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Educational Readings in English
Vocabulary to Educational Readings in English
Exercise 1: Complete the following sentences with the words in the box below: (N.B. One word may be used in more than one sentence)
1. He did an _______________ of the way children learn language for his Master's
thesis.
2. Environmental pollution seems to be an important _______________ in the
increase in cancers all over the world.
3. Your continued lateness for class _______________ to me that you are not
really a very serious student.
4. Some _______________ into second language learning suggests that oral
fluency may increase with moderate amounts of alcohol.
5. The planet Mars has a surface which is somewhat _______________ to that of our
moon.
6. It could take weeks to _______________ all the data, but when we do, the
results will be very helpful to our project.
7. The low number of people attending the lecture is a clear _______________
of lack of interest in the topic.
8. Canada's _______________ growth has been quite consistent for the last few
years.
9. Canada went through a _______________ of economic prosperity in the
1950s.
10. At the end of a research project, the researcher is normally faced with lots of
observations which need to be _______________.
11. For very young children, the _______________ of truth and lies are not very
clear.
12. Our society supposedly believes in the _______________ of equality for all.
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period – analyzed - concepts – principle – data – formulas – conceptualize
analysis – factor – indicates - research – similar – analyze - indication – economic
13. We will need to examine a lot more _______________ before we can make any
conclusions.
14. We had to memorize about 20 different _______________ for the math test.
15. Very young children _______________ ideas of depth, height and size in
different ways from adults.
Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences with the words in the box below: (N.B. One word may be used in more than one sentence)
1. Varying _______________ of the Bible have resulted in the creation of many
different religious groups within Christianity.
2. Analysis of _______________ is a difficult and complicated process.
3. It is important to learn a _______________ which will help you to guess the
meaning of new vocabulary from context.
4. Many words in English are _______________ from French.
5. Many _______________ now believe that vocabulary development is even more
important than grammar study for second language learners.
6. One can _______________ some important conclusions using the results of a
proper set of experiments.
7. He doesn't have enough _______________ to support his theories just yet.
8. Our response to the controversial social _______________ of our time will
determine our future.
9. The data can be _______________ by computer in a matter of seconds.
10. Unless safety procedures are improved immediately, an accident could easily
_______________.
11. One of the _______________ of studying English in Victoria is that you have the
opportunity to speak English outside of class.
12. Some doctors suggest that taking vitamin pills is not really very
_______________ to our health.
13. At Computaschools, we offer _______________ learning programs that fit your
needs, and let you progress at your own rate.
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derived - theorists – derive – benefits – beneficial - individualized – financially –
assess - interpretations – data - method - issues – processed – reoccur
14. Children in Canada generally become _______________ independent of their
parents in their 20s.
15. We will use the first week of classes to _______________ your speaking ability.
Exercise 3: Complete the following sentences with the words in the box below: (N.B. One word may be used in more than one sentence)
1. The test will _______________ of a series of true or false questions and two essay questions.
2. The traditional family _______________ has undergone a great many changes in the last few decades, due to the increase in the divorce rate.
3. It can be quite difficult to clearly _______________ abstract ideas such as love or friendship.
4. I don't think hitting children is a very effective _______________ of teaching them anything.
5. Vocabulary is generally easier to understand if you look at it in ___________.6. We have noticed a _______________ improvement in Teddy's attitude since
you had a talk with him.7. It is generally quite difficult to raise a family on a single _______________
today..8. One's values should be viewed in the _______________ of one's culture.9. Studies show that women are much less likely than men to occupy positions of
_______________ at work.10. You have to _______________ the remark in the overall discussion to fully
understand what was meant.11. He _______________ a final mark of just over 80%.12. The _______________ reason he has done so well at school is that he works
incredibly hard.13. If you want to _______________ real progress in your speaking skills, you
need to speak English as often as possible while you are here.14. The English Program has _______________ many changes over the years in
an attempt to provide an increasingly better program.15. The results of the poll have now been _______________, and will be
distributed to the news media this afternoon.16. Teachers in the program are _______________ by the students at the end of
each session.
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authority – contextualize – obtained – primary – achieve - psychology – method –
context – significant – income –notions – phase - instituted – processed – assessed –
mentally - consist – structure – define –context
17. If you approach the situation _______________, rather than emotionally, you can make a much fairer decision.
18. Jerome studied _______________ at the University of Toronto because he is interested in working with people who have emotional problems.
19. Previous _______________ regarding the nature of intelligence have changed considerably over the years.
20. Most teenagers go through a _______________ in which they argue a lot with their parents.
Exercise 4: Complete the following sentences with the words in the box below: (N.B. One word may be used in more than one sentence)
1. One of the most important _______________ in learning a foreign language is
to get over one's fear of making mistakes.
2. The _______________ of women in the teaching profession is traditionally
much higher than that of men.
3. The _______________ of the problem is his inability to work with others.
4. A recent study found that moods influence how effectively people accomplish
_______________ together.
5. The professor wrote a number of sentences on the board _______________
the similarities in grammar between the two languages.
6. Whenever you read a scientific or _______________ text in English, you will
probably encounter many words you do not know.
7. Racist comments against others are totally unacceptable, no matter what the
_______________.
8. A proper essay _______________ its ideas clearly and effectively.
9. We feel that animal testing should be reduced to a minimum and carefully
_______________ in each case.
10. This ESL program puts a lot of _______________ on speaking and listening
skills.
11. The only _______________ that I can see of cutting the education budget is
that our children will suffer.
12. You shouldn't mix chemicals together in science class unless you know how
they will _______________
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outcome – react – layer – accomplish – illustrating – technical – conditions – illustrates –
justified – emphasis - emphasizes - tasks - proportion – core
13. The book has a whole _______________ of meaning that you may not get the
first time you read it.
14. Studies have shown that babies in the womb will _______________ to sudden
loud noises or bright lights that are flashed on the mother's belly.
15. To prepare for an exam, try looking at old tests and analyzing what the
professor _______________ in class.
Exercise 5: Complete the following sentences with the words in the box below: (N.B. One word may be used in more than one sentence)
1. When using new vocabulary or expressions, be sure to watch for the listeners'
_______________, in order to see if you are using the language properly.
2. People usually take credit for actions which produce favorable _______________,
but blame the situation when their actions are questionable.
3. The _______________ between smoking and cancer is too strong to ignore.
4. Students in our program will be graded according to the _______________
described in the course outline.
