. Mortals, that would follow me, love Virtue; she alone
is free.
9. Gentlemen, let us look into this matter.
10. Sing, Heavenly Muse, of man's first disobedience.
11. Thou, too, sail on, Ship of State
!
REVIEWIn the following sentences, point out the indepen-
dent elements and state what kind each is.
43
(1) Oh, that men would listen to the teaching of Nature!
(2) "Children," she seems to say, "why will you, the highest
earthly beings, why will you be blind and deaf? (3) Mylessons, my daily manifestations, what they might tell youif you would but see and hear ! (4) The trees, symbols of mycalm strength, call to you to reach toward the heights. (5)
The streams (and what happy voices they have!) declare to
you that only in activity is happiness. (6) The flowers, those
messengers of love, whisper that even out of the dirt of life
can spring beauty. (7) Truly, men, I speak to you daily.
(8) My words and my acts, they would teach you the way, if
you, the blind and the deaf, would but see and hear."
Exercise 13
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCESIn the following sentences give
(a) Kind of sentence as to meaning and form.
(b) Complete subject and complete predicate.
(c) Simple subject and simple predicate in main andsubordinate clauses.
(d) All the complements and their construction.
(e) All the modifiers, the kind they are, and what theymodify.
1. Did you study very much?2. How is history going with you, George ?
3. Where is yesterday's paper?
4. Time and tide wait for no man.
5. He set down his grip and walked into the kitchen.
6. Luella swung back and forth in the hammock on herwide, shady porch.
7. His success on the court much lessened his disappoint-ment of the morning.
8. He should have been in the great out-of-doors, workingon his father's farm.
44
9. Down by the river there is a fine shady place for
fishing.
10. In a moment the building fell with a crash.
1. John tried to keep up, but it was impossible.
2. It was a scorching hot day, and Dick was lounging in
the shade.
3. At first no one saw him, and then his mother turnedaround.
4. Some books are good, but many are worthless.
5. Up went the balloon, and the people shouted.
6. We chose Fred, for he was always considering the
good of the whole group.
7. Rose usually studied her lessons thoroughly, but to-
night she felt rather tired and disgusted with herself.
8. At that time she was only seven years old, but the pic-
ture of that awful night was still vivid in her mind.
10. A thought is composed of ideas, but a sentence is com-posed of words.
1. As she leaned forward, her face showed signs of a
struggle.
2. She could not forget how her mother had sacrificed for
her.
3. As the girls turned the corner, they met the captain
of the rival basketball team.
4. He thinks that high school students can usually betrusted.
5. What they read was so astonishing that they read it
again.
6. The family started for the hill on which the people
were accustomed to assemble at flood times.
7. "The old bridge won't stand this," said Jim's father.
8. When the late afternoon began to get a little cooler,
she wandered up into the attic.
45
9. He told his son, who was now grown, who he was.
10. "Why did it have to come to this?" he thought.
1. My, that clover smells sweet
!
2. When one came in, the other went out.
3. He afterward said that he had never realized howmuch the old home meant to him until then.
4. Jim's father said that he had just been needing a manto help him plow.
5. I had barely walked a block, when, looking over myshoulder, I noticed that the little girl had followed me.
6. The next morning Jim and his little brother, George,
went down to the river with their bamboo poles, to go fishing.
7. For a minute Jim was so surprised that he just stood
there, and then he started to run.
8. This was not the first time that there had been a flood,
and the people knew what it meant.
9. Jim wrote back and said that the old farm was goodenough for him.
10. Before him lay the gray Azores.
11. Down went the poor little wounded bird.
12. Speech is silver but silence is golden.
13. Experience is a dear teacher, but fools will learn fromno other.
14. Character is what we are; reputation is what peoplethink we are.
15. Let me live in a house by the side of the road and bea friend to man.
16. If 3^e break faith with us who die, we shall not sleep,
though poppies grow in Flanders fields.
46
EXEECISE 14
KINDS OF NOUNSNouns are words which are used to name anything
that may be made an object of thought.
Nouns are either (a) proper or (b) common, accord-
ing to whether the name designates a member of a
class or a particular individual or unit.
Abstract Nouns.These are nouns that name qualities or mental concepts.
They may be
:
(1) Derived from nouns: motherhood, cowardice.
(2) Derived from verbs: pleasure, occupation.
(3) Derived from adjectives: whiteness, dullness,
solemnity.
(4) Independent concepts : time, space, faith, hope.
Verbal Nouns.These include
:
(1) The infinitive of a verb, as, "to run."
(2) The gerund (infinitive ending in "ing," as,
"running."
They are used as nouns, but are derived from verbs.
They differ from nouns in that they may take objects
and verbal modifiers as verbs do. (See Ex. 37.)
Another kind of noun, which may be either commonor proper, is a collective noun. (See Ex. 15.)
Various parts of speech may be used as nouns.They are then called substantives and are said to beused substantively. (See Ex. 4.)
Proper nouns are generally capitalized. Usagewith regard to capitalizing nouns is not always uni-form, but certain rules must be observed always.
Some of the most important rules of capitalization
are indicated in the following. Master the ones yourteacher selects as most important at this point.
Words which should be capitalized include the fol-
lowing :
1. Names of persons and of particular places.
2. Days of the week, the months, and special holi-
days, but not seasons.
3. Names of great events in history or historical
epochs.
4. Names of streets and avenues.
5. Titles of books, articles, themes, etc.
6. Names of the Deity and special holy things.
7. Names of sections of a country, but not pointsof the compass.
8. Names of races of people and languages, andschool subjects naming languages, but not other schoolsubjects.
Add other reasons for capitalizing nouns that youcan support by illustrations.
The Formation of Nouns
New nouns and new variations of almost every partof speech have frequently been formed from olderwords, by the following methods:
1. Inflection. Example: man, men.
2. Derivation. Example : invent, invention.
The original word is called the root word.
3. Composition.
48
Sometimes two or three words are combined. In
some cases a hyphen is used. Sometimes the hyphenis dropped and the word is written as one.
Examples: semi-circle, moonlight.
It is not a good plan for untrained writers to coin
words.
Make from your clippings a list of compound wordsthat retain the hyphen and ones that do not. In case
of doubt, always consult a dictionary.
Make a list of newly-coined words. See if they are
given in a dictionary.
Look up the following to see whether the hyphenshould be used or the two parts written as one word.Add other doubtful words to the list
:
To day, my self, to gether, semi colon, to morrow, a sleep,
text book, black berry, school room, proof reader, any one,
every one, some one, any body, school mate, school children,
to night, with out, twenty five, Anglo Saxon, base ball, lead
pencil, all right.
(See also Ex. 28.)
Discuss the following in class. Use illustrations
from your clippings to support your reason for con-sidering a word a proper noun.
1. President Harding went to Plymouth, Massachusetts,on the presidential yacht, the Mayflower.
2. We gave Principal Johnson three cheers.
3. Emerson's essay, "The American Scholar," has beencalled the declaration of independence of American literature.
4. Warren G. Harding is the President of the UnitedStates.
5. Jefferson wrote The Declaration of Independence.
6. England and France are two of the greatest nations in
Europe.
49
7. There are four Arnolds and two Margarets in the class.
8. Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the UnitedStates.
9. There are twenty-three principals of Chicago high
schools.
10. The Lane Technical High School is on the North Side.
11. Halsted Street is one of the longest streets in Chicago.
12. A poem about the Chicago River was written by a
Chicago man.
13. I shall not go if my mother disapproves.
14. When I arrived at home, Mother and Sister were wait-
ing for me.
15. Every schoolboy should be familiar with the Constitu-
tion of the United States.
16. And now abideth Faith, Hope, and Love ; but the great-
est of these is Love.
17. The child often dreamed about Indians, fairies, andgypsies.
18. The White House is the home of the President.
19. I like "A Sailor's Log" by Admiral Robley D. Evans,who was called "Fighting Bob."
20. I shall go Wednesday, the third of August.
21. In the first year we studied English, algebra, physiol-ogy, and French.
22. She had two years of work in the Hyde Park HighSchool.
23. The months of spring are March, April, and May.
24. I asked Mother if I might go with Aunt Edith and mycousins.
25. The Holy Grail was the cup out of which it is said thatChrist drank at the Last Supper.
50
26. We visited Independence Hall in Philadelphia, wherewe saw the Liberty Bell, and the place where the Declaration
of Independence was signed.
27. Mr. Clark, who came from the East, is a wealthy manand a political power in our western state, Montana.
28. The legal holidays in my state are,
, , and
29. The months of winter are December, January, andFebruary.
Correct errors in the following sentences by sup-plying the omitted capitals. Give reasons.
1. George Eliot was the writer of "silas marner."
2. The jew, Isaac, and the christian abbot, prior aymer,are interesting characters to compare.
3. The indians were the original americans.
4. We went to new york city on the new york central
railroad, stayed at the metropolitan hotel, took a trip up the
hudson river to irving's home, sunnyside, visited the latin
department at Columbia university, and saw drinkwater's"Abraham Lincoln" at the cort theatre.
5. He gave to misery all he had, a tear.
6. Puck said, "lord, what fools these mortals be."
7. Sir Launfal was a knight, who went in search of theholy grail.
8. I asked aunt mary if I might go.
9. Have you ever seen a picture of the coliseum at rome ?
10. Every person should see the grand canyon of theColorado river in arizona before he dies.
11. Paris, the largest of the french cities, is the capital of
france.
12. There stood my mother with uncle henry and auntmarion.
51
13. Long's peak, the highest mountain in the rocky moun-tain national park, near denver, always has snow on the sum-mit.
14. The required subjects in her course were mathematics,
science, french, and english.
15. The east and the south have joined on the issue.
16. Thou shalt love the lord thy god with all thy strength
and thy neighbor as thyself.
17. The bible is the greatest work of literature.
18. Denver is almost directly west of Chicago.
19. During our week in and near boston, we visited Plym-outh rock, the statue of the minute man at concord bridge,
walden pond, where Thoreau had built his hut, the witchhouse at salem, and Washington's elm in Cambridge.
20. We saw the statue, the end of the trail, at the panamaexposition in san francisco.
Exercise 15
KINDS OF NOUNS (Continued): COLLECTIVENOUNS
The name of a number of individuals considered asa group is known as a collective noun.
When we consider the group as a unit, it is usedas a singular noun. When we are thinking of the indi-
viduals in the group, we regard it as plural.
Study and discuss the following examples
:
1. The football team have new suits.
2. The committee made its report.
3. The Senate agreed on its program.
4. The class expressed their opinions freely.
5. The jury will be kept together until they agree.
52
6. If the audience are pleased, they should applaud.
7. The navy was in the best condition possible.
8. The team did their best to keep eligible.
9. That pair of shoes is too large.
10. The crew were staying with various friends.
Make a list of about twenty collective nouns in com-mon usage. Use them in sentences, so as to showwhether they are used as singular or plural nouns.Study the usage in your clippings. Have a member of
the class make this a subject for study and give areport covering all your material.
(See Ex. 32 for further illustrations.)
Exercise 16
GENDEE IN NOUNS(Optional; for Eeference Chiefly)
A small number of English nouns are inflected forgender.
Usually only nouns denoting persons or animalshave gender. Some personified objects, such as ship,
sun, moon, night, spring, etc., are sometimes givengender, especially when used poetically.
Three of the common ways of denoting gender are asfollows
:
(1) By using an entirely different form.
(2) By adding suffixes (usually -ess or -ine) to the mas-culine form.
(3) By attaching some prefix to the original noun.
Add to the list other nouns inflected for gender that occurin ordinary use.
53
1. Masculine. Feminine. 2. Masculine Feminine.
man woman actor actress
father mother patron patronessnephew niece heir heiress
uncle aunt sorcerer sorceress
master mistress waiter waitress
(Mr.) (Mrs.) host hostess
sir madam benefactor benefactress
wizard witch giant giantess
king queen god goddessbuck doe duke duchessram ewestag hind
Masculine. Feminine,
he-bear she-bear
man-servant maid-servantcock-sparrow hen-sparrowhe-goat she-goat
4. Masculine.
(Miscellaneous.)
messieursczar
sultan
administratorexecutoralumnusmerman
Feminine.
mesdamesczarina
sultana
administratrix
executrix
alumnamermaid
There is now a tendency not to inflect such nouns as
author and poet for gender. Note this tendency in currentliterature.
Many proper given names are inflected for gender,if you can add to the following:
See
Julius, Julia.
Francis, Frances.Cornelius, Cornelia.
Henry, Henrietta.
Joseph, Josephine.Paul, Pauline.
Augustus, Augusta.
54
Exercise 17
NUMBEE IN NOUNSOrdinary Plurals
The lists of plurals are given for reference.
1. The usual way of forming the plural of nouns is
by adding "s" to the singular form.
(a) boys, cows, feathers, chairs, shows, hats, shores, tables,
doves, fields, flowers, windows.
The tendency to be careless in this simple matterand to make the ignorant error of adding "es" to manysuch words is unfortunately growing.
Correct: shows. Incorrect: showes.
A worse error is to add an apostrophe and "s" to
an ordinary noun to make it plural.
Look over your themes. If you discover sucherrors, work on this point. Select ordinary plurals
from your clippings.
(b) If the word ends in silent "e" preceded by a hissing
sound, or by the letter "g," another syllable is added whenthe "s" is added:
horse, horses. size, sizes,
house, houses. phrase, phrases,
fence, fences. bridge, bridges,
vase, vases. cage, cages.
2. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch (as in church), x, andz form their plurals by adding "es" to the singularform.
(a) This adds a new syllable, as in gas-es, circus-es,
glass-es, wish-es, dish-es, bush-es, bench-es, church-es, witch-es,
box-es, miss-es.
(b) The "es" is added to some nouns without forming a
new syllable, as in heroes, potatoes, tomatoes; also in certain
55
words in which the singular is slightly changed in formingthe plural, as in wolves, halves, pennies, fairies. (See below,
3 and 4.)
3. (a) Some nouns ending in "f" or "fe" change the
/ to v before adding "es," as in beef, beeves.
Pluralize the following and use them in sentences
:
calf leaf self wharfelf life sheaf wolfhalf loaf thief
knife shelf wife
(b) Other nouns ending in "f" form the plural in
the regular way
:
belief cliff gulf roof
chief flag-staff handkerchief waifcuff grief reef
Look up the following : dwarf, hoof, scarf.
4. (a) Nouns ending in "y" preceded by a conso-nant, or by "qu," form the plural by changing the "y"
of the singular form to "ie" and adding "s."
(b) Nouns ending in "y" preceded by a vowel formthe plural in the regular way.
Write the plural of the following and use them insentences. State the rule each time until you havemastered it and can apply it.
academy city fairy mysteryactuary colloquy family pennyally copy ferry ponyarmy country fly puppybaby cry gypsy soliloquyberry daisy glory storybody ditty history tallycaddy doily lily
cherry enemy mercy
56
abbey chimney journey pulley
alley day key turkeyattorney donkey money valley
buoy jockey monkey volley
5. Some nouns ending in "o" add "es" and someadd only "s" to form the plural. If "o" is precededby a vowel, add "s." Words from the Italian arts andterms in bookbinding add "s."
The older English forms usually add "es"; those morerecently taken into the language add only "s."
The following add "es"
:
buffalo
calico
cargodominoecho
grotto
heromosquitomottomulatto
negroportico
potatotomatotornado
torpedoveto
volcano
pianoquartoratio
solo
sopranostiletto
trio
zero
The following add only
albino halobamboo lasso
cameo mementocanto octavofolio
Prepare spelling lessons based on the above.
See if you can add others to these lists.
Use the words in sentences.
Exercise 18
NUMBER IN NOUNS (Continued)
Irregular Forms6. Some nouns form their plural by a change of
vowel, as in man, men ; woman, women.
Write the plural of foot, goose, tooth, and mouse in
sentences.
57
7. A few nouns form the plural by the old ending"en." Examples: ox, oxen; child, children; brother,
brethren; cow, kine.
8. The following nouns have the same form in the
singular and the plural: deer, sheep, swine, fish.
9. Some nouns have two plurals with slightly dif-
ferent meanings. Look them up in the dictionary.
brother, brothers, brethren. genius, geniuses, genii,
cloth, cloths, clothes. index, indexes, indices,
die, dies, dice. shot, shots, shot.
fish, fishes, fish. penny, pennies, pence.
10. Some nouns are either always plural or alwayssingular
:
alms, ashes, dregs, eaves, gallows, pincers, riches, scissors,
shears, suds, tongs, trousers, news (formerly considered plural,
as in Shakespeare), physics, mathematics, measles, mumps.
Look up "athletics." Is the usage uniform?
11. Compound nouns usually pluralize the more im-portant part of the word:
attorney-at-law, attorneys-at-law.
blackbird, blackbirds.
Use the plural of the following in sentences. Lookup those you are not sure of:
blackberry, Brahman, brother-in-law, bill-of-fare, commander-in-chief, court-martial, court-yard, cupful, Englishman, father-in-law, fisherman, goose-quill, Frenchman, handful, hanger-on,knight-errant, knight-templar, lieutenant-general, man-of-war,man-servant, major-general, Ottoman, ox-cart, piano-forte,
son-in-law, step-son, tooth-brush, wagon-load, woman-servant,woman-singer.
See if you can add to this list.
(Note: "cupfuls" means one cup filled more than once.)
58
12. Words from foreign languages form their plu-
rals in accordance with the laws of those languages.The examples given are for reference. (Optional.)
There is a growing tendency to use Anglicizedplural endings, as in "formula, formulas," instead of
the Latin form "formulae." Notice in your clippings
and reading what the practice of the best writers is
in this respect.
From the Latin
a. (First declension, feminine, nouns ending in "a.")
alga, algae ; alumna, alumnae ; fauna, faunae.
Pluralize larva, minutia, nebula, vertebra. Add others.
b. (Second declension, masculine, nouns ending in "us.")
alumnus, alumni; bacillus, bacilli; focus, foci.
Pluralize fungus, genius, iambus, locus, nucleus, radius,
sarcophagus, stimulus, terminus.
c. (Second declension, neuter, nouns ending in "urn.")
addendum, addenda; bacterium, bacteria; curriculum, cur-
ricula.
Pluralize datum, erratum, gymnasium, maximum, medium,memorandum, minimum, momentum, spectrum, sta-
dium, stratum.
d. (Third declension, nouns ending in "is.")
amanuensis, amanuenses; analysis, analyses.
Pluralize antithesis, axis, basis, crisis, ellipsis, hypothesis,
oasis, parenthesis, synopsis, thesis.
e. (Nouns ending in "x.")
appendix, appendices; radix, radices.
Pluralize vertex, vortex.
From the Greekf. phenomenon, phenomena; criterion, criteria, etc.
Note: Many terms from the Latin and Greek are used in
science chiefly. "Why?
59
Miscellaneous
g. From the French.beau, beaux (Anglicized, beaus) ; tableau, tableaux.
From the Italian : bandit, banditti.
From the Latin : genus, genera.
From the Hebrew : seraph, seraphim ; cherub, cherubim.
13. The plurals of letters, figures, and signs are
formed by adding the apostrophe and "s." (Impor-tant ! This is the only exception to the statement that" 's" is never used to form the plural of a noun.)
a, a's; w, w's; 3, 3's; 5, 5's; -}-, + 's; &, &'s.
The same rule applies to the plural of words which are
mentioned without regard to the meaning.
and's, if 's, but's, so's. Ex. : He used too many and's in his
composition.
14. Important ! Proper nouns form their plurals
as common nouns do. It is sometimes better to avoida plural proper noun or to pluralize the prefix. Eitheris correct. Examples
:
The Miss Smiths, or, The Misses Smith.
The Joneses. The Browns, There were eight Henrys onthe throne of England (preferable to Henries, which changesthe original name.) Two Johns. Messrs. Smith, Brown andCo. Mesdames Peabody.
Write the singular and plural form of the follow-ing. Use the plural form in sentences
:
show, field, window, ox, box, pony, tableau, cameo, hero,potato, banjo, burro, canto, lasso, piano, solo, alley, valley,
ally, city, calf, leaf, shelf, roof, cliff, sheep, deer, trout, head,x, &, 3, horse-car, court-martial, forget-me-not, man-servant,spoonful, Norman, Brahman, German, Frenchman, talisman,Englishman, Ottoman, Englishwoman, Henry, Caesar, Nero,Mr. "Walker, Mrs. Brown, Miss Clark, cloth, fish, brother, die,
genius, index, penny, shot, alms, measles, news, mathematics,
60
athletics, ashes, wages, radius, bacterium, stratum, phenome-non, larva, nucleus, vertebra, fungus, datum, bacillus, oasis,
curriculum, nebula, alumnus, alumna, terminus, crisis, focus,
analysis, cherub, Monsieur, Madam, bandit.
Arrange the following in two columns, one for the
singular and one for the plural form. Write the cor-
responding singular or plural form if there is one andunderline it.
story, phenomena, hoop, strata, bacterium, heroes, potatoes,
piano, radius, axes, data, valley, woman, enemy, leaf, genius,
scissors, beau, riches, alumnus, ashes, mouse, athletics, m,wages, blackberry, news, chimney, curriculum, larva, bacilli,
measles, vertebrae, crises, fungi, oasis, mathematics, scarf, gas,
chief, butterfly.
Insert the correct forms of the plural in the follow-
ing sentences and underline them.
1. Beautiful (gingham) and (organdie) were desplayed.
2. The (Brown) and (Williams) entertained.
3. The brook is full of (trout).
4. This recipe requires three (cupful) of flour.
5. Two (aid-de-camp) were sent away.
6. There are twelve pages of (Brown) in the directory.
7. There are four (Mary), two (Gladys), and two (Silas)
in this class.
8. Eight (deer) were seen by the party.
9. The leader sent a present of three (sheep).
10. Of all the (story), Anna's was the best.
11. Trees are plentiful in river (valley).
12. Some (bird) build their (nest) in (chimney).
13. For Thanksgiving dinner we had to have two (turkey).
14. Now (woman) are citizens as well as (man).
15. The United States joined the (Ally).
61
16. The (country) of South America have not been fully
explored.
17. There were six (man-of-war) in the harbor.
18. The Boy Scouts held two (court-martial).
19. Four hundred (Knight Templar) were in the parade.
20. He confused his (comma) and (semicolon).
21. In the mountain stream he caught twelve (trout).
22. All (radius) of a circle are equal.
23. (Angle) a, b,, and, c are equal.
24. The men left that part of the campaign to the
(woman).
Exercise 19
THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNSIn English the possessive (genitive) form of a noun
differs from the common form (nominative and objec-
tive) by adding to the singular an apostrophe and "s"
('s) and to the plural either an apostrophe (') or anapostrophe and "s" ('s), according to whether theplural form ends in "s" or not.
The apostrophe originally represented the omission of aletter or letters. The early genitive form of the Anglo-Saxonword "man" was "mannes." This was contracted to "man's."The mannes hat = The man's hat.
The possessive form always indicates that the wordis a modifier of a substantive. It is an adjective in use.It usually indicates possession.
It will be helpful to you to accustom yourself to lift thepencil, pen, or chalk from the writing surface before addingthe "s" to indicate the possessive. Failure to do so makes it
easy to forget to go back and insert the apostrophe. Theapostrophe is a part of the spelling and should be insertedat the proper place when it comes.
62
Study the above and the following statements andapply the principles to your own writing.
A. SINGULAR NUMBERSingular nouns form their possessives by adding
the apostrophe and "s" ('s) to the common form.Example : boy, boy's. The boy's book is torn. "Boy's"corresponds in meaning to the prepositional phrase"of the boy."
Notes.
1. (Optional) Exception: For goodness' sake. The "s" after
the apostrophe is dropped because of the unpleasant sound.
2. Proper nouns follow the regular rule, Dickens'sworks, or Dickens' works. Both are correct. Theformer is, however, preferred. So, Burns'* s poems, orBurns' poems. Ulysses's adventures, or Ulysses'adventures. Be consistent in your use, as a class.
Mark all the possessives in your clippings. Noticethem in your reading. Bring illustrations for dis-
cussion. Have a committee gather the material andreport on it.
3. Compound nouns and similar expressions formtheir possessive by the addition of the proper sign at
the end of the expression: My sister-in-law's home.The King of England's throne. Do not use anybodyelse's pen. I have somebody else's rubbers.
4. The indefinite pronoun "one" forms its posses-sive as a noun does : One's time is limited. (For pos-sessive of pronouns, see Ex. 21.)
5. Usually the possessive form is used only withnouns denoting persons or animals. For inanimateobjects it is usually better to use a correspondingphrase : The color of the book, not the book's color.
G3
There are some exceptions such as the following:
A day's work, a week's pay, two months' vacation, a span's
length, a ship's crew.
6. When two or more nouns are used together to
indicate ownership, make both possessive in form if
the ownership is separate. Make only the last of twoor more nouns possessive to indicate joint ownership.
(a) John's and Mary's exercises.
(b) Lyon and Healy's store.
7. A peculiar construction combines the phraseform with a possessive
:
This is a favorite song of Lucy's. That is a bookof mine.
8. (Optional) For possessive case of gerunds, see
Ex. 21.
Rewrite the following sentences, using the posses-
sive form of the words in parentheses. Make the apos-trophe very distinct. Underline each possessive.
1. (John) hat is torn.
2. Sun spots are caused by disturbances on the (sun)surface.
3. The main character in " (Pilgrim) Progress" is Chris-
tian.
4. Was the bird (Margaret) or (Gladys) ?
5. In this (morning) assembly, we had the most inspir-ing talk we have ever had.
6. Do you like (Dickens) "A Tale of Two Cities"?
7. Some people are willing to die for (conscience) sake.
8. The Annual Staff wants the (editor-in-chief) picturefor the Annual.
9. (Mr. Roberts) classes will meet across the hall.
10. (Louisa and Anna) room is very attractive.
64
11. (Smith and Jones) store is at the corner.
12. The (baby) picture was taken.
13. The (woman) purse was lost.
14. Did you examine the (butterfly) wing?
15. It is a (woman) privilege to change her mind.
B. PLURAL NUMBER(a) If the common form (nominative and objec-
tive) ends in "s," the possessive is formed by addingthe apostrophe alone. Example
:
Boys, boys'. Boys' caps are always being lost.
(b) If the common plural does not end in "s," thepossessive is formed by adding " 's" as in the singular.
Why? Example:Men, men's. Men's clothing is sold here.
In forming the plural possessive of a noun, alwaysmake it plural first. Then add the sign of the pos-sessive.
DECLENSION OF NOUNSSingular Plural Singular Plural
Common(Nom. and girl girls child children
Obj.)
Possess. girl's girls' child's children's
In order to be sure that the student understandsthe meaning of the forms as well as the forms them-selves, it is well to have him use all the forms in sen-
tences and to label them. If he makes errors in his
themes, he should return to this exercise for furtherdrill.
The girl has a pencil. Sing. Nom.The girl's pencil is broken. Sing. Poss.
The girls are happy. Plur. Nom.The girls
7
lockers are on the first floor. Plur. Poss.
65
Write similar sentences with the following andother nouns, as your teacher may direct,
leader, teacher, woman, hero, friend, enemy, student, horse,
soldier, parent, kitten,, citizen.
Review Ex. 17 and 18 if necessary.
In the following use the possessive form and under-
line it:
1. (Miners) lives are always in danger.
2. As he was lame, he had never been able to participate
in (boys) games.
3. (Students) lockers should not be left open.
4. The style of (men) hats changes as often as that of
(women).
5. Do you enjoy looking on at the (children) play-
ground ?
6. (Birds) feathers are used for commercial purposes.
7. He had enclosed a check for two (months) rent.
8. The (men) clothing store was closed on Saturday.
9. (Longfellow) bust is in (Poets) Corner in Westmin-ster Abbey.
10. The (fairies) tasks were unusual.
(ADDITIONAL EXERCISES)Use the correct possessive forms
:
1. (Shakespeare) ("A Midsummer Night) Dream" is
both beautiful and humorous.
2. A (hero) first thought is for his country.
3. The boy saw a (robin) nest.
4. (Beaumont and Fletcher) plays were written in theElizabethan Age.
5. Darius Green tried to make a flying machine after themodel of a (bat) wings.
6G
6. A (secretary) duty is to keep the records.
7. Last (season) styles are still being worn.
8. The place is south of (Mason and Dixon) line.
9. Her summer home is a (three hours) ride from here.
10. I am going away for a (two weeks) vacation.
11. For (mercy) sake, don't let the scraps of paper fall
on the floor.
12. I borrowed a book of (Longfellow).
13. He fell over the (ship) side.
14. We came up to the (water) edge.
15. She took a (four years) course at Vassar.
16. He thought of his (country) welfare first.
17. The (men) banquet was a success.
18. He attended the (Older Brothers) conference.
19. There goes our (girls) basketball team.
20. They all admired (Sidney Carton) character.
21. The (boys) sleds were new.
22. The (merchant) stock contained (men), (women),(girls) and (boys) clothing.
23. The (heroes) wounds were cared for.
24. "We could see the (enemy) guns.
25. (James) example is a good one to follow.
26. The (boys) hats, the (girls) wraps, and the (children)
rubbers were piled in a heap.
27. The (ship) crew were nearly starved when they
reached the island.
28. The high schools are the (people) colleges.
Use the possessive of the following in sentences.
Underline and label for number and case.
hero, enemy, brother, friend, heroes, enemies, fairies, chil-
dren, three years, two months, Keats, fox, woman, women,
67
Ulysses, Xerxes, John and James, anybody else, Peter the
Hermit, Alfred the Great, brother-in-law, Marshall Field &Co.
Exercise 20
CASECase Uses : Chiefly Nominative and Objective.
A. Common uses of the noun in the nominativecase.
1. Subject of verb. The farmer cut the grain.
2. Predicate nominative (at-
tribute or subjective
complement). Webster was an orator.
3. Vocative (independent or
nominative by address). Pupils, do your best.
4. In apposition.
5. Nominative absolute.
(Optional here.)
B. Common uses(accusative) case.
1. Direct object of verb.
(Object complement.)