5. You'd better _______________ for the course pretty soon before it fills up.
6. Success or failure in learning a language will be determined by what you
yourself _______________ to the process.
7. The university's ESL website has a number of _______________ to some
grammar and vocabulary development sites.
8. The sole _______________ which is considered for the position is education.
We don't need people with previous experience, because we want them to
learn and use our system.
9. Computer _______________ is becoming an increasingly essential part of the
modern learning process.
10. Studies by Gradman and Hanania have shown that regular out of class reading
is the most important direct _______________ to success on the TOEFL test.
11. It is important to learn a process which will help you to _______________ the
meaning of new vocabulary from context.
12. Problem solving is a major _______________ of many science courses.
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links - criterion – technology - link – criteria – contributor – deduce – component -initial – convened – philosophy - register – contribute – reaction – outcomes
13. Psychologists have observed that most of the process of forgetting occurs soon
after _______________ exposure.
14. We didn't have time to finish our discussion of the issue so an additional
meeting will be _______________ tomorrow morning.
15. Western _______________ was largely founded on the writings of Plato and Aristotle.
Exercise 6: Complete the following sentences with the words in the box below: (N.B. One word may be used in more than one sentence)
1. So far, scientists have been unable to predict earthquakes with a high degree of
_______________.
2. The principal _______________ of population growth are natural increase and
net migration.
3. The curriculum guide provides a _______________ for new teachers to refer
to when making lesson plans.
4. Many psychologists believe that most animal species, including humans, seem
to share basic learning _______________.
5. There is an interesting _______________ which observes that 75% of the time
someone is speaking English in the world, it is with a non-native speaker.
6. The university has received a _______________ of over a million dollars for
research into tropical diseases.
7. After analyzing the available data, we decided to modify the original
_______________ of the spreadsheet to accommodate more information.
8. You need to apply a proper system of _______________ to solve these problems.
9. Emile Durkheim hypothesized that the more _______________ individuals
are into their society, the less likely they are to kill themselves.
10. Learning a second language is a _______________, but with continued effort
you can make continual progress.
11. Recent studies suggest that the use of physical action when reviewing new
vocabulary can _______________ second language learning.
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academic – reliability – components – challenge - logic – facilitate –
decline –framework – mechanisms – grant – integrated - statistic
12. The local high school has an excellent counseling program in which students
give advice to each other on personal and _______________ issues.
13. Online communications can _______________ learning in many different ways.
14. The elderly face numerous challenges presented by both physical
_______________, and the attitudes of society in general.
Reading Comprehension & Vocabulary
Pre-reading:1. How many approaches to educational research can you name in English?
2. Have you ever used any one of them? If your answer is 'Yes', which one(s) have
you used? When?
3. In your opinion, which approach or approaches are the most relevant to your
research interests? Why?.
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While-reading:While reading the following introduction on approaches to educational research, try to
find answers to the following two questions:
1. How do quantitative and qualitative research approaches differ from each other?
2. Why using more than one research style can be more suitable?
ReadingRead the following passage and then answer the questions below:
Approaches to Educational Research
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It is perfectly possible to undertake a worthwhile investigation without having detailed
knowledge of the various approaches to or styles of educational research, but a study of
different approaches will give insight into different ways of planning an investigation,
and, incidentally, will also enhance your understanding of the literature. One of the
problems of reading about research methods and reading research reports is the
terminology. Researchers use terms and occasionally jargon that may be
incomprehensible to other people. It is the same in any field, where a specialized
language develops to ease communication among professionals. So, before considering
the various stages of planning and conducting investigations, it may be helpful to
consider the main features of certain well-established and well-reported styles of
research.
Different styles, traditions or approaches use different methods of collecting data, but no
approach prescribes nor automatically rejects any particular method. Quantitative
researchers collect facts and study the relationship of one set of facts to another. They use
techniques that are likely to produce quantified and, if possible, generalizable
conclusions. Researchers adopting a qualitative perspective are more concerned to
understand individuals' perceptions of the world. They seek insight rather than statistical
analysis. They doubt whether social 'facts' exist and question whether a 'scientific'
approach can be used when dealing with human beings. Yet there are occasions when
qualitative researchers draw on quantitative techniques, and vice versa.
Classifying an approach as quantitative or qualitative, ethnographic, survey, action
research or whatever, does not mean that once an approach has been selected, the
researcher may not move from the methods normally associated with that style. Each
approach has its strengths and weaknesses and each is particularly suitable for a
particular context. The approach adopted and the methods of data collection selected will
depend on the nature of the inquiry and the type of information required.
Post Reading Questions: A) Say whether the following statement are TRUE/FALSE by ticking the appropriate box.
1. One can't do significant research without having detailed
TRUE FALSE
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knowledge of various approaches to research.
2. The term 'jargon' in line 6 is closest in meaning to
specialize language.
3. The more research styles or methods one uses, the better.
4. Quantitative research seeks insights into individuals'
perceptions.
B) Fill in the missing words in the summary of the introduction:
One difficulty of reading and understanding research can result from the ____________
used by researchers. Therefore, becoming familiar with certain research styles may be
__________ . Researchers interested in producing quantified and generalizable
conclusions use a ______________ approach, while those interested in better
understanding of individuals' perceptions use _______________ research styles. A
researcher may not solely depend on one research approach, so he/she may
use___________ approaches.
C) Without referring back to the passage above, try to fill in blank spaces with words
from the list below. After you have filled in all spaces, you can refer back to the
passage to check your answers.
features - insight - analysis - traditions - terminology - specialized - quantified -
collecting - approaches - jargon - perceptions - human - professionals - understanding -
investigation – data - quantitative – context - strengths - ethnographic - generalizable –
qualitative – draw -
Approaches to Educational Research
It is perfectly possible to undertake a worthwhile ___________ without having detailed
knowledge of the various _____________ to or styles of educational research, but a study
of different approaches will give _____________ into different ways of planning an
investigation, and, incidentally, will also enhance your ____________ of the literature.
One of the problems of reading about research methods and reading research reports is
the ______________. Researchers use terms and occasionally _____________ that may
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be incomprehensible to other people. It is the same in any field, where a _____________
language develops to ease communication among _____________. So, before
considering the various stages of planning and conducting investigations, it may be
helpful to consider the main ______________ of certain well-established and well-
reported styles of research.
Different styles, ______________ or approaches use different methods of __________
data, but no approach prescribes nor automatically rejects any particular method.