2. Object of a preposition.
3. In apposition.
Miller, the banker, is the
speaker. ( In apposition
with the subject.)
He is Miller, the banker. (Inapposition with predicate
nominative.)
His father having come, wewent down to dinner.
of the noun in the objective
I read the books.
He received the book from his
father.
I saw Peary, the explorer.
(In apposition with direct
object.)
The medal was given to Jack-son, the pitcher. (In appo-sition with object of prep-osition.)
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(Optional)
4. Subject of infinitive. We believed Henry to be the
leader. (See Ex. 37.)
5. Indirect object. (Also
called dative case.) She gave her son a gift.
6. Adverbial. (Noun used as
adverb.) He ran home.
7. Secondary object. (Objec-
tive complement.) His parents named him Peter.
C. Uses of noun in possessive (genitive) case.
(See Ex. 19.)
For possessive of gerund (optional) see Ex. 21.
Notes.
1. In the sentence, "Pupils, study your lessons,"
the subject is "you" understood. "Pupils" is merelyused to call the attention of those spoken to. It is notthe subject. It is nominative by address.
2. In the predicate nominative construction, the
verb between the subject and the complement is alwayssome form of the verb "to be" or similar verbs (ap-
pear, seem, become, etc.) (See Ex. 30.) In such sen-
tences the subject and predicate nominative refer to
the same person or thing: She is a queen. She seemsa queen. She became a queen.
3. A noun in apposition also means the same personor thing as the noun with which it belongs, but it fol-
lows the noun directly. It is always in the same case
as the noun with which it is in apposition.
For elementary work the most important construc-
tions to master are (1) subject of verb, (2) predicatenominative, (3) direct object, (4) object of preposition,
(5) noun in apposition, (6) possessive modifier, and(7) noun in address.
C>9
In poetry and in other indirect writing the wordsare often inverted from the natural order in English,
which is (1) subject, (2) verb, (3) complement.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONS1. A good student studies his lessons regularly.
student, subject of verb studies,
lessons, direct object of verb studies.
2. Beetles are insects.
beetles, subject of verb are.
insects, predicate nom. with verb are.
3. Frank is the captain of the team.
Frank, subject of verb is.
captain, predicate nom. with verb is.
team, object of preposition of.
4. We saw Pershing, the general.
Pershing, direct object of verb saw.
general, in apposition with Pershing.
5. It is Arthur's turn.
Arthur's, possessive modifier of turn,
turn, predicate nom. with verb is.
6. Children, stop quarreling.
children, independent, nom. by address.
quarreling, direct object of verb stop.
Using the above as examples, point out all thenouns in the following sentences; underline each andexplain its use and case, in the order in which thewords occur:
1. England expects every man to do his duty.
2. The books are lying on the table.
3. Is he not an excellent swimmer?
4. The tall boy seemed the leader.
5. He felt every inch a man.
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Nom. case.
Obj. case.
Nom. case.
Nom. case.
Nom. case.
Nom. case.
Obj. case.
Obj. case.
Obj. case.
Poss. case.
Nom. case.
Nom. case.
Obj. case.
6. His sister was named Alice.
7. The armor on the wall shone brightly in the moonlight.
8. The curfew tolled the knell of parting day.
9. The original of the Great Stone Face is called the OldMan of the Mountain.
10. There is no real conflict between religion and science.
11. Madame Curie, the great scientist, visited America.
12. The two men were complements of each other.
13. Parkman wrote "The Oregon Trail," an account of a
journey to the Great West.
14. Who wrote "Gulliver's Travels"?
15. Lincoln was our most deeply beloved president.
16. John Carver was the first governor of Plymouth Col-
ony.
17. Stanley found Livingstone in the heart of Africa.
18. The armistice having been signed, the fighting ceased.
Exekcise 21
PEONOUNSA pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
KINDS1. Personal,
(a) Simple,
(b) Compound,
(1) Intensive,
(2) Reflexive.
2. Relative.
3. Interrogative. (Optional as special form of
pronoun.)
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4. Demonstrative.
5. Indefinite. (Optional as special form of pro-
noun.)(a) Simple,
(b) Reciprocal.
An antecedent of a pronoun is the noun for whichit is used.
Avoid using pronouns without antecedents.
Usage, however, allows such constructions as "They say."
1. A personal pronoun is one that shows by its
form whether it refers to the speaker (first person),the person spoken to (second person), or the personspoken of (third person).
The declension of the personal pronoun should bemastered. It is given here for ready reference.
First Person.
Nom. I wePoss.
Obj.
my or mine our or oursme us
Second Person.
Common or Modern Form. Ancient, Sacred, andSing, and Plur. Poetical Form.
Nom. you Sing. Plur.Poss. your or yours Nom. thou yeObj. you Poss. thy or thine your or yours
Obj. thee you
Third Person.
Sing. Masc.Nom. hePoss. his
Obj. him
Fern. it Pluralshe Neuter theyher or hers its their or theirs
her it them
Use each of the above in a sentence. Underline thepronoun and classify it as to (1) person, (2) number,and (3) case.
72
Notes.
1. My, thy, her, our, your, and their are possessivepronouns, and are really adjectives in use.
Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are usedwith no noun following. Although indicating posses-sion, they are truly pronouns.
2. It's is not a possessive form of it, but a contrac-
tion of "it is." Similarly you're and they're are not.possessives but merely contractions of "you are" and"they are."
Important! No personal pronoun in the possessive
case is written with an apostrophe.
Correct : Yours truly. Incorrect : Yours truly.
3. The personal pronoun you, even when used in
the singular, always requires a plural verb : You were,not You was.
The reason for this is that originally "you" was a plural
form only. The singular form was "thou."
4. In using together two or more personal pro-nouns of different persons, always place the one in the
second or third person first, and the one in the first
person last
:
You and I. He and I. They and we.
5. Their is really a possessive adjective and mustalways modify a substantive. Distinguish it fromthere, which is an adverb, as in "My book is there," oran expletive as in "There are thirty persons in this
class."
Errors in the use of their should be eradicated bythe help of drill.
6. Them is always a pronoun in the objective case.
As such, it cannot modify a substantive. It cannot
73
take the place of the demonstrative adjectives "these"
and "those." Say "those things," not "them things."
7. Pronouns have all the uses of nouns except that
of adverbial objective. Eeview case uses in Ex. 20.
Never use the objective form for the subject of the
verb or the nominative for the object of a verb orpreposition.
"John and I went," not "John and me . .
"
Say "between you and me," not "between you and I."
Say "He told it to us three," not ".. . to we three."
8. (Optional.) Nouns and pronouns that modifygerunds are considered possessives. (The usage in
some parts of England differs somewhat from ours in
this respect.)
Mother's coming so soon, Not: Mother coming so soonchanged our plans. changed our plans.
He objected to my going. Not : He objected to me going.
9. Do not shift person of the pronoun in the samesentence.
One should do the best one Not: One should do the best
can. you can.
10. The "rhetorical we" should be used sparingly.
Fill in the blanks in the following with the correctform, its or it's
:
1. nearly time to go.
2. a long way to Tipperary.
3. She gave the dog bath.
4. I couldn't see eyes.
5. The quills of the porcupine are defense.
6. too bad wing is broken.
7. Brutus thought that what he was doing was for thegood of Rome and people.
74
8. tail is long and fuzzy.
9. The kitten chased tail.
10. What is name?
11. never too late to mend.
12. The snail carries house on back.
13. never too late to turn over a new leaf.
14. too dark to see color.
15. I have my doubts as to being true.
16. time to go home.
17. almost too late to go across the park.
18. We couldn't estimate value.
19. a good plan to make an outline.
20. Put in an apostrophe wherever necessary.
Fill in the blanks in the following with their, there,
or they're.
1. friends lived over
2. were four men standing at the corner.
3. They forgot to bring : lunch.
4. I believe that not to blame.
5. Is it house that is so beautiful?
6. not a bit accommodating over
7. We asked advice too late.
8. She said she would not be , to-morrow.
9. Coming events cast shadows before them.
10. It was all due to carelessness.
11. were five applicants for the position who had. recommendations with them and all very
young.
12. Not all have handed in papers.
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13. is no need of material.
14. All did best.
15. were fifty policemen in the parade.
16. I never thought of going to you.
17. all too small.
18. Children should have rights.
19. I can't understand motive.
20. not to blame for early training.
Select the correct forms in the following. Give the
reason:
1. (Him, He) and (me, I) went to school together.
2. I don't like (them, those) apples.
3. "(You're, Your) late," he said.
4. (Her, She) and (me, I) went picking flowers.
5. (Was, Were) you surprised to see (you're, your)mother ?
6. They (were, was) having a debate when I entered.
7. It must have been (I, me) ; it couldn't have been (him,
he).
8. Who it it? It is (me, I), (he, him), (her, she), (them,they), (we, us).
9. The book is (hers, her's), (our's, ours), (yours,your's), (their's, theirs).
10. The pupil who did that was (I, me).
Review7 Predicative Nominative, Ex. 20, and Verbs,Ex. 30.
11. She gave the books to Mary and (I, me).
12. If you were (he, him), should you have gone?
13. It might have been (me, I), but I think that you aremistaken.
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14. You are as good as (her, she).
15. It lies between you and (I, me).
16. Is that you, George? Yes, (its, it's) (me, I).
17. I am sure that these books were intended for you and(I, me.)
18. He is happier than (I, me). (See Ex. 46.)
19. I like her brother better than (her, she).
20. It must have been (we, us) you saw.
21. When she asked who was there, a voice answered, "It
is (me, I)."
22. All knew their lessons but (I, me).
23. He was going with Bill and (me, I).
24. I didn't know you (was, were) going.
25. Between you and (I, me),, I think that she should go.
26. Will you please lend me (them, those) books'?
27. She did not refer to (us, we) girls at all.
28. It happened when you (was, were) away.
29. I am sure it was (they, them).
30. He thought them to be (we, us). (See Ex. 37.)
31. You may have seen two boys, but it wasn't (us, we).
32. These are (them, they) that came out of great tribu-
lation.
33. If I were (he, him), I wouldn't go.
34. They named a few of us: Bill, Harry, and (I, me).
35. Several of us were late: Dick, Tom, and (me, I).
36. Is anyone as wise as (thee, thou), Chief?
37. It wasn't (me, I) who did it; it was (him, he).
38. Who is there? It's (me, I), (he, him), (she, her),
(they, them), (us, we).
39. All went except (he, him), (she, her), (them, they),
(us, we).
40. No one spoke to (we, us) children about it.
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Possessive Case of Gerunds. (Optional.)
Copy, underline the correct forms, and be able to
justify your choice. (See Ex. 37.)
1. I hadn't heard of (his, him) coming.
2. He thought that (them, their) being late was abso-
lutely inexcusable.
3. There is no use in (your, you) making such a fuss
about the matter.
4. It all depended on the (messenger, messenger's) get-
ting there in time.
5. If you do not see the reason for this requirement, there
is no use in (me, my) explaining it any further.
6. The success of the machine depends on (its, it) beingin good condition.
7. Do you object to (us, our) playing on the piano?
8. There is no danger of (him, his) being late.
9. No one thought of (him, his) coming so unexpectedly.
10. Much depends on (you, your) understanding the
grammatical relation of the words.
11. His sister and I were distressed about (his, him)going.
12. I never heard of (his, him) doing anything cowardly.
13. What sense is there in a (boy, boy's) losing his
temper ?
Exercise 22
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS(Optional)
A personal pronoun combined with the word "self"
(plural "selves") forms a compound personal pronoun.Examples: myself, ourselves; yourself, yourselves;himself, herself, itself, and themselves. Note that nohyphen is used.
78
These forms cannot stand alone as the subject of averb. They are used either as intensives, as in "I my-self will correct the papers," or as reflexives, as in "I
hurt myself."
Write sentences using all of the above pronounscorrectly.
Such forms as "ourn," "yourn," "hisn," "hern," "theirn,"
"theirselves," "itsself," and "hisself," are not permissible.
In the following use the correct form. Underlineeach and classify it as to case and use.
1. I am afraid that he will hurt (himself, hisself) withthat knife.
2. Three boys and (I, myself) went camping.
3. There were four boys present: Dick, Bert, Fred, and(myself, I).
4. The invitation was extended to my family and (me,myself)
.
5. Five others in the class and (myself, I) were dismissed.
6. (Yourself, You) and your family are cordially invited
to attend.
7. Another girl and (I, myself) went to the Art Institute.
8. The boys made the arrangements for the debate(theirselves, themselves).
9. She invited Sarah and (myself, me) to go.
10. "We do not like to exert (us, ourselves) in warmweather.
Exercise 23
RELATIVE PRONOUNSA relative pronoun is one that joins the clause in
which it occurs to its antecedent. The clause is calleda relative clause.
79
A compound relative pronoun is a relative pronouncombined with "ever" or "soever."
The relative pronouns are as follows : ivho, which,
that, what, as, and but.
1. The boy who borrowed the book returned it.
2. There I saw my father, who was glad to see me.
3. The sentence which I mean is the first one on the page.
4. Her hands, which were very white, were small.
5. The house that you referred to has been painted re-
cently.
6. I know what I can do. (what = that which.)
7. This is such a day as we all wanted.
8. Hers is the same as his.
9. There is no man but has his good qualities.
The relative pronoun "who" is declined as follows,
there being no change for number.
Nominative : who.
Possessive : whose.
Objective : whom.
The relative pronoun "who'' refers mainly to per-
sons, "which" to animals or things, and "that" to per-sons, animals, or things. Be consistent in your use of"which" and "that" in the same sentence or paragraph.
The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in
gender, person, and number, but not necessarily in
case
:
This is he whom you mentioned.
In the above sentence, does or does not "whom"agree with its antecedent in case?
The relative pronouns "which" and "what" may beused as adjectives:
80
I did not know which one you meant.
We don't know what reason he gave.
The relative pronoun may have the following uses
in clauses
:
1. Subject of verb
:
Who steals my purse steals
trash.
2. Direct object: I know whom I have believed.
3. Predicative nominative : This is not what I thought it
was.
4. Possessive modifier: The parent whose son has dis-
obeyed him feels grieved.
5. Object of preposition : I did not know of whom he wasspeaking.
DESCEIPTIVE AND DETERMINATIVECLAUSES
(Optional.) (See Ex. 3.)
Just as adjectives are descriptive or limiting, so
are adjectival clauses.
The determinative (restrictive) clause is the onewhich makes exactly known. This is the clause whichtells who, what, or which is meant by the antecedentto which the relative clause is attached. It is like a bigdemonstrative adjective. It is closely connected to
what it modifies and is necessary to indicate or point
out definitely who or what is meant. Examples
:
He is a boy who always does well.
This is the one whom I meant.
The descriptive (non-restrictive) clause is in effect
a big descriptive adjective. Example
:
Walter, who is frank, is a better companion than Roy,who is not.
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The descriptive clause always adds something. It
could he omitted without essentially changing the mainthought of the sentence.
The determinative clause is not set off by commas.The descriptive clause is set off by commas.
In all the foregoing illustrations and in the follow-
ing sentences, point out the relative pronouns. Tell
which words they modify. Explain the constructionof the relative pronouns in the sentence. Are the rela-
tive clauses restrictive or non-restrictive?
1. She gave the most attention to those who she thoughtneeded it most.
2. This is the best quality that you can buy.
3. Whom do you think that the picture resembles?
4. She didn't know whom to vote for.
5. The question of who should be leader arose.
6. I know who wrote that poem.
7. The one who comes first should be served first.
8. Tennyson, once England's Poet Laureate, polished his
work carefully.
9. Lowell, who was a prolific writer, could not bear to
read over his writings,
10. The Smith that I know is related to the Brown thatyou know.
In the following select between the pronouns givenand state reasons for your choice
:
1. The Black Knight relied upon the horse, (which, who)knew the road better than he.
2. The friend (which, whom) I expected to find is nothere.
3. He dealt with a firm (which, who) does an extensivebusiness.
82
4. An author (that, which) I enjoy very much is MarkTwain.
5. She gave the gift to the boy (who, what) brings the
mail.
6. The three orators to (which, whom) he referred were
Daniel "Webster, Patrick Henry, and Henry Clay.
7. There are some people (which, who) never save any
money.
Exekcise 24
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNSThe interrogative pronouns are used in asking
questions. They are : who, which, and ivhat.
Be careful to distinguish between "which" and"what" as interrogative pronouns and as interrogative
adjectives.
Who are you ? Interrogative pronoun.
Which do you want ? Interrogative pronoun.
What did they do ? Interrogative pronoun.
Which book did you say ? Interrogative adjective.
What time is it ? Interrogative adjective.
"Who" is used only of persons, "what" only of
things, and "which" either of persons or of things.
"Which" and "what" are uninfiected. "Which." is
used as singular and plural, nominative and objective.
"What" is used for both cases, but is always singular.
They have no possessive case.
The interrogative pronoun "who" is defined as therelative pronoun "who" is. The forms are: who,whose, whom.
Be able to distinguish between these words used asinterrogative pronouns and as relative pronouns. Asthe latter, they always introduce subordinate clauses.
The construction of the interrogative pronoun in
an interrogative sentence may be found by changingthe order around:
Whom did you see! = You did see whom?
Interrogative pronouns are used in indirect ques-
tions. The latter are always noun clauses.
Indirect question. Direct.
They asked who we were. They asked, "Who are you?"
Underline the interrogative pronouns in the follow-
ing. Give the construction of each.
Do not fail to put an interrogation point (question
mark) at the close of an interrogative sentence. Fail-
ure to do so usually means carelessness, such as failing
to place periods, to dot the i's, etc. Such errors shouldbe discovered by reading over a theme or exercise be-
fore handing it in.
1. "Who shall ascend unto the hill of the Lord?
2. Whom did you see there ?
3. Who do men say that I am ?
4. Whom did Charlie go to see?
5. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole worldand lose his soul?
6. Whose is this?
7. Who is the speaker of the house?
8. Which can he mean?
9. To whom are you speaking?
10. What is your name?
11. What are the Ten Commandments?
12. Whom did you see ?
13. Who do you think I am ?
84
14. Who did you think it was ?
15. Who do you think wrote this letter?
16. Who do you think will take her over?
17. Whom do you think I visited this summer ?
18. Whom do you believe that stranger to be ?
19. Whom do you suppose I saw today?
Exercise 25
USE OF "WHO" AND "WHOM"Eemember that "who" is always in the nominative
case and "whom" is always in the objective case.
Fill the blanks with the proper form in the follow-
ing sentences. Give its use in the sentence
:
1. We met Mr. and Mrs. White, we found to bedelightful people.
2. The boy asked if I knew he was .
3. They sent the invitation to all they thoughtwould come.
4. We were disagreed as to would make the
best president of our club.
5. One day during his visit to Sir Roger, he met an old
hag Sir Roger said was a witch.
6. I don't know to believe.
7. They were undecided about should go first.
8. I did not know he was until later.
9. did they invite?
10. These are the visitors we said were coming.
11. We suspected those we knew had bad records.
12. The other day I met a boy I thought was you.
13. do you mean?
14. did you think he meant ?
15. do you think it was?
85
Exercise 26
DEMONSTRATIVE AND INDEFINITEPRONOUNS
The demonstrative pronouns are used for the pur-
pose of pointing out. They are the following
:
Singular: this, that.
Plural: these, those.
This is the house the Jack built.
That is what I call studying.
These are the leaders.
Those cannot be mine.
If these words are used to modify substantives,
they become demonstrative adjectives.
Pronouns. Adjectives.
This is mine. This book is mine.
That is yours. That pencil is red.
These are the best. These flowers are pretty.
Those belong to me. Those apples are sour.
A pronoun not referring definitely to any partic-
ular person or thing is called an indefinite pronoun.
The following are commonly used
:
all each many one another (of moreany each other (of two) much other than two)another either naught severalanybody every none someaught few no one some oneboth little one such
If these are used to modify substantives, they be-come indefinite adjectives.
Any, any one, each, either, every, and neither arealways singular. They mean any one, each one, etc.
86
Pronouns that refer to them as antecedents are singu-
lar in number.
A very common error is the use of the plural pro-
nouns "they," "their," and "them" with single in-
definite pronouns as their antecedents. Every highschool student should train himself to overcome this
bad speech habit if he has it.
Sometimes in order to avoid saying "his or her,"
when it is awkward, or to avoid using "his" to include
both sexes, it is better to avoid the singular construc-
tion.
"All students should have their work done on time"is sometimes better than to say, "Every student shouldhave his or her work done on time."
Be consistent in the use of pronouns. Do not shift
from one person to another in the same sentence.
Faulty. Improved.
One can never tell when you One can never tell when onewill be called on to face a will be called on to face a
crisis. crisis.
The masculine pronouns he, his, and him are reg-
ularly used in a generic sense to include both sexes.
He is the best student who is diligent in his studies.
Write sentences using as subjects all the indefinite
pronouns given above, and in these sentences also usepersonal pronouns to refer to these indefinite pro-nouns. Justify the form you used.
Use them all in sentences as indefinite adjectives.
Write the following, using the correct form. Givereason.
1. Each must do (his, their) very best.
2. Every one of you (is, are) eligible.
87
3. Every one (are, is) asked to bring (his, their) owncopy.
4. Neither of the boys (were, was) able to go.
5. Each of them went quietly to (their, his) own home.
6. Every one said that (they, he) would volunteer.
7. Neither Margaret nor Helen brought (her, their)
music.
8. (Have, Has) every one received (his, their) wages?
9. No one but George and Stewart (were, was) absent.
10. Everybody in the room must do (his, their) own work.
11. In our house every one gets (his, their) own breakfast.
12. Every one at some time finds (himself, themselves) in
a place where (he, they) (have, has) to make an importantchoice.
13. Every one of you (is, are) responsible for the spirit
of the school.
14. He is a man who calls everything by (their, its) right
name.
15. Everybody in the world (has, have) (their, his) faults.
16. If anybody (doesn't, don't) know what to do, (he,
they) should inquire.
17. When any one goes camping, (they, he) should take
plenty of bedding.
18. Neither the lawyer nor the physician gave (his, their)
services.
19. Each one wore (his, their) best clothes.
20. When anybody tried to peek, Darius Green would let
a dipper full of water fly in (their, his) face.
21. Everybody is responsible for (their, his) influence on(his, their) associates.
22. Neither Ruth nor Marie (have, has) (their, her)wraps.
23. One can never know how much (he, they) can ac-
complish until (he. they) (try, tries).
24. Every one stopped what (he, they) (was, were) doing
to look and listen.
Exekcise 27
EEVIEW OF PRONOUNSPoint out all the pronouns. Underline them.
' Classify them as to kind and use.
1. Those who come first will get the best seats.
2. The tailor that lived on Clark Street has moved.
3. With whose permission did he advertise the play?
4. Who gives himself with his alms feeds three,
Himself, his hungering neighbor, and me.
5. I have no ink;please give me some.
6. "God save thee, Ancient Mariner,From the fiends that plague thee thus
!
"Why look'st thou so?" "With my crossbowI shot the Albatross."
7. What is the name of that flower?
8. Give me what you have in your hand.
9. Give me both.
10. That is what I asked you.
11. I want both or neither.
12. Take heed that ye do not your alms before me, to beseen of them.
13. Which do you prefer, the red or the blue ?
14. Please give me some.
15. Rudyard Kipling, whom Americans at first disliked
because he criticised them severely, has since received deservedrecognition.
16. Neither of these answers is right.
89
17. "What does "Many are called, but few are chosen"
mean?
18. She gave it to whoever wanted it.
19. How happy is he born and taught
That serveth not another's will;
Whose armor is his honest thought,
And simple truth his utmost skill.
20. What are you laughing at ?
21. Whosoever will may come.
22. Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of
these.
23. Whom shall we invite ?
24. We shall do whatever seems best.
REVIEWIn the following pick ont all the pronouns and give
all the grammatical facts about them that you can
:
(1) Life must be for you a strange mixture of joys andsorrows. (2) You cannot expect every moment of it to bepleasant. (3) In fact, no one can hope to obtain for himself
only the sweets and none of the bitters in this, our earthly
existence. (4) What would be the object of desiring such anexistence? (5) Who does not desire contrasts? (6) That is
a barren life that is always on one level. (7) How monot-onous it would be for anybody ! ( 8 ) Joys, sorrows—of suchare these days of ours. (9) Meet them, the joys and sorrowsof your days, as one meets friends, all helpful, each aidingyou and me in such ways as we may not yet understand. (10)He who smilingly accepts the day as it is will know more ofthe sweet than of the bitter.
Exekcise 28
ADJECTIVES: KINDSAn adjective is a word that modifies a substantive.
90
Descriptive.
Common: A strong man.
Proper: An American citizen.
Limiting.
Article.
Definite : The house.
Indefinite : A verb. An adverb.
Prenominal.
Possessive: My, thy, his, her, its, your, their
house.
Demonstrative: This, that book; these, those
books.
Interrogative: Which problem? What time 1
Relative : Which, whose, what. (See Ex. 23.)
Indefinite: Some, every, each, any, no, both, etc.
(See Ex. 26.)
Numeral.
Cardinal : Four hours.
Ordinal : The fourth time.
Degree of Adjectives
Positive
:
high joyous
Comparative : higher more joyous
Superlative
:
highest most joyous
Use each of the above adjectives in sentences andadd one more of each kind in a sentence. Underlineand classify each kind.
Phrases and clauses may be used as adjectives.
Grammatically adjective phrases and clauses have the
value of a single word.
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The tall trees are in the forest. Adjective.
The trees in the forest are tall. Adjective phrase.
The trees which are in the forest are tall. Adjective clause.
"This" and "that" are singular. "These" and
"those" are plural. It is not, therefore, correct to say
"these" or "those" hind or sort.
Correct form
:
I like this kind of apple. I like these apples.
They are fond of that sort of books. They are fond of
those books.
USES OF ADJECTIVESAdjectives and participles (See Ex. 37) may be
used in three relations to substantives
:
1. Adherent : The tall tree was cut down.
2. Appositive : The tree, tall and straight, was cut
down.
3. Predicate: The tree was tall.
1. It is a very common fault to fail to capitalize
proper adjectives.
The American people, not the american people.
He had studied the English, French, and Latinlanguages.
2. Compound adjectives composed of a noun modi-fied by an adjective require the hyphen to show the
adjective relation. Example : "A two-year course." If
written separately, the words would mean a two courseand a year course. Distinguish this form from that in
"a two years' course." Either is correct.
A three-mile track. A ten-inning game.
3. As a matter of usage, overworked and undigni-fied words such as lovely, great, stvell, classy, cute,
92
nifty, wonderful, nice, etc., are objectionable. Try to
find in their place adjectives that really express the
exact shade of meaning. Like the nse of slang, the useof such expressions usually indicates poverty of vocab-
ulary. Have a class committee report on this subject.
4. The forms of the verb "to be" and other copula-
tives (seem, appear, become, feel, taste, etc.) require
as complements adjectives and not adverbs. (See Ex.
44.)
"She feels timid," not "She feels timidly."
5. Real is an adjective, not an adverb. It is an error
in grammar as well as in good usage to say, "I was real
tired" for "I was very tired." Correct use of real:
"The lace was real."
Point out and classify all the adjectives in the fol-
lowing sentences. Tell what they modify. Includeadjective phrases and clauses.
1. Many hands make light work.
2. No one was to blame.
3. We saw twenty submarines.
4. Such books should not be published.
5. Whichever road he takes, he will get there in an hour.
6. Yonder elm tree marks the spot where Washingtontook command of the American army.
7. Both suggestions were unwise.
8. I like this kind of poem.
9. Many a man has earned his bread by the sweat of his
brow.
10. She planned to take a European trip.
Write a list of descriptive adjectives taken fromyour clippings. Consult a dictionary and find goodsubstitutes for each of these.
93
Change some of the adjectives in your list into ad-
jective phrases or adjective clauses.
Exercise 29
ARTICLESAn article is one kind of limiting adjective. (See
Ex. 28.)
"A" is used before a word beginning with a conson-
ant sound: A horse, a book, a garden, a humble ro-
mance, a union, a university.
"An" is used before a word beginning with a vowelsound: An adjective, an adverb, an heir, an hour, anorator, an aeroplane.
What is the meaning of the following!
1. They had a blue and white banner.
2. They had a blue and a white banner.
3. She had a black and white parasol.
4. We saw the secretary and treasurer of the club.
5. We saw the secretary and the treasurer of the club.
Study your clippings to see how the use of thearticle changes the meaning.
Using "a" for "an" is an error most frequently dueto carelessness.
Train yourself to enunciate distinctly. This shouldhelp. Careless students should be required to do exer-cises like the following one.
Copy, underlining the correct form.
1. He is (a, an) officer in the R. 0. T. C.
2. Have you ever seen (a, an) aeroplane?
3. (An, A) adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun.
94
4. It was just the night for (a, an) initiation.
5. (A, An) unmarried woman is addressed as Madamwhen she is acting as chairman.
6. We were fortunate in meeting (a, an) artist.
7. Diogenes was searching for (an, a) honest man.
8. Once I had (a, an) interesting experience with wasps.
9. Do you know what (an, a) ostrich eats?
10. Every morning she eats (a, an) orange.
11. It is a great privilege to get (a, an) university
education.
12. It was (a, an) union of nations.
13. That was (a, an) heroic deed.
14. There she was, under (a, an) arbor.
15. The broken glass almost cut (a, an) artery.
16. They came in (a, an) automobile.
17. Every student should feel that it is (a, an) honor to
belong to the scholarship society.
18. He found (a, an) old automobile tire.
19. Then we had (a, an) automobile ride.
20. She knew (a, an) herb that would cure that.
Exercise 30
VERBSA verb is a word that asserts.
Kinds of Verbs.
Transitive
:
He read the book.
Cats catch mice.Intransitive.
Complete
:
He plays beautifully.
They play for pleasure.
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Linking
:
They are happy.
(Incomplete or
copulative) They became happy.
Conjugation.
Eegular
:
hop, hopped, hopped.hope, hoped, hoped.