______________ researchers collect facts and study the relationship of one set of facts to
another. They use techniques that are likely to produce ____________ and, if possible,
________________ conclusions. Researchers adopting a ____________ perspective are
more concerned to understand individuals' ______________ of the world. They seek
insight rather than statistical _______________ . They doubt whether social 'facts' exist
and question whether a 'scientific' approach can be used when dealing with _________
beings. Yet there are occasions when qualitative researchers _____________ on
quantitative techniques, and vice versa.
Classifying an approach as quantitative or qualitative, _____________, survey, action
research or whatever, does not mean that once an approach has been selected, the
researcher may not move from the methods normally associated with that style. Each
approach has its ______________ and weaknesses and each is particularly suitable for a
particular _______________. The approach adopted and the methods of ____________
collection selected will depend on the nature of the inquiry and the type of information
required.
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Reading Comprehension & Vocabulary
Action research and the 'teacher as researcher' model
Pre-reading:1. How does action research differ from traditional research?
2. Have you ever practiced action research? If your answer is 'Yes', say when
and why?
3. In your opinion, is action research relevant to your research interests? Why?
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While-reading:While reading the following the following excerpt on action research, try to find
answers to the following two questions:
1. What are some of the aims of action research?
2. Why is action attractive to practitioners?
Action research and the 'teacher as researcher' model
There are many definitions of action research. Cohen and Manion describe it as
essentially an on-the-spot procedure designed to deal with a concrete problem located in
an immediate situation. This means that ideally, the step-by-step process is constantly
monitored over varying periods of time and by a variety of mechanisms (questionnaires,
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diaries, interviews and case studies, for example) so that the ensuing feedback may be
translated into modifications, adjustments, directional changes, redefinitions, as
necessary, so as to bring about lasting benefit to the ongoing process itself rather than to
some future occasion. (Cohen and Manion 1994: 192) As they point out, an important
feature of action research is that the task is not finished when the project ends. The
participants continue to review, evaluate and improve practice. Elliott (1991: 69) takes
the definition a stage further:
It aims to feed practical judgement in concrete situations, and the validity of the
'theories' or hypotheses it generates depends not so much on 'scientific' tests of
truth, as on their usefulness in helping people to act more intelligently and
skilfully. In action research 'theories' are not validated independently and then
applied to practice. They are validated through practice.
Brown and McIntyre, who describe an action-research model for curriculum innovation
in Scottish schools, also draw attention to the principle of deriving hypotheses from
practice. They write:
The research questions arise from an analysis of the problems of the
practitioners in the situation and the immediate aim then becomes that of
understanding those problems. The researcher/actor, at an early stage,
formulates speculative, tentative, general principles in relation to the problems
that have been identified; from these principles, hypotheses may then be
generated about what action is likely to lead to the desired improvements in
practice. Such action will then be tried out and data on its effects collected;
these data are used to revise the earlier hypotheses and identify more
appropriate action that reflects a modification of the general principles.
Collection of data on the effects of this new action may then generate further
hypotheses and modified principles, and so on as we move towards a greater
understanding and improvement of practice. This implies a continuous process
of research and the worth of the work is judged by the understanding of, and
desirable change in, the practice that is achieved. (Brown and McIntyre 1981:
245)
The essentially practical, problem-solving nature of action research makes this approach
attractive to practitioner-researchers who have identified a problem during the course of
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their work and see the merit of investigating it and, if possible, of improving practice.
There is nothing new about practitioners operating as researchers, and the 'teacher as
researcher' model has been extensively discussed (Bartholomew 1971, Cope and Gray
1979, Raven and Parker 1981).
Action research is not, of course, limited to projects carried out by teachers in an
educational setting. It is appropriate in any context when 'specific knowledge is required
for a specific problem in a specific situation, or when a new approach is to be grafted on
to an existing system' (Cohen and Manion 1994: 194). Action research needs to be
planned in the same systematic way as any other type of research, and the methods
selected for gathering information will depend on the nature of the information required.
Action research is not a method or technique. It is an approach which has proved to be
particularly attractive to educators because of its practical, problem-solving emphasis,
because practitioners (sometimes with researchers from outside the institution; other
times not) carry out the research and because the research is directed towards greater
understanding and improvement of practice over a period of time.
Post Reading: A) Say whether the following statement are TRUE/FALSE by ticking the appropriate box.
1. Action research is designed to deal with concrete problems.
2. Validity of the 'theories' or hypotheses generated
by action research depends not so much on 'scientific' tests
of truth.
3. The italicized 'formulates in the passage is closest
in meaning to 'originate'.
4. Action research is just a procedure.
TRUE FALSE
B) Fill in the missing words in the summary of the introduction:
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Action research focuses on __________ problems in an immediate ________. It uses a variety
of mechanisms such as___________, diaries, __________ and case studies, etc. It is hoped
that data obtained will be translated into __________, ___________, and _________. The
usefulness of action research lies in helping people act more __________ and ___________.
The research questions arise from an _________ of the problems of the practitioners in the
________ and the immediate _______ then becomes that of understanding those ___________.
The essentially practical, problem-solving nature of action research makes this approach
attractive to practitioner-researchers who have identified a problem during the course of their
work and see the merit of investigating it and, if possible, of improving practice. There is
nothing new about practitioners operating as researchers, and the 'teacher as researcher' model
has been extensively discussed (Bartholomew 1971, Cope and Gray 1979, Raven and Parker
1981).
Action research is not, of course, limited to projects carried out by teachers in an educational
setting. It is appropriate in any context when 'specific knowledge is required for a specific
problem in a specific situation, or when a new approach is to be grafted on to an existing system'
(Cohen and Manion 1994: 194). Action research needs to be planned in the same systematic way
as any other type of research, and the methods selected for gathering information will depend on
the nature of the information required. Action research is not a method or technique. It is an
approach which has proved to be particularly attractive to educators because of its practical,
problem-solving emphasis, because practitioners (sometimes with researchers from outside the
institution; other times not) carry out the research and because the research is directed towards
greater understanding and improvement of practice over a period of time.