Irregular
:
swim, swam, swum.come, came, come.
Progressive
:
I am going. I was coming.
Interrogative
:
Are you going1=You are
going.
Negative
:
I am not going.
Emphatic
:
He does study.
Person and Number. Singular. Plural
First: go go
Second
:
go go
Third
:
goes go
Voice.
Active
:
The boy built the boat.
Passive
:
The boat was built by the
boy.Mood.
Indicative
:
I am going to-morrow.
Imperative
:
Rewrite these exercises.
Subjunctive
:
If I were he, I should go.
The modal forms are always predicative. Theyassert. Verbals do not. (See Ex. 37.)
Verbs : Kinds
A verb that indicates action as passing from a doerto the object affected is known as a transitive verb
:
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1. The man beat the carpet.
2. John hoed the beans.
3. The lightning struck the tree.
4. The boy trained his dog.
5. Robert made a model of an aeroplane.
A verb that denotes action, being, or state of being,
that concerns or involves only the subject, is known as
an intransitive verb
:
1. Water freezes.
2. The ball rolls.
3. The wind blows lightly.
4. The wind is blowing.
5. Lions roar.
A transitive verb has a direct object. An intransi-
tive verb has not.
Use the following verbs in sentences. Which of
them have you used as transitive verbs, and which as
intransitive verbs? Which could have been either!find, ran, sailed, grow, break, will study, froze, talked, said,
build, run, write, fly, hit, lift, showed.
Write a list of twenty verbs taken from your clip-
pings. State whether they are transitive or intransi-
tive. Point out the direct objects.
(See Ex. 2.)
Linking Verbs
The verb "to be" and its forms are of very greatimportance. This verb is the backbone of all Aryanlanguages. You will rind its equivalent in Latin,
French, Spanish, German, etc. In any selection or set
of exercises, note the verbs to see how many of themare forms of "to be." Do this for Ex. '2.
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It is important to learn all the forms of the small
but very commonly nsed word, "to be."
Forms of Verb "To Be."
Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense.
I am We are I was We were I shall be We shall be
You are You are You were You were You will be You will be
He is They are He was They were He will be They will be
Present Perfect Tense. Past Perfect Tense.
I have been We have been I had been We had been
You have been You have been You had been You had been
He has been They have been He had been They had been
Future Perfect Tense.
I shall have been We shall have beenYou will have been You will have beenHe will have been They will have been
The verb "to be" is a pure or linking verb. It doesnot in itself express action, etc., but it enables ns to
make an assertion: (1) The carpenter is industrious.
(2) The carpenter is working. (3) A tornado is aviolent storm.
As this verb is merely a connective, it is sometimescalled a copula. If such a verb were omitted, the groupof words would fail to be a sentence. Such a verbrequires a complement to complete its meaning. Henceit is sometimes called an incomplete verb. The comple-ment may be a predicate adjective, as in (1) above.(See Ex. 44.) It may be a part of the verb, as in (2)above. (See Ex. 33.) It may be a substantive, as in
(3) above. (See Ex. 8.)
Most verbs in addition to asserting name an attri-
bute, usually an action attribute. The boy ran = Theboy was running.
The forms of "to be" require that the complementbe in the same case as the subject : (1) This is he. (2)
He believed him to be me.
Some other verbs that act similarly and require the
same kind of complement are the following
:
Seem, become, appear, look, feel, taste, grow, turn,
smell, etc.
Write sentences using these as copulative verbs.
They differ from the verb "to be" and its forms in that
they have some special meaning of their own.
In the following sentences state whether the verbsare transitive, intransitive, or linking. Point out the
subjects and the complements.
1. I broke my pen.
2. The clouds broke and disappeared.
3. He lifted a hundred pounds.
4. Before ten o'clock the fog lifted.
5. His uniform showed conspicuously.
6. The boy flew the kite.
7. He won the race.
8. Ostriches run rapidly.
9. He walked the horse up the grade.
10. It is good exercise to walk briskly.
11. The boy grew rapidly.
12. The farmer grew potatoes in his front yard.
13. We shall sail to-morrow.
14. The boy caught ten fish.
15. Misery loves company.
16. She writes beautifully.
17. They are going to-morrow.
99
18. Where are you going?
19. The father could trust his son.
20. The judges announced the decision,
21. Our team won the debate.
22. His automobile runs smoothly.
23. Man is a living organism.
24. The laborer dug the ditch.
25. That was John.
26. I saw him.
27. The full moon rises early.
28. The young man repaired the automobile.
29. Where is your cap ?
30. He stands a man.
31. He went out a mate ; he came back a captain.
32. She moves a queen.
33.. He appeared the leader.
Exercise 31
VERBS: THE PRINCIPAL PARTSSome verbs form their past tense and past parti-
ciple by adding "d" or "ed" to the present tense.
Principal Parts.
Present. Past. Past Participle. Present Participle.
help helpedhope hopedhop hopped
helpedhopedhopped
helpinghopinghopping
1. I help now. I helped yesterday. I have helped.
2. They hope now. They hoped yester-
day.
They have hoped.
3. Birds hop. The birds hopped.
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The birds have hop-ped.
Such verbs are said to be regular. They are also
called weak verbs.
Participles are words that are formed from verbsand express action, but do not assert. They are called
verbals and must never be confused with true verbs,
which always assert.
The forms given above are called the PrincipalParts of verbs. The form of the past participle is usedwith "have" and its forms to indicate action completedin past time. It is used with forms of the verb "to be"for the forms of the passive voice. (See Ex. 35.)
Besides the above forms, another form is often
used. It is the present participle, which is formed byadding "ing" to the form of the present tense. It is
used with forms of the verb "to be" in the progressiveform of verbs, which indicates action as progressingor going on:
He is helping, hoping, hopping, etc.
(See Ex. 37.)
It is important to learn the correct way to form the
past, past participle, and present participle of a verbfrom the form of the present tense. There are helpful
rules for spelling these forms. Add others to the list
given above and note the changes in spelling.
Note : The verbs "pay," "say," and "lay" differ from otherverbs in not adding "ed" but in changing the "y" to "i" andadding "d."
Give the principal parts of "try," "study,""modify."
Note other words of this sort.
Give the principal parts and the present participleof the following
:
101
Raise, ask, show, heat, flee, leap, flow, light, hang, wake,
bid, call, love, burn, jump, spell, spill, sweep, teach, work,
avoid, burst, drown.
Look up doubtful ones in your Grammar or in yourdictionary.
Write a number of these in sentences. Underlinethe "ed" in the past tense and past participle if youhave been in the habit of omitting it carelessly. Care-ful enunciation will help you to overcome this fault.
"I helped my mother yesterday," not ''I help mymother yesterday."
Select twenty verbs that give trouble in that way.Use them in sentences.
Write the following with the correct form of thepast tense or past participle
:
1. We (heat) the water.
2. John (show) us where to go.
3. The teacher (ask) a question.
4. Our friends (avoid) us when they had seen us.
5. I (work) hard all day yesterday.
6. Then a band of warriors (capture) the city.
7. Tom and Maggie (go) down together and were(drown).
8. We first (ask) the farmer's permission and then we(gather) the apples.
9. Mary (show) her sister how to do the problem.
10. The horse (jump) over the fence.
Irregular Verbs
A verb that indicates past action by changing inter-
nally is called an irregular or a strong verb. Someverbs combine the two ways of indicating past action
and are called mixed verbs.
102
The following are verbs that are often used incor-
rectly. Add to these others that you have misused or
heard others misuse. Look up in your Grammar those
of which you are doubtful.
See, say, do, go, run, come, begin, ring, sing, drink, shrink,
draw, swim, blow, break, burst,, heat, grow, ride, shine, show,
slay, speak, strive, throw, write, forget, freeze, fly, flee, flow,
get, bid (to command), strike (to deal blows), strike (to suffer
misfortune), light, hang (to suspend), hang (to execute), bid
(at auction), lose, choose, lead.
Use the above in sentences to show their correct use.
Note that auxiliary verbs are never used with the
past tense, but must always be used with the pastparticiple
:
"Have run/' "have come/' "have seen," not "haveran/' "have came," "have saw."
"I came," "I said," "I did," "I saw," not "I come,""I says," "I done," "I seen."
The following are verbs only: did, went, broke,took, rang, ought, wrote, saw.
The following are verbals only: done, seen, taken.
(They require an auxiliary.)
The word "got" is not an auxiliary.
Say, "He was married," not "got married."
The incorrect, slangy form "bust" is often used as a regu-lar form instead of the form "burst," which changes its formonly as a present participle.
For "lie," "lay," "sit," "set," "rise," "raise," etc.,
see Ex. 38.
Some verbs state distinct meanings of their ownand are not used to help other verbs.
Example : I invited my friend.
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A verb that helps to express the meaning of other
verbs is called an auxiliary verb. It is used to help to
make up certain forms of mood, tense, and voice.
Some verbs are deficient in some of their parts.
Such are "can (could)/' "may (might)," "shall
(should)," "will (would)," "must," and "ought."
These are called defective verbs. They have no infin-
itive or participle, and no imperative mood. Theyform no compound tenses. They are also used as
auxiliaries.
The following verbs are also sometimes used ashelpers with other verbs to form verb phrases
:
Be, do, and have, and their forms.
Note : Some of the above are not always used as auxiliary
verbs. Note especially "have," "do," and "be."
In using "have" as an auxiliary, be sure to enunciate dis-
tinctly: "I would have gone," not "I would of gone."
In the following point out the verb phrases and theauxiliaries. Eeview Ex. 2 and Ex. 9.
1. What are you doing?
2. I must have been mistaken.
3. The horses are running away.
4. Where in the world can he be?
5. The letter had been opened.
6. Walter has never been tardy.
7. I couldn't see her reason for disobeying the rule.
8. I might have gone if I had known it in time.
9. They have neglected their duty.
10. Some birds have interesting nests.
11. Don't you know the rules of the game?
12. I do like frankness when it isn't rudeness.
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13. He had already finished his problem.
14. He ought not to have gone.
15. I can promise you a good time.
Supply the proper form, past or past participle, of
the indicated verb
:
1. The chorus (sing) two numbers.
2. He (say) he couldn't go.
3. The river (flow) swiftly.
4. The visitors (come) into the room quietly.
5. They have (choose) their partners.
6. The captain (lead) his troops on to victory.
7. He (say) he had not (do) it.
8. The teacher (begin) the dictation slowly.
9. The child (burst) the balloon.
10. My pen is (break).
11. The explorer had (freeze) his hands.
12. They had (drink) all the water.
13. We (watch) the bubble as it (burst).
14. The prisoners (flee) by night.
15. It was not I who (do) it.
16. She felt better when she had (drink) a cup of hot tea.
17. He (say) he had just (finish) the book.
18. I had (swim) across the tank.
19. He (say) that he wouldn't do it.
20. The water-pipes (burst) when we had zero weather.
21. I (see) her when she (do) it.
22. He (begin) to wonder where he was.
23. He had hardly (begin) to recite when the bell (ring).
105
24. The pupils' work was (do) well.
25. He had (lead) his squad on a hike.
26. The fine piece of china was (break).
27. Did you see who (do) it?
28. I've never (see) her.
29. His arm was (break) when he (crank) the machine.
30. I (see) my duty and I (do) it.
31. Nathan Hale was (hang) at sunrise.
32. His picture was (hang) in the art gallery.
33. His sickness could not, have been caused by the waterhe (drink), for we had (drink) from that stream before.
34. Her mother (bid) her sit still.
35. That was very well (draw).
Exeecise 32
VERBS : PERSON AND NUMBERVerbs are said to be in the Singular or Plural Num-
ber according as the subject is singular or plural. Theyare in the First, Second, or Third Person, according to
whether the subject is in the first, second, or third per-son. (See Ex. 21.)
A few verbs are used impersonally. (See Ex. 2.)
There are several forms in which errors frequentlyoccur.
The verb "to be" changes its form in the presenttense for person, in the singular number, in all threepersons.
Most verbs change only in the third person, singu-lar number, in the present tense. Note the following:
I am We are I run I study 1 try I doYou are You are You run You study You try You doHe is They are He runs He studies He tries He does
106
Write the forms of the past tense of these verbs.
(See Ex. 39.)
In the above forms the pronouns are not a part of the verb,
but are given to show how the form of the subject affects the
form of the verb. The form "he" is used for convenience.
In its place might be written "she," "it," or the name of anyperson or thing used as subject.
Note that "yon" always takes a plural verb.
Errors frequently occur in the use of "don't" and"doesn't."
I do I do not, or don't
You do You do not, or don't
He does He does not, or doesn't
We do We do not, or don't
You do You do not, or don't
They do They do not, or don't
The forms "does" and "doesn't" are the forms of
the third person, singular number. To say, "he, she,
it don't" or "Don't he, she, it?" is to mix the person andnumber.
Avoid the ignorant error of adding "es" to form thethird person singular, instead of "s" in a verb like
"show."
"He shows temper," not "He showes temper."
Use in sentences, in the present tense, the third per-son singular form of the following
:
Study, do, say, drag, drop, try, pay.
A verb must agree with its subject in person andnumber. Note the following points in the correctionof errors
:
1. A compound noun requires a plural verb.
107
2. A collective noun requires a singular verb if the
group is considered as a whole, but a plural verb if the
individuals are thought of separately. (See Ex. 15.)
3. The pronoun "you" always requires a plural
verb.
4. The title of a book, even though it looks plural,
is considered singular.
5. Some nouns are so closely associated that theyhave become regarded as one and require a singular
verb.
6. Two nouns joined by "either" or "neither" re-
quire a singular verb.
7. A word is not made plural by adding suchphrases as "along with," "in addition to," "as well as,"
etc.
8. The fact that a plural noun immediately pre-
cedes a verb, does not necessarily make the verb plural.
9. "Don't" means "do not." The subject must notbe in the third person singular.
10. All distributive adjectives or pronouns make asingular verb necessary. Review Ex. 26.
11. A fraction is considered as singular.
12. A sum of money is considered as singular.
Examples:
1. Mary and John are here.
2. A ball and socket form a joint.
3. I didn't know you were going.
4. "Tales of a Traveller," by Irving, contains interestingstories of adventure.
5. His food and drink was little enough.
108
6. Neither John nor James was able to go.
7. The captain, along with a thousand men, is crossing
the river.
8. Mr. Jones with his boys is going on a fishing trip.
9. Let him alone ; he doesn't know any better.
10. Everybody was ready at the appointed time.
11. Two-thirds of nine is six.
12. A thousand dollars is the initial cost.
Copy and underline the correct forms in the follow-
ing. Give reasons. Point out agreement of subject
with predicate. (See Ex. 15.)
1. There (has, have) been several quarrels between herand (I, me).
2. John as well as his sisters (are, is) going.
3. Neither he nor I (are, is) going. (Study usage of best
writers on this point.)
4. The sum of ten dollars (was, were) set aside for inci-
dental expenses.
5. There (are, is) some general rules about the agreementof verbs with (there, their) subjects that every one shouldmaster.
6. The soldier's name is recorded; then (follow, follows)
his age and address.
7. More than one (has, have) complained about the longassignments.
8. One of her tonsils (are, is) sore.
9. Five times three (are, is) fifteen.
10. A fleet of fifty submarines (was, were) seen.
11. Such courage and bravery (are, is) not often seen.
109
12. Bread and milk (are, is) a perfect food for children.
13. There (was, were) no fires following this wreck.
14. The class (is, are) anxious to make a good record.
15. Parts of this theme (is, are) very bad.
16. As there (is, are) no sidewalks, we had to walk on the
streets.
17. There (go, goes) the heroes.
18. The class (is, are) sending a note of congratulation.
19. The public generally (was, were) invited.
20. There (was, were) a hundred boys at the camp.
21. One of the boys (was, were) guilty.
22. Three-fifths of twenty (is, are) twelve.
23. He said it would be easy to identify him, as one of his
fingers (was, were) off.
24. The humorous side of Shakespeare's plays (are, is) of
great interest, too.
25. There (are, is) many types of readers in a publiclibrary.
26. There (were, was) a few tenderfeet down in the val-
ley, too.
27. The jury (is, are) making (its, their) decision.
28. The jury (is, are) eating (its, their) dinner.
29. The team (is, are) living up to (its, their) reputation.
30. The team (are, is) getting new uniforms.
31. The number of boys in the class (are, is) fifteen.
32. A number of boys (is, are) waiting for you.
33. Every one of you (are, is) able to do this.
34. Prudence as well as valor (is, are) necessary.
35. Angle A (equal, equals) angle B.
110
Exercise 33
VERBS : TENSEThe six tenses are Present, Past, Future ; Present
Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect. (See Ex. 39 for
conjugation of verb.) Review Ex. 31.
Besides the simple form of a verb, there are a pro-
gressive form, an interrogative form, an emphaticform, and a negative form.
Some forms of these follow. Supply the missingones:
Simple. Progressive. Emphatic.
I study. I am studying. I do study.
You study. You are studying. You do study.
He studies. He is studying. He does study.
Interrogative. Negative.
(Progressive) {Emphatic)
Am I studying? I do not (don't) study.
Are you studying? You do not (don't) study.
Is he studying? He does not (doesn't) study.
The negative form of the verb "to be" is often usedincorrectly.
Contracted. Contracted.
I am not. We are not. We aren't.
You are not. You aren't. You are not. You aren't.
He is not. He isn't. He is not. They aren't.
The word "ain't" is not in good use. It is often usedincorrectly as a convenient form for each of the above.Can you state in grammatical terms why the use of
"ain't" is an error?
Learn the forms of verbs in the six tenses.
This is called giving the conjugation. (See Ex. 34,
35, and 36 for forms not yet presented.)
in
An example of a regular verb and of an irregular
verb follow, for reference. Be able to give also the
progressive, emphatic, negative, and interrogative
forms by comparison with the above.
Conjugate the following verbs in the tenses or other
forms asked for:
Invite, love, ask, see, tell.
Observe the proper sequence or harmony of tenses,
as:
Example: She asked if she might go (not "maygo").
Eevise the following for shift in tense
:
1. She went down the street defiantly and held (not holds)
her head high.
2. We should lose all that we have accomplished if wechanged (not change) leaders now.
3. When the whistle blew, we all ran (not run) for the fire.
4. The ranger of the forest cut the claws of the dogs so
that they could (not can) not catch the deer.
5. When he returned home, he saw (not sees) everythingin its place as it used to be.
INDICATIVE MOODPresent. Past.
Regular Irreg. Regular Irreg.) Eeg. Irreg.
I help, see. We help, see. I, We L , ,
You help, see. You help, see. You, You[
nelPed >saw -
He helps, sees. They help, see. He, TheyJ
Future. Present Perfect.
I shall help, see.We shall help, see. I, We ) , , ,
You will help, see. You will help, see. You, You 1 Jave helped
He will help, see.They will help, see. He, TheyJhave seen '
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Past Perfect. Future Perfect.
I, We had helped. I shall have helped, seen. ) We shall, etc.
You, You had seen. You will have helped, seen.[You will, etc.
He, They He will have helped, seen.JThey will, etc.
Do not use the past tense when the past perfect
tense is required
:
I wanted to hear all about it, for I had been there myself.
(Not "I was there.")
Exercise 34
VERBS: SHALL AND WILL(For Reference or for Advanced Students)
Careful writers distinguish between the use of
"shall" and "will." (This is a matter of usage.)
In indicating simple futurity use the followingforms
:
I shall. We shall.
You will. You will.
He will. They wiU.
Use in sentences the above with some verb in Ex. 30.
"Should" and "would/' the past forms of "shall"
and "will," are used similarly.
(Note : One cannot will to like anything or to be pleasedabout it. Hence we say, "I shall be glad to see you," not "Iwill be glad to see you.")
For indicating volition (an act involving the will),
such as determination, promise, or threat, use the fol-
lowing :
I will. We will.
You shall. You shall.
He shall. They shall.
Use the above in sentences with some verbs fromEx. 30 after studying and discussing the following
:
113
1. In questions of the first person usually use "shall."
In questions of second or third person use same form as
you expect in the answer.
2. In indirect statements and indirect questions proceed as
follows: Determine which form would be used in the direct
statement. If direct form requires "shall/' use "should"; if
direct form requires "will," use "would" in the indirect state-
ment.
3. In conditional clauses (if) use "should" for all persons.
4. Miscellaneous.
"You will go" is a polite form of command."Should" is often used in the original sense of "ought.""Would" is frequently used to express habitual action.
Study the following:
• 1. I shall be glad to see you to-morrow.
2. I will come to-morrow at two o'clock.
3. Shall you go to-morrow?
4. Will you do this for me ?
5. I think I shall go for a walk.
6. They shall not pass.
7. I will require you to rewrite it' you make one careless
error.
8. Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of
my life
And I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever.
9. I should like to go to-morrow.
10. They will begin work on the building next week.
In the following underline the correct form. Givethe reason:
1. I (should, would) like to go.
2. I (will, shall) be there when you are ready.
3. You (will, shall) please do as I ask.
114
4. (Shall, Will) I find the book there?
5. It is likely that I (shall, will) be gone before you come.
6. I (will, shall) not be able to recite to-morrow if I amas hoarse as I was after the last game.
7. Do you think that you (shall, will) be asked to go?
8. I (shall, will) fall; no one (shall, will) help me.
9. The man (will, shall) come for the baggage at twoo'clock..
10. If you sit in a draft, you (will, shall) catch cold.
11. If mail comes for you, (shall, will) I forward it?
12. (Shall, Will) you be at home to-morrow evening?
13. I think that I (shall, will) not have to go until Tues-
day.
14. We have decided that Monday (will, shall) be assem-
bly day.
Exeecise 35
VERBS: VOICEA verb used transitively always has an object.
(See Ex. 30.)
If the verb indicates that the doer of the action
is named by the subject, the verb is in the Active Voice.
If the subject names that which received the action,
the verb is in the Passive Voice.
Every verb is either transitive or intransitive.
If it is transitive it is in either the active or the
passive voice.
Active Voice. Passive Voice.
Boer of Receiver Receiver ActionAction Action of Action of Action
William read the book. The book was read byWilliam.
The boy broke the window. The window was brokenby the hoy.
115
Make similar changes in the following:
1. The bee stung the boy.
2. The farmer planted the potatoes.
3. The lightning struck the barn.
Use any form of the following verbs in the active
voice in sentences:
Paint, repair, destroy, help, believe, invite, strike, forgive,
forget, write, tell.
Change the sentences so that the verbs will be in
the passive voice.
The passive voice is formed by combining someform of the verb "to be" with the past participle of
the verb.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish a verb in the
passive voice from a verb with a predicate adjective.
(See Ex. 8.)
1. The boy is conceited. Predicate adjective.
2. The boy is invited. Verb in passive voice.
In (1) above, the word "conceited" names no part of the
action. It expresses an attribute only.
In the following, state whether the verbs are usedas transitive verbs in the active voice, as transitive
verbs in the passive voice, or as intransitive verbs.Point out all the complements. (See Ex. 8.)
1. He was wandering around aimlessly.
2. While they were waiting, she sharpened her pencil.
3. The new book was reviewed by the president of theclub.
4. The clouds were fleecy.
5. Mathematics is an interesting study.
6. Can you drive an automobile ?
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7. The city was destroyed by the earthquake.
8. Carthage must be destroyed.
9. The wheat was harvested by the college students.
10. The government preserves the forests.
11. Thousands of people annually visit our National Parks.
12. You are requested to send replies.
13. The whole family enjoyed the game of golf.
Exercise 36
CONJUGATION OF VERBS "HELP" AND "SEE"IN PASSIVE VOICE(Chiefly for Reference)
(See Ex. 33 for conjugation of verb in active voice.)
Present. Past.
I am, We are, 1 I was, We were,
You are, You are, |helped. You were, You were, [ helped,
He is, They are,Jseen. He was, They were,
Jseen.
Future. Present Perfect.
I, We, shall be 1 I, We, have been 1
You, You, will be[helped. You, You, have been | helped.
He, They, will beJseen. He has, They, have been
Jseen.
Past Perfect. Future Perfect.
I, We, had been I, We, shall have beenYou, You, had been \ helped. You, You, will have been helped.
He, They, had beenJseen. He, They, will have been J seen.
Do not use the passive voice unnecessarily.
The play was enjoyed by me. Improved: I enjoyed the
play.
Exercise 36
VERBS: MOODThe differences in the form of a verb to show how
the thought is stated or presented are known as Moodsor Modes.
117
A verb that makes a statement in a positive man-ner, as if it were a fact, or that asks a question directly,
is said to be in the Indicative Mood.
A verb that expresses a command or an entreaty
is said to be in the Imperative Mood. The subject of
the verb is always in the second person, but it is notexpressed except for emphasis or contrast.
A verb that states a thought as uncertain or sup-
posed or merely thought of, usually in the expressionof a wish or unreal condition, is said to be in the Sub-junctive Mood.
In only two tenses is there a difference in formbecause of the Subjunctive Mood.
Present. Past.
Indicative. Subjunctive. Indicative. Subjunctive.
I am, go. (If) I be, go. I was. (If) I were.
You are, go. You be, go. You were. You were.
He is, goes. He be, go. He was. He were.
Write five sentences with verbs in the indicative
mood. Change the sentences so that the verbs will bein the imperative mood and in the subjunctive mood.
The subjunctive mood is used in English chiefly in
clauses of (1) purpose, (2) result, (3) indirect ques-tion, (4) noun clauses, (5) time clauses, (6) conditionalclauses, and (7) concessive clauses.
It occurs most frequently in expressing a wish orcondition contrary to Tact:
Would I were a good student.
If I were a good student, I should not have to study so
hard.
Point out the mood of all the verbs in Ex. 2, 13,and 39.
118
Exeecise 37
VERBALSCertain words called "verbals" have some qualities
of verbs. They are non-model forms.
As they do not assert, they are not true verbs.
Three kinds of verbals are (a) infinitives (usually "to"
with the root of the verb, (b) gerunds (infinitives in
"ing"), and (c) participles (verbal adjectives).
Infinitives and gerunds are like verbs in that theyare derived from verbs, they express action, they maytake the modifiers of verbs, and they may have objects.
They are not true verbs, because they do not assert.
Infinitives are often used as nouns. See exercise below.
They may also be used to modify or complete the
meaning of verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
A. INFINITIVESThe sign of the infinitive is spelled "to." It is
always followed by a verb. It should not be confusedwith the preposition "to" which is always accompaniedby a substantive as its object.
The "to" is understood in such sentences as
Let him (to) go.
You may (have permission) (to) go.
It is considered better form usually to avoid the
so-called "split infinitive." (Example: "to usuallyavoid.") Watch for this construction. Note where it
seems permissible and where it seems objectionable.
The perfect infinitive ("to have" with verb) should beused only if the action expressed is complete at the time indi-
cated by the main verb
:
He was to have gone.
119
The perfect infinitive is used with- "ought" to express
obligation
:
He ought to have gone.
Sometimes the verb has a direct object followed byan infinitive of which it is the subject. The wholeexpression may be considered the object of the verb.
The subject of the infinitive is in the objective case1
:
He believed him to be me.
The substantive following the ''to be" is in the samecase as its subject.
Some ways in which an infinitive may be used are
as follows:
1. Subject of verb: To do one's best is a duty.
2. Predicate nominative : Her hobby is to crochet.
3. Direct object
:
I like to swim.
4. Object of preposition : Nothing remained but to goahead.
5. Appositive: His purpose, to lead the class,
was accomplished.
6. Adjective
:
He had a problem to solve.
7. Adverb
:
He called to invite you to dinner.
(Often an infinitive phrase is equivalent to a clause:
We wished him to go = We wished that he would go.)
8. Predicative: We saw the keeper (to) feed the
animals.
B. GERUNDSThe gerund is a verbal derived from a verb by add-
ing "ing" to its root and used as a noun. Like a verb,it may have a direct object and adverbial modifiers.
Running the race was fun.
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It is like the present participle in form but differs
from it in use. The gerund is always used as a sub-
stantive and the participle is always used as an adjec-
tive.
The boy throwing the ball fell. Participle.
His throwing the ball caused the accident. Gerund.
The gerund may have the following uses. See if
you can add others.
1. Subject of verb
:
Running is good exercise.
2. Object of verb
:
We practised throwing the ball.
3. Object of preposition: There is a trick in pitching a
curve.
A noun or pronoun used with a gerund to modify it is
usually in the possessive case. (See Ex. 21.)
C. PARTICIPLES
The participle is a word derived from a verb andused as an adjective. Review the ways participles areformed in Ex. 31. Master the rules in spelling in-
volved.
A participle may be used in all the relations that
an adjective may. (See Ex. 28.) A participle maybe attached to a noun in the nominative absolute con-struction :
The puncture having been repaired, we proceeded on ourway.
With an auxiliary a participle may form a verbphrase. It cannot stand alone as a verb. (See Ex. 1
and Ex. 40.)
A participial phrase may be loosely attached to thesubject or a noun or pronoun in the objective case.
121
Notes :
A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is
followed by a comma.
Loosely attached (descriptive or non-restrictive) parti-
cipial phrases are set off by commas. Closely attached (de-
terminative or restrictive phrases) are not.
Participles and participial phrases should be placed as
near the words they modify as possible.
Find examples of all the above in your clippings.
REVIEW OF VERBALSDiscuss the following:
1. I like to run.
2. Running is goodexercise.
3. Running down hill,
he stumbled andfell.
4. C o m p 1 e tely rundown, he had to
rest.
5. I am running.
6. His specialty is
run fast.
I enjoy running.
to
Infinitive.
Gerund.
Present Par-ticiple.
Participle.
Part of verbphrase.
Infinitive.
Object of verb (or
of preposition
"for" under-stood).
Subject of verb"is."
Adjective modify-ing "he."
Adjective modify-ing "he."
7. Gerund. of
Predicate ninative.
Direct objectverb "enjoy."
Add other constructions of verbals from your clippings.
In the following point out all verbals and all wordsending in "ing." Are they used as substantives or asmodifiers? Give their construction.