C) Without referring back to the passage above, try to fill in blank spaces with words from the list below:
redefinitions - situation - projects - mechanisms - practitioners - benefit - modifications - process - grafted - evaluate - approach - setting - concrete – practical - procedure – practice – merit - truth – planned - improvement - gathering - educators - context
There are many definitions of action research. Cohen and Manion describe it as essentially an on-the-spot ____________ designed to deal with a _________ problem located in an immediate____________. This means that ideally, the step-by-step __________ is constantly monitored over varying periods of time and by a variety of __________ (questionnaires, diaries, interviews and case studies, for example) so that the ensuing feedback may be translated into ___________, adjustments, directional changes, ___________ , as necessary, so as to bring about lasting _________ to the ongoing process itself rather than to some future occasion. (Cohen and Manion 1994: 192) As they point out, an important feature of action research is that the task is not finished when the project ends. The participants continue to review, ________ and improve ________..
The essentially _____________, problem-solving nature of action research makes this approach attractive to practitioner-researchers who have identified a problem during the course of their work and see the __________ of investigating it and, if possible, of improving practice. There is nothing new about ____________ operating as researchers, and the 'teacher as researcher' model has been extensively discussed (Bartholomew 1971, Cope and Gray 1979, Raven and Parker 1981). Action research is not, of course, limited to ____________ carried out by teachers in an educational ____________. It is appropriate in any ___________ when 'specific knowledge is required for a specific problem in a specific situation, or when a new approach is to be ___________ on to an existing system' (Cohen and Manion 1994: 194). Action research needs to be __________ in the same systematic way as any other type of research, and the methods selected for ___________ information will depend on the nature of the information required. Action research is not a method or technique. It is an
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___________ which has proved to be particularly attractive to __________ because of its practical, problem-solving emphasis, because practitioners (sometimes with researchers from outside the institution; other times not) carry out the research and because the research is directed towards greater understanding and ____________ of practice over a period of time.
Children for whom school has no pointMany children do not go to school either because their parents want them at home as
carers for siblings, or simply because their parents cannot be bothered to send them.
Thousands more are not registered at any school at all, because of their families'
unstable lives. Underlying this dreadful situation there are two central truths. First of
all, the problem of children not going to school often has more to do with their parents
than with the children themselves. Secondly, once children go to school, we need to
make sure that the experience is a positive one so that they want to keep on going. In
Britain, the Ministry of Education has introduced a complex package of sticks and
carrots to persuade schools to bring truants' and excluded children back into the
classroom. It is paying grants so that a thousand schools can set up special units to
help these children. Schools receive the grant if they bring a target number of children
back to school; if they do not meet the target, the grant is withdrawn. Parents are the
subject of this campaign, too: the Home Office has introduced fines for parents who
fail to send their children to school, and has given the police power to pick up truants
on the streets.
'truant = a child who does not go to school when he or she should.
1. Answer the following questions using your words.
a) Why do many parents not send their children to school?
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b) How are the authorities trying to solve this problem?
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2. Are the following statements true (T) or false (F)?
a) The problem of truancy is mainly a matter of obedience. __________
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b) It is very hard to persuade children that if they go to school, they will be
able to get a job. ___________
3. Find a word or phrase in the text which, in context, is similar in meaning to:
a) someone who looks after a relative at home _______________
b) turbulent _______________
4. Choose, a, b, or c, in each question below. Only one choice is correct.
1. According to the text, there are thousands of children who ...
a) stay at home doing the housework.
b) live in stable families.
c) are not registered at any school.
2. Part of the problem is ...
a) that people feel very emotional.
b) that there are not enough police to pick up truants on the streets.
c) that these children think education is a waste of time.
3. The Ministry of Education will take away a school's grant if ...
a) they do not reach their objectives.
b) they meet their targets.
c) children escape from school.
4. The Home Office ...
a) will give money to parents to send children to school.
b) will punish parents who fail to send their children to school
c) has given powers to the police to pick up parents.
5. Composition (100-150 words approximately). Choose one of the following topics
1. Discuss the problem of truancy, and suggest a possible solution.
2. Education is important. Explain why
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GLOBAL ENGLISH
The global English of our times has all the benefits of the standardizing process we
have been describing. There is a recognized standard in Britain and America. There is
also an agreed, standardized vocabulary and spelling system. Or nearly. Global
English speaks with two voices: British and American. A student in, say, Japan or
Saudi Arabia is confronted with not one version, but two, a distinction recognized by
the main language schools, like Berlitz, who offer either British English or American
English to their pupils. The differences are essentially differences of accent,
inflection, spelling and, above all, vocabulary: apartment versus flat, buddy versus
mate, candy versus sweets, diaper versus nappy. There are so many different
expressions that America’s Associated Press and Britain’s Reuters news agencies
have to translate English into English. The Reuters office in New York has a twelve-
page list of common terms requiring translation and many are the books that compile
jokes about box, knock up and fag.
QUESTIONS
1. Answer the following questions using your own words.
a. What is the greatest difference between British and American English?
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b. How many varieties of English do some school languages teach? Which ones?
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2. Are the following statements true or false?
a. Great Britain and America have different language standards. _______b. Americans do not understand some British expressions. _________
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3. Find a word or phrase in the text which, in context, is similar in meaning to:
a. Words: ____________________
b. Tongue: ____________________
4. Choose a, b or c in each question below. Only one choice is correct.
1. The standard in America
a. is different from the standard in Britain.
b. is the same as the standard in Britain.
c. can also be found in Japan and Saudi Arabia.
2. Some students of English as a foreign language
a. can only learn British English.
b. can only learn American English.
c. can choose between British and American English.
3. Berlitz is
a. a British word.
b. a language school.
c. a news agency.
4. Some English words at Reuters
a. have to be translated into English.
b. cannot be translated.
c. have to be translated into another language.
5. Composition. Differences between mother language and foreign language.
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__________________________________________________________________________
THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH
The cross-cultural spread of English is unprecedented in other ways. It is more widely
used than any of the other colonial languages like French, Portuguese or Spanish. It
even has a wider use than some of the languages associated with international non-
Western religious traditions, like Arabic or Sanskrit. In countries like India and
Nigeria, English is used at all levels of society: in local English- language newspapers
and broadcasting, in public administration, in university education, in the major
industries, the courts and the civil service. Indeed, with nearly 200 languages, India
needs English to unify the country. Professor Lal, a champion of Indian English, who
runs a well-known writers’ workshop, claims that in simple numerical terms, in a
country of 840 million, ‘more Indians speak English and write English than in
England itself ... You know what Malcolm Muggeridge said: “The last Englishman
left will be an Indian.”
QUESTIONS
1. Answer the following questions using your own words.
a. Why is English more important than other colonial languages?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
b. Why is English so important in India?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Are the following statements true or false?
a. Professor Lal manages a writers’ workshop in India. ________b. Malcom Muggeridge said that Indians are left-handed. _______
3. Find a word or phrase in the text which, in context, is similar in meaning to: (1
21
point)
States (v): ____________________
Higher education: ____________________
4. Choose a, b or c in each question below. Only one choice is correct.
1. The way English is spreading is
a. something normal.
b. absolutely unusual.
c. quite uncertain.
2. The use of English is
a. as frequent as other colonial languages.
b. less frequent than other colonial languages.
c. more frequent than other colonial languages.
3. In India and Nigeria, English
a. has a general use.
b. is used only in the streets.
c. is used by newspapers and the people who read it.
4. India
a. has fewer English speakers than Great Britain.
b. has 840 different languages.
c. has more English speakers than Great Britain.
5. Composition (100-150 words). English and Spanish in the world.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
22
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Reading skills for academic study: Scanning for specific information.
Read the following text quickly and fill in the table. What do the numbers given in the table refer to?
1%
2%
6%
13%
16%
30%
3/4
86%
Spoon-fed feel lost at the cutting edge
Before arriving at university students will have been powerfully influenced by their
school's approach to learning particular subjects. Yet this is only rarely taken into
account by teachers in higher education, according to new research carried out at
Nottingham University, which could explain why so many students experience
problems making the transition.
Historian Alan Booth says there is a growing feeling on both sides of the Atlantic that
the shift from school to university-style learning could be vastly improved. But little
consensus exists about who or what is at fault when the students cannot cope. "School
teachers commonly blame the poor quality of university teaching, citing factors such
as large first-year lectures, the widespread use of inexperienced postgraduate tutors
and the general lack of concern for students in an environment where research is
dominant in career progression," Dr Booth said.
23
Many university tutors on the other hand claim that the school system is failing to
prepare students for what will be expected of them at university. A-level history in
particular is seen to be teacher-dominated, creating a passive dependency culture.
But while both sides are bent on attacking each other, little is heard during such
exchanges from the students themselves, according to Dr Booth, who has devised a
questionnaire to test the views of more than 200 first-year history students at
Nottingham over a three-year period. The students were asked about their experience
of how history is taught at the outset of their degree programme. It quickly became
clear that teaching methods in school were pretty staid.
About 30 per cent of respondents claimed to have made significant use of primary
sources (few felt very confident in handling them) and this had mostly been in
connection with project work. Only 16 per cent had used video/audio; 2 per cent had
experienced field trips and less than 1 per cent had engaged in role-play.
Dr Booth found students and teachers were frequently restricted by the assessment
style which remains dominated by exams. These put obstacles in the way of more
adventurous teaching and active learning, he said. Of the students in the survey just 13
per cent felt their A-level course had prepared them very well for work at university.
Three-quarters felt it had prepared them fairly well.
One typical comment sums up the contrasting approach: "At A-level we tended to be
spoon-fed with dictated notes and if we were told to do any background reading
(which was rare) we were told exactly which pages to read out of the book".
To test this further the students were asked how well they were prepared in specific
skills central to degree level history study. The answers reveal that the students felt
most confident at taking notes from lectures and organising their notes. They were
least able to give an oral presentation and there was no great confidence in
contributing to seminars, knowing how much to read, using primary sources and
searching for texts. Even reading and taking notes from a book were often
24
problematic. Just 6 per cent of the sample said they felt competent at writing essays,
the staple A level assessment activity.
The personal influence of the teacher was paramount. In fact individual teachers were
the centre of students' learning at A level with some 86 per cent of respondents
reporting that their teachers had been more influential in their development as
historians than the students' own reading and thinking.
The ideal teacher turned out to be someone who was enthusiastic about the subject; a
good clear communicator who encouraged discussion. The ideal teacher was able to
develop students involvement and independence. He or she was approachable and
willing to help. The bad teacher, according to the survey, dictates notes and allows no
room for discussion. He or she makes students learn strings of facts; appears
uninterested in the subject and fails to listen to other points of view.
No matter how poor the students judged their preparedness for degree-level study,
however, there was a fairly widespread optimism that the experience would change
them significantly, particularly in terms of their open mindedness and ability to cope
with people.
But it was clear, Dr Booth said, that the importance attached by many departments to
third-year teaching could be misplaced. "Very often tutors regard the third year as the
crucial time, allowing postgraduates to do a lot of the earlier teaching. But I am
coming to the conclusion that the first year at university is the critical point of
intervention".
Alison Utley, Times Higher Education Supplement. February 6th, 1998.
25
Reading skills for academic study: Skimming for gistRead the first sentence of each paragraph in the following text.
Look at the structure of the following text.
The Personal Qualities of a Teacher
1. Here I want to try to give you an answer to the question: What personal
qualities are desirable in a teacher? Probably no two people would draw up
exactly similar lists, but I think the following would be generally accepted.
2. First, the teacher’s personality should be pleasantly live and attractive. This
does not rule out people who are physically plain, or even ugly, because many
such have great personal charm. But it does rule out such types as the over-
excitable, melancholy, frigid, sarcastic, cynical, frustrated, and over-bearing : I
would say too, that it excludes all of dull or purely negative personality. I still
stick to what I said in my earlier book: that school children probably ‘suffer
more from bores than from brutes’.
3. Secondly, it is not merely desirable but essential for a teacher to have a
genuine capacity for sympathy - in the literal meaning of that word; a capacity
to tune in to the minds and feelings of other people, especially, since most
teachers are school teachers, to the minds and feelings of children. Closely
related with this is the capacity to be tolerant - not, indeed, of what is wrong,
but of the frailty and immaturity of human nature which induce people, and
again especially children, to make mistakes.
4. Thirdly, I hold it essential for a teacher to be both intellectually and morally
honest. This does not mean being a plaster saint. It means that he will be
aware of his intellectual strengths, and limitations, and will have thought about
and decided upon the moral principles by which his life shall be guided. There
is no contradiction in my going on to say that a teacher should be a bit of an
26
actor. That is part of the technique of teaching, which demands that every now
and then a teacher should be able to put on an act - to enliven a lesson, correct
a fault, or award praise. Children, especially young children, live in a world
that is rather larger than life.