1. To prepare well is the best plan.
2. Tossed about by the waves, he finally reached shore.
3. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
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4. She ran gaily about, gathering flowers here and there.
5. The flag is fluttering in the breeze.
6. We ran to greet her.
7. Sleeping late is a bad practice.
8. The brothers were very fond of ice skating.
9. He didn't do well in the beginning.
10. Destiny has a queer way of throwing people together.
11. After receiving full instructions, we left for the audi-
torium.
12. The actions of a blowing adder were described.
13. Lastly the writer describes the blind groping of naturein many different cases.
14. Roosevelt's "African Game Trails" describes veryclearly the capturing of different wild animals.
15. Dickens strenuously opposed hazing.
16. Paul Dombey is a pitiful example of the effect cram-ming often has on children.
17. A charming little watch was ticking away on her wrist.
18. I think Mr. Warner has good eyes, for he tells of see-
ing a town twenty miles away.
Some difficult constructions of infinitive phrasesand other verbals may be explained in various ways.
Study the following and add other odd construc-tions as you meet them. Point out all the verbals.
1. They wanted to see you.
2. He caught them opening the window. "
3. We expect her to answer immediately.
4. To do is not so easy as to say what it is good to do.
5. It is too warm for us to study.
6. The captain being thoroughly informed, we thoughtit best to rely on his judgment.
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7. She is not the girl I believed her to be.
8. We hold these institutions of government, religion, andlearning, to be transmitted, as well as enjoyed.
9. The gong having sounded, we went in to dinner.
10. I expected him to be there.
11. The success was due to their looking ahead.
12. It is time for us to do something about correcting ourEnglish.
13. I believed this to be true.
14. It is never too late to turn over a new leaf.
15. Let me work in peace.
16. That was a new thought to consider.
17. They thought of nothing but to make a good appear-ance.
Observe parallelism of structure in using infinitives
and gerunds.
"Seeing is believing," not "Seeing is to believe."
Avoid the use of (1) the dangling participle, (2)
the dangling infinitive, and (3) the dangling phrase.
Correct. Incorrect.
1. He saw sitting ahead of him Sitting ahead of him, he
a woman with three chil- saw a woman with three
dren. children.
2. In order to get the full To get the full benefit out
benefit Out of the treat- of the treatment, it
ment, it should be repeated should be repeated sev-
several times. eral times.
3. The cake fell while it was In taking the cake out, it
being taken out. fell.
(See also Ex. 40.)
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Exercise 38
VERBS: TROUBLESOME FORMSThe forms of "lie" and "lay," "sit" and "set," "rise"
and "raise," etc., often give trouble. The confusion in
the first two is due partly to the fact that the presenttense of "lay" has the same form as the past tense of
the verb "lie."
Review Ex. 30 and 31.
A help in learning the correct form of the followingis to notice that in each set of the above, one is transi-
tive and the other intransitive.
Study the following.
Impera- Principal Parts. Presenttive. Pres. Past. Past Par. Part.
Lie = To rest on or re- lie lie lay lain lying
cline.
Always intransi-
tive.
Lay = To place or put. lay lay laid laid laying
Always transi-
tive.
Sit = To rest. sit sit sat sat sitting
Always intransi-
tive.
Set = To put or place, set set set set setting
Always transitive
except in id-
ioms as in "Thesun sets."
Distinguish also between "rise" and "raise,"
"learn" and "teach."
Use all of the above in sentences in all the formsindicated. Underline and classify.
125
EXAMPLES1. I always lie down in the afternoon.
2. Sport is lying on the rug.
3. The child lay on the sofa.
4. The bones of Shakespeare have lain undisturbed for
many years.
5. Sarah laid the books on the table.
6. Rover, lie down.
7. She was laying the dish down when it slipped fromher hands.
8. I found the book lying on the stair.
9. The city was wonderfully laid out.
10. Lay it down.
11. Where does the village lie?
12. Let the book lie where it is.
13. Sit in this rocking chair.
14. Please set the table.
15. I was sitting in the living room.
16. I cannot raise the window.
17. I like to sit by the window.
18. Let the bread rise slowly.
19. Wake me at six o'clock.
20. When did you awake ?
Justify the use of "lie" and "lay" in the foliowing
:
"Under the wide and starry sky,
Dig the grave and let me lie
;
Glad did I live and gladly die
And I lay me down with a will.
This be the verse you grave for me,'Here he lies where he longed to be
;
Home is the sailor, home from the sea,
And the hunter home from the hill/"
Stevenson.
126
Select the correct form. Justify your choice.
1. The guns are (lie) on the battlefield.
2. After I had (lie) down for an hour, I felt rested.
3. She told her sister to go and (lie) down.
4. Has the coat been (lie) there long?
5. The American Indians would (lie) behind bushes.
6. Peanut shells were (lie) all around.
7. He (lay) the apple on the plate and it still (lie) there.
8. He (lay) the mattress on the ground. There the
soldiers (lie).
9. (Lie) down, Laddie Boy.
10. I found the book (lie) on the stair.
Exercise 39
REVIEW OF VERBSHave a committee gather illustrations of errors in
the form and uses of verbs and make a report.
The following will suggest some common ones
:
Don't, doesn't; can, may; shall, will; leave, let; affect,
effect; accept, except; teach, learn; lie, lay; lend, borrow;bring, take; fix, repair; rear, raise.
Bring in examples of correct uses of these words.
Avoid the use of:
"I have got," for "I have."
"To make dinner," for "To prepare dinner."
"To fix the hair," for "To dress the hair."
127
In the following select the correct form. Give the
reason.
1. He (ain't, isn't) coming.
2. It (don't, doesn't) make (no, any) difference.
3. (Its, it's) (to, too) bad there (don't, doesn't) seem to
be enough time to dress for gym.
4. (Ain't, isn't) it hard to speak correctly?
5. "We (were, was) only playing.
6. I (ask, asked) Mother if I might go.
7. His ears had been (froze, frozen).
8. Then he (begun, began) to ask questions.
9. The books haven't (come, came) yet.
10. At nine o'clock the bell (rang, rung).
11. The band was (lead, led) by a student.
12. I could (of gone, have gone) if I had wanted to.
13. They (saw, seen) him when he (did, done) it.
14. He (says, said) that he had (ask, asked) his mother.
15. The horses (run, ran) away yesterday.
16. You surely (was, were) mistaken.
17. Lamb's "Tales" (are, is) a good book.
18. He hasn't (drink, drunk) the milk yet.
19. Fifty dollars (is, are) too much for that.
20. I (shall, will) be glad to have you call.
21. I (hadn't ought, ought not) go out yet.
22. I didn't know you (was, were) there.
23. If I (was, were) he, I'd go.
24. One of the men (is, are) his father.
25. (Can, May) I borrow your book?
26. I had expected (to go, to have gone), too. (See Ex.37.)
128
Point out peculiarities among the following verbsor comment on the construction
:
1. He shall go.
2. He dare not go.
3. He need not go.
4. Methinks it is a ghost of yesteryear.
5. He wist not where he stood.
6. Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore."
7. Arthur's sword was hight Excalibur.
8. He is gone. They were come.
9. His friends did him an injustice.
10. I did not see him.
11. Have you read the lesson?
12. I have a new car.
13. She says that she may go Avith me.
14. She said that she might go.
15. May we ask him to come ?
16. Can you analyze all the sentences?
17. I want to go, too ; may I ?
18. May I borrow your pencil?
19. The water is gradually rising.
20. At Grand View the Colorado River can be seen seven-
teen miles away.
21. I must have been mistaken.
22. Have you ever seen him before?
23. I do like to go fishing.
24. What did you do next?
25. "Whom does she resemble?
26. I am reading an interesting book.
129
Point out all the verbs. Give all the grammaticalfacts about them.
(1) Home is a beautiful refuge. (2) Though the storms
may rattle and bang at the windows, though the wind whistle
and moan about the corners, and though the rain beat fu-
riously upon the roof, yet we feel safe within the fold of home.
(3) When night comes, what pleasure it does give us to look
about at those who have made it a home ; when morning dawnswhat happiness to know that those we shall always love are
still in the home. (4) Too often we sit in the family circle,
not vividly conscious of this peace and contentment ; too often
we lie down at night without thankfulness for the comfort andthe coziness of it all. (5) Indeed, a few seek to fly from it
all. (6) But, once away from it, how we miss it! (7) Forhome means more than house; it is the noblest symbol of
earthly love.
Exercise 40
THE CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN SENTENCESTRUCTURE
Review Ex. 1. After you have studied verbs it
should be clearer than it was before that a participle
is not a verb. A group of words must have a subject
and a predicate in order to form a sentence, and it
must express a complete thought. A clause standingalone with a connecting word (conjunctive adverb orsubordinating conjunction) is not a sentence. It be-
longs with the preceding expression. A detachedphrase of any kind is not a sentence.
Revise the following and explain in grammaticalterms the changes you made:
1. I can't go, I'm too tired.
2. He shouted, "Stop where you are, the train is coming."
3. The clock stopped, he did not know how long he hadbeen there.
130
4. Rob, you're such a tease, I'm angry at you.
5. We have a very fine gymnasium for dancing, in fact
we should not want anything better.
The above error may be corrected in a number of
ways.
1. A new sentence may be I can't go. I'm too tired.
formed
:
2. A semicolon may separate I can't go ; I'm too tired.
the independent clauses
:
3. A co-ordinate conjunction I can't go, for I'm too tired.
may be used
:
Correct the following:
1. He slept out-of-doors. Which was very healthful.
(Corrected: He slept out-of-doors, which was very healthful.)
2. He was also very unselfish, as many incidents in the
story showed. Among them being the rescue of QuintusArrius. Who afterward adopted him.
3. He made forty-five errors in grammar. Which he canlearn to correct by studying.
4. He was dropped from the team. Since he was alwaysgetting hurt through carelessness.
5. There are two ways of writing a composition. Thefirst by making a careful plan. The other by writing rapidlyand revising according to an outline made later.
6. Many city boys like to go to the country. The reasonbeing that they enjoy work out-of-doors.
7. There are four ways to travel through the Garden of
the Gods.
8. That material is the best. It being the only kind that
won't fade.
9. He finally agreed to try. Which was all that we wereafter.
131
10. We finished making a draft of the constitution.
Although we worked two hours longer than we had ex-
pected to.
SHIFT IN SENTENCE PLAN, AND MISCEL-LANEOUS
To correct an error due to shift in sentence plan,
see that reference is unmistakable. Any shift in sub-
ject means complete recasting of the sentence. Donot omit words necessary to make the grammaticalconstruction clear. Put words, phrases, and clauses
nearest the words they modify.
Correct the following after discussing some of themin class. Have a committee gather similar errors andmake a report.
1. On entering the station my friend met me.
2. Sliding down the bannisters, my grandmother caughtme.
3. He was lame, due to spinal meningitis.
4. While in the corridor, a loud shout was heard.
5. Her eyes were dark and when angry they glinted.
6. When young, her mother and father lived in a small
house.
7. Being the youngest in the family, Gareth's mother kepthim at home.
8. Being as he knew better he ought to be penalized.
9. What I care most about she never lets us know she's
coming.
10. In talking to Helen, she said that she would enter thecontest.
11. You must not eat the dessert until well chilled.
12. I shall always love my school because of the goodtraining and the delightful friends I made there.
132
13. I met many people whose names I had heard but didn't
know them personally.
14. Having boiled the water, it was perfectly safe to drink.
15. The thing that makes me provoked, they say that they
will begin on time and then don't do it.
16. We met a boy from our school and who had lived in
our neighborhood.
17. It is an interesting book and which will give you a
great deal of information.
18. The shades can be rolled up when sweeping, pulling
them out of the way of dust.
19. When cleaning house, the shades can be put away.
20. He is working two days a week is all.
21. The last time Ivanhoe and the Templar meet is whenRebecca being accused of being a sorceress she demands a
champion.
22. When Wamba and Gurth and Locksley gather the mentogether and plan to besiege the castle is one instance of fore-
shadowing.
23. I liked his brother better than he.
24. We like Cooper as well as Scott.
25. We only like fresh lobster.
26. Wanted : boy to deliver oysters that can ride a bicycle.
Punctuate the following correctly. Underline the
parts where you made changes. State in grammaticalterms the changes you made.
1. A distant jay screeched then one nearby answered andimmediately flew off to meet his fellow.
2. When the boys finally listened to him he continued in
a rather apologetic and embarrassed tone you know I havea Sammy Backer in America well he told me to write to himafter I got over here and tell him what I needed and he wouldsend it in my Christmas box.
133
3. I'm going camping do you want to go with me it'll be
loads of fun.
4. As Ulysses sailed on he came in sight of an island he
landed and started inland he soon came to a cave.
5. The cheers were given with a will followed by three for
Jack then the little party set out on its Christmas mission.
6. Two men crossed a little bridge and then tried to breakdown the gate one of these men could use the battle ax verywell he was dressed in black armor.
7. Just then some arrows struck his armor first onestruck and glanced off the next did the same as the first.
8. He did not have time to roll the rock off because his
attention was turned to the man who was shooting the arrowsthe man was Locksley.
9. Turn him loose there's no danger of losing him.
10. I like Burroughs 's work very much he just makes yousee Nature in his way I like his contrasts very much he con-
trasts the English wood life with the American.
11. Some of the shelves were empty others had old jars
and bottles on them.
12. One of the men had been disobedient and John hadgiven him a beating the man died afterward some of the peo-ple blamed John.
13. The funds were low Congress didn't like it at first
finally they agreed to do it.
14. One day Robin Hood happened to meet a tall manabout seven feet in height his name was Little John.
15. We had to wait for a while this was not what weexpected. . .
Exeecise 41
ADVERBSAn adverb is a word limiting or modifying a verb
or an adjective or a modifier of a verb or of an adjec-tive. It may also modify a verbal.
134
(For reference only and for class discussion.)
Kinds of Adverbs
:
As to meaning.
Time:Place
:
Manner
:
DegreeCause:Assertion,
Affirmative
:
Negative
:
Concession
:
As to use.
Limiting.
Modifying chiefly
Verbs,
Adjectives,
Adverbs.
Conjunctive
:
Then came Pyramus.Come here.
Move quickly.
He is very tall.
Why are you going ?
Yes, you may go.
No, I can't help you.
Nevertheless, it could have beenprevented.
Expletive
:
As to form.
Simple
:
Flexional
:
Phrasal
:
Comparison.
Where, whence, how, why, whenthey are used to connect depend-ent clauses to the main clause.
There are five of us in the club.
One word, as now, so, often, quite,
very.
An ending showing that they are
adverbs, as in slowly.
One by one, in order that, as soon
as, as long as, etc.
With "-er," "-est," or "more" and "most."Look up the irregular forms in your Grammar.
Write sentences containing each kind of adverb.Underline and label for kind, use, or form, as directed.
135
Select sentences containing twenty adverbs fromyour clippings. Label each. By use of dictionary see
if you can select better ones in their place. Point outwhat word each modifies. If it is difficult to tell, repeatthe adverb with each word until you reach the one withwhich it belongs. What part of speech does eachmodify?