5. A teacher must remain mentally alert. He will not get into the profession if of
low intelligence, but it is all too easy, even for people of above-average
intelligence, to stagnate intellectually - and that means to deteriorate
intellectually. A teacher must be quick to adapt himself to any situation,
however improbable and able to improvise, if necessary at less than a
moment’s notice. (Here I should stress that I use ‘he’ and ‘his’ throughout the
book simply as a matter of convention and convenience.)
6. On the other hand, a teacher must be capable of infinite patience. This, I may
say, is largely a matter of self-discipline and self-training; we are none of us
born like that. He must be pretty resilient; teaching makes great demands on
nervous energy. And he should be able to take in his stride the innumerable
petty irritations any adult dealing with children has to endure.
7. Finally, I think a teacher should have the kind of mind which always wants to
go on learning. Teaching is a job at which one will never be perfect; there is
always something more to learn about it. There are three principal objects of
study: the subject, or subjects, which the teacher is teaching; the methods by
which they can best be taught to the particular pupils in the classes he is
teaching; and - by far the most important - the children, young people, or
adults to whom they are to be taught. The two cardinal principles of British
education today are that education is education of the whole person, and that it
is best acquired through full and active co-operation between two persons, the
teacher and the learner.
(From Teaching as a Career, by H. C. Dent)
Notice how reading these sentences gives you a good idea about the meaning of the
text: six qualities of a teacher. If you need more details, read the text again.
27
Notice how the text is structured. Paragraph 1 asks a question and paragraphs 2 - 7
answer it.
Question What are the desirable personal qualities in a teacher? paragraph 1
Answer
Quality 1. personality should be pleasantly live and attractive paragraph 2
Quality 2. essential to have a genuine capacity for sympathy paragraph 3
Quality 3. essential to be both intellectually and morally
honestparagraph 4
Quality 4. must remain mentally alert paragraph 5
Quality 5. must be capable of infinite patience paragraph 6
Quality 6. should have the kind of mind which always wants
to go on learningparagraph 7
Researching the essayLanguage Teaching: ExerciseLanguage Teaching is an abstracting journal. It is the international research resource
for language professionals, published in association with The Centre for Information
on Language Teaching and Research (CILT) and the British Council. It brings
together in one journal the latest findings in important research worldwide in language
teaching and learning. Each four-part volume contains some 700 abstracts which
summarize significant research selected from key international periodicals in the field.
Find articles that might be useful for essays on the following topics:
Oral skills in German Engineers learning English vocabulary Chinese students listening to English Speed of speech
1Altaha, F. M. and Al-Easa, Noor S. (The U. of Qatar, Doha, The State Of Qatar).
Attitude and achievement in learning English as a foreign language. ITL Review of
Applied Linguistics (Leuven, Belgium), 133-134 (2001), 303-23.
28
This study investigated the attitudes of Qatari female university students towards
English and its speakers, and towards the role of the teacher and the role of the family,
in order to determine the influence of these attitudes on the students' achievement in
learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The results showed that the
participants had a positive attitude towards English and its speakers. It also showed
that there was no significant correlation between the attitudes of the learners and their
achievement. Another conclusion drawn from the data is that the students were
instrumentally, not integratively, motivated: they did not want to associate themselves
with the target language group and integrate themselves into the new culture; the
primary motivating factors for learning English were to get a job, further their careers,
read original publications, watch English series and movies, trade, and most
importantly, travel abroad, which is seen as a status symbol.
2Altenberg, Bengt (Lund U., Sweden) and Granger, Sylviane (Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium). The grammatical and lexical patterning of MAKE in native and non-native student writing. Applied Linguistics (Oxford, UK), 22, 2 (2001), 173-94.
This article investigates the use of high frequency verbs by learners of English as a
Foreign Language (EFL), and in particular use of the verb MAKE, a major
representative of this group. The main questions addressed are whether learners tend
to over- or underuse these verbs; whether high-frequency verbs are error-prone or
safe; and what part transfer plays in misuse of these verbs. To answer these questions,
authentic learner data has been compared with native speaker data using computerised
corpora and linguistic software tools to speed up the initial stage of the linguistic
analysis. The article focuses on what prove to be the two most distinctive uses of
MAKE, viz., the delexical and causative uses. Results show that EFL learners, even at
an advanced proficiency level, have great difficulty with a high frequency verb such
as MAKE. They also demonstrate that some of these problems are shared by the two
groups of learners under consideration (Swedish- and French-speaking learners) while
others seem to be first language-related. The pedagogical implications of the study are
discussed and suggestions made for using concordance-based exercises as a way of
raising learners' awareness of the complexity of high-frequency verbs.
29
3Berndt, Annette (Gesamthochschule Kassel, Germany). Subjektive Theorien zweier Fremdsprachenlernerinnen im Seniorenalter. [Subjective Theories in two third-age foreign language learners.] Zeitschrift f�r Fremdsprachenforschung (Berlin, Germany), 11, 2 (2000), 93-124.
The study described here is part of a more comprehensive investigation into third-age
language learning. The sample consists of learners of German as a foreign language at
one of the Université della Terza Eté in Rome. The article firstly positions Subjective
Theories as research method within the framework of present methodological
discussion. The author then illustrates the application of this method in its adapted
form in the context of her own research. In a third step she gives a succinct
presentation of the entire corpus with detailed focus on two particular learners and
their Subjective Theories of language learning. The article concludes with a
discussion of the extent to which communicative validation - which is the first access
to the model of Subjective Theories - may enhance the interpretation of empirical data
compared to qualitative interviews in this particular case.
4Bley-Vroman, Robert and Joo, Hye-Ri (U. of Hawai'i, USA). The acquisition and interpretation of English locative constructions by native speakers of Korean. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 23, 2 (2001), 207-19.
The English locative alternation relates sentences of the type John loaded hay onto the
wagon to those of the type John loaded the wagon with hay. Some locative verbs
occur in both of these patterns, others in only one or the other. It is known that there
are differences among languages with respect to which verbs are possible. The present
research focuses on the constructional meaning of the locative alternation and on the
constraints governing verbs that can participate in the alternation. One characteristic
of the 'ground-object' locative is that the object tends to be viewed as completely
affected - this is known as the holism effect. Additionally, English has certain narrow
constraints on the verbs that can occur in the two constructions. This study
investigates whether native speakers of Korean learning English develop knowledge
of the holism effect in the English locative and knowledge of the narrow constraints.