Find illustrations of the following in your ownthemes. Correct them. Bring to class illustrations of
the correct constructions from your clippings.
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN THE USE OFADVERBS
1. A common error in the use of the adverb is to
omit the sign of the adverb "ly" in words in whichit is required to distinguish them from adjectives.
He went slowly. (Not slow.)
He breathed heavily. (Not heavy.)
Do it quickly. (Not quick.)
2. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs.
Incorrect
:
I slept well. I slept good.I was very tired. I was real tired.
We were almost through. We were most through.He had already gone. He had all ready gone.That surely was good pie. That sure was good pie.I was exceedingly happy. I was so happy.They spoke very distinctly. They spoke quite distinctly.
(Meaning, to a degree.)
3. An adverb should not be used in place of anadjective as a predicate complement. (See Ex. 30.)Example
:
She looked beautiful. (Not beautifully.)
136
4. A word ending in "ly" is not always an adverb.
It may be an adjective. It is always what a wordmodifies that determines whether it is an adjective
or an adverb. Example:
What a friendly person she is. (Adjective.)
5. Place an adverb nearest the word it modifies.
Be careful about the position of "only," "not," "also,"
etc. Example
:
I had only a few dollars, not, I only had a few dollars.
Not all men are honest, not, All men are not honest.
We want to show you pictures also, not, We also want to
show you pictures.
6. The adverb "too" is different in form from the
adjective "two" and from "to" used as a prepositionor as the sign of the infinitive. Example
:
The paper is too dark, not, to dark.
(By actual count this error has been found in some experi-
ments to be the most common error in ordinary high school
composition.)
7. Avoid the use of the double negative.
Incorrect
:
I have no book. . I haven't no book.
(Still worse, "I ain't got nobook.")
I could hardly see. I couldn't hardly see.
I couldn't see anything. I couldn't see nothing.
He didn't give me any. He didn't give me none.
I didn't see anything. I didn't see nothing.
8. Do not substitute a noun for an adverb.
He went somewhere. Incorrect : He went some place.
9. Distinguish between "so" and "as."
She is as tall as her sister, but not so tall as her brother.
137
Exercise 42
ADVERBS (Continued)
Adverbs are either limiting, as when they merelymodify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, or the modifiers
of these; or conjunctive, when they introduce depen-dent clauses.
A conjunctive adverb expresses an adverbial idea
and connects a subordinate clause with a word in the
principal clause. (See Ex. 11.) It may introduce anadverbial clause or a noun clause.
Some of the conjunctive adverbs are as follows :
When, where, whence, how, as, as if, while, until, before,
after, since, though, although, because, as soon as, as long as,
in order that, lest, provided.
Write sentences using the above as conjunctiveadverbs.
Conjunctive adverbs may introduce clauses indi-
cating time, place, manner, cause, concession, etc.
EEVIEWFill in the following blanks with the correct form,
"to," "too," or "two"
:
1. They wanted do their best.
2. There are many people in the class.
3. In the front yard were elm trees.
4. It's ——— early to go home.
5. many cooks spoil the broth.
6. I, , wish to go.
7. I like it here,
8. That pencil is hard.
9. You are in much of a hurry do yourbest.
138
Exercise 43
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ANDADVERBS
A. Comparison of Adjectives.
(See Exercise 28.)
In comparison do not use the superlative degree in
comparing two. Do not use both the suffix and the
adverbs more and most with the same word.
Some adjectives really should not be compared, such as
perfect, absolute, round, fundamental, square, preferable,
unique.
An exact statement would be as follows
:
This rose is more nearly perfect than that one, not,
This' rose is more perfect than that one.
Avoid confusing "as" and "than'' in expressions of
comparison.
He was larger than any other boy. (Not larger as.)
He was as great as if not greater than his father. (Thesecond "as" should not be omitted.)
B. Comparison of Adverbs.
Adverbs, like adjectives, have three degrees of com-parison :
Positive
:
Comparative
:
Superlative
:
fast
faster
fastest
quicklymore quickly
most quickly
Look up the list of irregular adverbs in yourGrammar.
The word "awfully" is frequently used in place of"very" or "exceedingly."
Select the correct form in the following. Are thewords used as adjectives or as adverbs?
139
1. Can't you be (quieter, more quiet) ?
2. Which do you think was (easier, more easily) done?
3. Come on girls ! Let's see if we can dress (plainer, moreplainly) and (neater, more neatly).
4. Which is the (best, better) road, this one or that one?
5. Which is the (harder, hardest), Latin or algebra?
6. Cassius was the (most, more) practical of the two.
Exercise 44
EEVIEW OF ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBSelect the correct form. Tell which wrord each
modifies and whether it is an adjective or an adverb.
1. You do not read (distinct, distinctly) enough.
2. Do not treat the boy so (harshly, harsh).
3. How (quick, quickly) do you think you can go on this
errand for me?
4. The boy (nearly, near) fell over.
5. They (sure, surely) treated him (roughly, rough).
6. I didn't sleep (well, good) last night.
7. My pen (doesn't, don't) write (good, well).
8. This thread is (real, very) fine.
9. I am (most, almost) through.
10. The captain was (very, real) good to him.
11. He came up and grabbed him (quick, quickly).
12. Although he (most, almost) always studies hard, heis never perfect in spelling.
13. We were (all ready, already) to go.
14. I have (all ready, already) attended to that.
15. We (sure, surely) had a (real, very) good time.
140
16. Are you going to be there? I (sure, surely) am.
17. They are (very, so) glad that we came.
18. The flowers smelled (sweet, sweetly).
19. The shoes looked (bad, badly). (Look up usage onthis point in your clippings. Is it better to use a different
adverb?)
20. She looked (so, very) pretty.
21. We were (quite, very) happy.
22. She looked (beautifully, beautiful) that evening.
23. Her friend was (quite, very) indignant.
24. The car went (to, too) (slow, slowly) for me.
25. I wish I could go (somewhere, some place) this sum-mer.
26. I never had (any, none).
27. The play was (to, too) funny for anything.
28. He (couldn't, could) hardly speak.
29. The boy came forward very (bold, boldly).
30. He doesn't talk very (clear, clearly).
31. Do you think that she sang (good, well) ?
32. I did not know that you could write so (bad, badly).
33. My pen doesn't always write (good, well) but it (sure,
surely) is useful.
34. He didn't do it as (good, well) as he could.
35. The place seemed very (strange, strangely) to him.
36. She looked (prettily, pretty) in her cap and gown.
37. She sang as (good, well) as any of you.
38. One should always treat animals (kind, kindly).
39. The motor doesn't work (good, well).
40. Her voice sounded very (sweetly, sweet).
41. He came (near, nearly) falling into the river.
141
Exercise 45
THE PREPOSITIONA preposition is a word that expresses the relation
between a substantive (its object) and some other part
of the sentence.
Prepositions are usually very short words, but it
is difficult to learn to use the correct ones to express
exact shades of meaning in all cases.
KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS(For Reference)
Simple
:
At, after, by, down, ere, for, from, in, of,
off, over, till, to, up, with, but.
Derivative: About, above, against, beneath, into,
throughout, toward, underneath, upon,within, without.
From adverbs: Across, amid, amidst, among, amongst,From nouns or around, below, besides, betwixt, be-
adjectives
:
tween.^~ From verbs
:
During, except, past, save, notwith-standing, concerning.
Phrasal
:
Combined with In front of, out of, according to, along-
other preposi- side of, because of, instead of, in re-
tions
:
spect to, in regard to.
Use each of the above in a sentence as a prepo-sition.
Point out its object and tell what the phrase modi-fies. Tell whether the phrase is used as an adjectiveor as an adverb.
Distinguish carefully between the following:
In, into; accept, except; past, passed; off of, from; be-
tween (two), among (more than two) ; to, at; by, with; dif-
ferent (from, to, than).
142
Which are incorrect? What kind of speech is each
usually? Use correctly in a sentence each one that
is a correct expression. Use as many as possible in
sentences as prepositions. Point out the objects.
What do the phrases modify? Are they used as adjec-
tives or as adverbs?
Notes
:
1. Usually, but not always, it is best not to end a sentence
with a preposition.
2. Many prepositions can be used in sentences as
adverbs. Note that the preposition always has anobject. The object of the preposition is always in the
objective case. Eeview Ex. 21.
The child fell out.
The cat wants to get in.
3. Do not omit the preposition in such sentences asthe following:
Washington was born on the twenty-second of February.
I slept at home.
It's of no use to try that plan.
4. Prepositions are sometimes used unnecessarily.
He fell off (of) the swing.
The table is (in) back of the door.
Where are we (at) ?
Where is she going (to) ?
She is a girl (of) from ten to twelve years of age.
See if you can add others to this list.
5. Do not use "and" in place of "to" as the sign ofthe infinitive.
I'll try to (not "and") do better.
143
Do not use "of" for "have."
I would have (not "of") gone if I had known it.
"But" is sometimes a preposition. It means "ex-
cept." Its object is in the objective case.
y. None went but me.
6. The object of a preposition is not always a noun.
I did not know until later. (Adverb.)
I cannot say for certain. (Adjective.)
He will not leave until after the election. (Phrase.)
Don't speak of what you have heard. (Clause.)
They quarreled over who would be his successor. (Herethe whole clause is the object of the preposition "over."
"Who" is in the nominative case, subject of "would be." It
is not the object of the preposition, but the whole clause of
which it is the subject is the object of the preposition.)
Exeecise 46
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words used to connect words,phrases, and clauses.
KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONSCo-ordinate
:
and, but, for, or, nor.
Subordinate
:
unless, because, if, though, although,
lest, as, whether.Correlative : either-or, neither-nor, both-and, whether-
or, not only-but also, so-that, as-as,
so-as, such-as.
Phrasal
:
as if, as though, as sure as, in case that,
in order that, provided that, so that,
inasmuch as.
144
Subordinate conjunctions may introduce the following
kinds of dependent clauses
:
Time: after, as, before, since, ere, until, while.
Cause or Eeason
:
as, because, since, whereas, etc.
Condition: if, except, unless, provided, so.
Concession: though, although, albeit, notwithstand-ing.
Purpose or Result: that, lest, (so) that, (in order) that, etc.
Comparison: as, than.
Introducing Noun that, whether.Clause
:
Use each of the above words in sentences as con-
junctions or select examples from your clippings.
Underline and label them.
"And" and "and so" are co-ordinate conjunctions.
Frequently "so" is used where "and so" should beused or the construction changed.
Usage with regard to "so" differs. Look it up.Study the usage of the best writers and speakers.
"As our mother called us, we turned back" is better
than "Our mother called us ; so we turned back."
"Unless" is a conjunction. The prepositions "ex- _.cept" and "without" are sometimes incorrectly used in
its place.
"I can't go unless you do." (Not "without" or"except.")
"Than" and "as" are conjunctions, not preposi-tions.
"He is taller than I" = "He is taller than I am tall."
("am tall" is understood.)
Distinguish between "so as" and "so that."
145
"I sat in front so that I could hear him." (Not "so
as I could hear him.")
Use "either" with "or" and "neither" with "nor."
"Neither James nor I went," (Not "neither Jamesor I.")
Use "either" or "neither" in speaking of two. Formore than two use "any of them," or "none of them,"or "no."
The preposition "like" cannot be used in place of
the conjunctions "as" or "as if."
"It looks as if you are studying." (Not "it lookslike.")
"Do as I do." (Not "like I do.")
"That" is a conjunction when it introduces a nounclause.
"That all was well, we could see at a glance."
"But what" is incorrect as a conjunction. When"what" = "that which," it is a relative pronoun. Use"but that."
"I do not doubt but that it is true." (Not "I donot doubt but what it is true.")
When an alternative is implied, use "whether" andnot "if."
"I don't know whether I'll go." (Not "I don't knowif I'll go.")
Study these forms in your clippings. Which formsdo the best speakers and writers use?
146
Exercise 47
CONJUNCTIONS: "LIKE" AND "AS," ETC.
Select the correct form. Underline it. Give reasonfor your choice.
1. It looks (like, as if) it had been swept with a brush.
2. I don't seem to be able to write (like, as) my sister can.
3. It looks (like, as if) it would snow to-morrow.
4. I wish I could play the piano (as, like) Sister does.
5. It looks (like, as if) it was fifty miles away.
6. He is taller (as, than) his mother.
7. We went early (so that, so as) we could get good seats.
8. I can't go (without, unless) you give me permission.
9. I like Dickens, but I think that Thackeray is evenmore interesting than (him, he).
10. People don't study spelling now (like, as) they used to.
11. It is neither green (or, nor) blue.
12. No one will miss the old home (like, as) I shall.
13. In some respects Stevenson writes (as, like) Kiplingdoes.
14. I don't know but (that, what) I'll go after all.
15. I don't know (as, that) I care.
16. The man looks (like, as if) he had been an actor.
17. He doesn't study (like, as) he used to.
18. There is no use going (except, unless) they act dif-
ferently.
19. I felt (like, as if) it was almost useless to try again.
20. It looks (like, as if) they weren't coming.
21. It looks (like, as if) he ought to know better.
147
Exercise 48
EEVIEW OF CONNECTIVESConnectives include
Verbs : Linking.Conjunctions
:
Co-ordinate.Subordinate.
Prepositions.
Eelative Pronouns.Conjunctive Adverbs.
Which of these connect expressions of equal rank?Of unequal rank?
Give examples of each in sentences.
Eeview each of the above.
In such exercises as 13, or any of the Review Exer-cises, point out all the connectives and give their con-struction.
Exercise 49
CONTRACTIONSAn apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of
a letter or letters. A contraction does not require aperiod at the close as an abbreviation does.
Most contractions are used only in colloquial ex-
pressions. In dignified composition, they are usedchiefly in the quoting of conversation.
Some errors in grammar occur in the improper useof contractions. Commonly used contractions are thefollowing
:
It's, isn't, don't, didn't, couldn't, you're, they're,who's, doesn't, haven't, shan't, shouldn't, where's,won't.
148
Be sure that the apostrophe is placed where the
letter or letters are omitted.
Eemember that no personal pronoun in the pos-
sessive case is written with an apostrophe.
In "couldn't," "didn't," etc., what parts of speechare combined?
Add to the above list of contractions such as youuse or hear used most frequently. Use them in sen-
tences.
Aren't = are not. Can't = can not.
Write the equivalents for the contractions givenabove and for those you have added.
Exercise 50
MISCELLANEOUS EEEOES: HOMONYMS,USAGE, ETC.
Use the following correctly in sentences.
Explain the point in grammar involved in their
correct use.
Accept, affect, almost, already, an, awful, don't, effect,
except, good, it's, lay, laying, lying, led, myself, principle,
principal, quite, real, there, their, to, too, well, you're, chosen,
losing.
Add to this list other words commonly used incor-
rectly as to grammar.
Errors in grammar are often made by using incor-
rectly homonyms—words which sound alike but arespelled differently.
The following are among those most often usedincorrectly.
See if you can add others.
149
Buy-by, coarse-course, here-hear, know-no, knew-new,right-write, rode-road-rowed, their-there, threw-through, to-
too, shone-shown.
Use them in sentences and give their grammaticalstructure.
150
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