English native speakers and Korean learners of English participated in a forced-choice
picture-description task. Korean native speakers also judged an equivalent test
instrument in Korean. Results show that, when given a ground-object structure, both
30
learners and English native speakers preferentially chose a groundholism picture. This
is interpreted as a reflection of the holism effect: learners, like native speakers, have
knowledge of this aspect of the constructional meaning of the locative. English native
speakers also show their knowledge of the narrow conflation classes by rejecting
ground-object structures containing verbs not permitted in this structure, even if the
picture would be appropriate. Korean learners show no effect for narrow verb class,
which is interpreted as showing that the learners have not achieved native speaker
knowledge of the narrow classes. Korean uses a different basis for verb classification.
5Boulton, Alex (Université de Nancy 2, France). From oxidation to Paf the Dog: mental images of student engineers in English vocabulary association and retention. ASp (Anglais de Spécialité) (Bordeaux, France), 27/30 (2000), 33-47.
Vocabulary is commonly held to be one of the biggest and most daunting obstacles
facing second language (L2) learners. This observation is no doubt due at least in part
to the prevalence of inadequate techniques. Many applied linguists have therefore
directed their efforts towards exploiting the widely-confirmed psychological
phenomenon that durability of memory traces is intimately connected with the
affective strength of mental images and associations. This article describes two
experiments, analysing types of images and associations spontaneously produced by
English L2 learners without specific training. In the first experiment, a 'random' list of
words is presented visually, and recall rates used to demonstrate a variety of
psychological phenomena. In the second study, students are tested for production and
subsequent recall of lexical associations. Implications are formulated for lexical
strategies and for the teaching and learning of L2 vocabulary.
6Bruen, Jennifer (Dublin City U., Ireland). Strategies for success: profiling the effective learner of German. Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 34, 3 (2001), 216-25.
Teachers and learners are often uncertain about the processes at work when students
attempt to acquire oral skills in a foreign language. The primary objective of this
study is to identify the language-learning strategies associated with the achievement
of higher levels of oral proficiency in German for 100 Irish students about to complete
their second year at Dublin City University. It also investigates the way these
strategies are used by those with higher and lower levels of proficiency. The
31
methodology combines quantitative assessment (using questionnaires) with in-depth,
qualitative interviews. The article begins by explaining key concepts in the field of
language learning strategy research and then reviews a selection of relevant studies.
The experiment is then described, the results indicating that more-proficient students
use more language-learning strategies, in particular more cognitive and metacognitive
strategies. Ten of the strategies correlate with higher levels of oral proficiency at a
significant level. These provide a tentative strategic profile of the more effective
learner of German. The qualitative findings suggest that more proficient students use
language-learning strategies in a more structured and purposeful manner and apply
them to a wider range of situations and tasks. The article concludes with implications
for language pedagogy and for future research.
7Dekydtspotter, Laurent (Indiana U., USA;). The Universal Parser and interlanguage: domain-specific mental organisation in the comprehension of combien interrogatives in English-French interlanguage. Second Language Research (London, UK), 17, 2 (2001), 91-143.
From the perspective of Fodor's (1983) theory of mental organisation and Chomsky's
(1995) Minimalist theory of grammar, the present author considers constraints on the
interpretation of French-type and English-type cardinality interrogatives in the task of
sentence comprehension, as a function of a universal parsing algorithm (Universal
Parser) and hypotheses embodied in a French-type vs. English-type functional lexicon
respectively. It is argued on the basis of the n Language learning interpretation of
cardinality interrogatives in English- French interlanguage that second language
comprehension appears to require this view of mental organisation in which a
universal parsing algorithm interacts with an interlanguage lexicon. Specifically, it is
argued that the Minimalist view of mental organisation in the area of grammar
provides some insight into the basis of these constraints in mental functioning.
8Dekydtspotter, Laurent and Sprouse, Rex A. (Indiana U., USA). Mental design and (second) language epistemology: adjectival restrictions of wh-quantifiers and tense in
32
English-French interlanguage. Second Language Research (London, UK), 17, 1 (2001), 1-35.
This study addresses the issue of second language (L2) epistemology assuming
Chomsky's (1995) discussion of the place of Universal Grammar (UG) in mental
design: i.e., the optimal solution to the mental design problem for language in the
sense of Minimalist theory. Aspects of interpretation of continuous and discontinuous
interrogatives of the form qui de AP ('who (of) AP') in first language and L2
acquisition appear to follow from principles of economy in mental design and
language-dependent hypotheses. It is argued here that such knowledge is guaranteed
to arise in the absence of relevant input only if a grammar is a realisation of language-
dependent hypotheses and basic principles of grammar, but crucially not if it consists
of a set of (derivative) grammatical theorems not constrained by principles of optimal
design.
Researching the essayLinguistics Abstracts: ExerciseLinguistics Abstracts contains abstracts in English of linguistics articles appearing in
more than 140 journals from over 20 countries. Each abstract is classified and cross-
classified according to area, so that it is easy to locate abstracts on a common topic.
Linguistics Abstracts abstracts scholarly articles appearing in linguistics journals and
selected university and laboratory working papers. It also selectively abstracts
scholarly articles of linguistic interest from journals in related fields and general
scientific journals. It is published 4 times per year and is also available on-line.
Find articles that might be useful for essays on the following topics:
Plagiarism Using tests for different languages Group work - Using computers
1Moon, Young-in. 2002. Korean university students' awareness of plagiarism in summary writings. Language Research. 38 (4): 1349-1365. The present study examines Korean university students' awareness of plagiarism in
summary writings. Twenty nine university students were asked to write English
33
summaries of an English source text. They were then given the instruction on what is
plagiarism and why they should avoid it. Finally, they were again asked to write the
second summary writings of the same source text. The degrees of exact copying in the
first and second summaries were compared based on the meaningful unit. The results
showed that a 3-hour class session, which mainly focused on the warnings against
plagiarism, had an enormous effect on the reduction of the copying degree in students'
summary writing. The students illustrated the ability to summarize the text in their
own words in the second summaries. They mainly copied in the first summary
because they lacked the understanding of the notion of plagiarism. It was suggested
that students should be informed of the concept of plagiarism and be trained to
paraphrase and write in their own words.
2Zumbo, Bruno D. 2003. Does item level DIF manifest itself in scale-level analyses? Implications for translating language tests. Language Testing. 20 (2): 136-147.
Based on the observation that scale-level methods are sometimes exclusively used to
investigate measurement invariance for test translation, this article describes the
results of a simulation study investigating whether item-level differential item
functioning (DIF) manifests itself in scale-level analyses such as single and multi-
group factor analyses and per group coefficient alpha. The simulation factors were
two levels of DIF (moderate and large) and four levels of percentage of items with
DIF (ranging from approximately 3-41 of the items). The results indicate that item-
level DIF did not manifest itself in the scale-level results. Clearly, then, translation
efforts in language testing should ensure measurement equivalence by investigating
item-level translation DIF, and it may be misleading to give consideration only to the
scale-level methods results as evidence of translation equivalence.
3Sireci, Stephen G. and Avi Allalouf. 2003. Appraising item equivalence across multiple languages and cultures. Language Testing. 20 (2): 148-166.
Activity in the area of language testing is expanding beyond second language
acquisition. In many contexts, tests that measure language skills are being translated
34
into several different languages so that parallel versions exist for use in multilingual
contexts. To ensure that translated items are equivalent to their original versions, both
statistical and qualitative analyses are necessary. In this article, we describe a
statistical method for evaluating the translation equivalence of test items that are
scored dichotomously. We provide an illustration of the method to a portion of the
verbal subtest of the Psychometric Entrance Test, which is a large-scale post-
secondary admissions test used in Israel. By evaluating translated items statistically,
language test developers can ensure the comparability of tests across languages and
they can identify the types of problems that should be avoided in future translation
efforts.
4Lokan, Jan and Marianne Fleming. 2003. Issues in adapting a computer assisted career guidance system for use in another country. Language Testing. 20 (2): 167-177.
An extensive adaptation exercise was undertaken by the Australian Council for
Educational Research (ACER) when it was decided to modify the 1988 version of the
American `SIGI Plus' (System for Interactive Guidance, plus more) (Educational
Testing Service, 1981 and later dates) for Australian conditions. The information is of
several kinds, requiring varying degrees of validation and checking for local
appropriateness. Although the same language, English, was involved, there are
substantial differences in education systems and educational pathways, and noticeable
differences in occupational conditions and people's value systems. Adaptations were
needed at the level of the language (terminology), factual details relating to the
vocational world (starting salaries, workplace conditions, legislation), and the
educational world (educational programs, extracurricular facilities, further education).
The self-assessment modules had to be adapted and then validated against Australian
occupational criteria. Teams comprising occupational psychologists from government
departments, career teachers, and counsellors both from educational and corporate
settings adapted and verified all information and assessment components. Finally, all
adaptations needed to be implemented in the computer program, requiring frequent
and thorough system testing. The steps in the adaptation and validation procedures are
outlined following a brief discussion of elements of career guidance and a description
of SIGI Plus itself.
35
5Lokan, Jan and Marianne Fleming. 2003. Issues in adapting a computer assisted career guidance system for use in another country. Language Testing. 20 (2): 167-177.
An extensive adaptation exercise was undertaken by the Australian Council for
Educational Research (ACER) when it was decided to modify the 1988 version of the
American `SIGI Plus' (System for Interactive Guidance, plus more) (Educational
Testing Service, 1981 and later dates) for Australian conditions. The information is of
several kinds, requiring varying degrees of validation and checking for local
appropriateness. Although the same language, English, was involved, there are
substantial differences in education systems and educational pathways, and noticeable
differences in occupational conditions and people's value systems. Adaptations were
needed at the level of the language (terminology), factual details relating to the
vocational world (starting salaries, workplace conditions, legislation), and the
educational world (educational programs, extracurricular facilities, further education).
The self-assessment modules had to be adapted and then validated against Australian
occupational criteria. Teams comprising occupational psychologists from government
departments, career teachers, and counsellors both from educational and corporate
settings adapted and verified all information and assessment components. Finally, all
adaptations needed to be implemented in the computer program, requiring frequent
and thorough system testing. The steps in the adaptation and validation procedures are
outlined following a brief discussion of elements of career guidance and a description
of SIGI Plus itself.
6Chae, Sunhee. 2003. Adaptation of a picture-type creativity test for preschool children. Language Testing. 20 (2): 178-188.
The Test for Creative Thinking - Drawing Production (TCT-DP) is a creativity test,
suitable for most age and ability groups. It was developed by Jellen & Urban (1986)
and has been used mainly in Europe. This study explores the possibility of
36
implementing TCT-DP amongst kindergarten children in Korea. Results from a TCT-
DP field study on 1366 Korean pre-school children are comparable to those found in
previously reported German studies of TCT-DP. The article presents steps taken to
adapt TCT-DP to a different culture. These steps include: test translation, test
implementation, scoring, selection and training of test agents and graders, norm
construction, and score interpretation. The findings provide useful information for
practitioners wishing to adapt foreign psychological tests such as TCT-DP to different
cultures, especially in relation to the assessment of pre-school children.
7Stansfield, Charles W. 2003. Test translation and adaptation in public education in the USA. Language Testing. 20 (2): 189-207. The use of translated versions of formal educational assessments is becoming more
common in the United States of America (USA). This is due to two converging
factors: (1) legislation passed during the Clinton and Bush administrations; (2) an
influx of non-English-speaking immigrants, especially from Latin America. Against
this background, this article discusses theoretical and practical issues pertaining to the
translation or adaptation of educational assessments in the USA. These issues include
the role of language proficiency and academic background in performance on
standards-based achievement tests in different languages, factors affecting the
decision whether to translate tests, translation methods and procedures, the degree to
which translated tests are used in the USA, current laws influencing the use of
translation, and the role that language testing specialists may play in this arena.
8McQueen, Joy and Juliette Mendelovits. 2003. PISA reading: cultural equivalence in
a cross-cultural study. Language Testing. 20 (2): 208224.
The first cycle of the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
was conducted in 2000. Students in 32 countries were surveyed to assess their reading
literacy, mathematical literacy and scientific literacy. It is essential in an international
study of this type that the assessment materials be culturally appropriate for the many
37
participating groups. They must also be linguistically equivalent, and make sense
psychometrically for individual countries as well as for the group of participants as a
whole. This article discusses the steps taken to attain cultural relevance and
appropriateness in the reading literacy construct, and in the stimulus materials and
items which operationalize it. It explains the influence of multilingual considerations
on the development of the reading literacy assessment instrument and notes some
psychometric procedures used to maximize the validity of the instrument in an
international context.
38
