English Etnik

8/19/2019 English Etnik

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ABSTRACTThere are numerous problems involved In counseling minority group members. Rapport isdifficult to establish because other racial and/or cultural attitudes client and\counselor havetoard one another! conse"uently the client often finds# his on goals in opposition to those of counseling. The fisting cultural gap also leads to different patterns of transference and counter

transference! the client e$pects. %unishment and re&ection from the counselor' hile the latter might either be e$cessively sympathetic and indulgent ith minority clients or convey (the greathite father syndrome( to his clients. )anguage is another important factor hich hinderseffective communications beteen counselors and clients coming from different cultural bac*grounds. +inally' the psychological characteristics of self,hatred' machismo' unillingnessto self,disclose' and modesty are other barriers to successful counseling. -any specific tests arenot recommended for use ith minority groups that have' been culturally isolated and do notspea* nglish fluently. Counselors should thoroughly understand all aspects of minority groupcultures and should be careful in recommendations that aim to help their clears.S0

Racial and Ethnic Barriers in- Counseling

The racial and ethnic diversity of people in the 1nited States has never been denied.arly observers characteri2ed the nation as a 3melting pot'( a fol*sy concept hich suggestedthat culturally different citi2ens eventually ould lose the distinct identities separating them andall ould become ali*e. The concept aptly described many assimilated,oriented immigrants'ho ere so committed to becoming (real Americans4 that their social and cultural interests'identities and allegiances lay predominantly ith the host society rather than in the ethniccommunity or the old country. The least assimilated,oriented immigrants confined themselves totheir ethnic conclaves' spo*e their languages proudly' orshipped in their on ay' and ingeneral *ept alive ethnic subcultures.

As racial and ethnic enclaves gre and became' more prominent and annoying to the

dominant cultural group' the concept 3cultural pluralism4 developed a special' appeal toAmericans verbally committed to the ideals of democracy and tolerance 5int2' 67870. Theconcept implied cooperation' beteen ma&ority and minority! it suggested mutual respect'appreciation and acceptance of cultural differences! and it implied that minorities ould nothave to fear repression or obliteration of their heritages. Cultural pluralism as put to a severetest during the great push for civil rights in the 679:s and 678:s hen the and most severelye$cluded minority in the 1nited States' Americans of blac* African descent' stood forth asnever before great pride in their racial and ethnic heritage. Similary' other racial and ethnicgroups,,,American Indians' Spanish heritage people' American ;es to name a fe < reaffirmedtheir identities as they decried the ine"ualities inflicted upon them by dominant groupAmericans. The demands and demonstrations of racial and ethnic minorities revealed to the ordthat the 1nited States is composed of numerous subgroup' many of hom' for various reasonencounter almost insurmountable obstacles to e"ual participation in the society. The protest for e"ual right caused a variety of reactions from mainstream Americans. These ranged fromhumanitarian concern to overt hostility toards the minorities ho had upset the social status

The social phenomenon described above reflects the fact thathen human groups e$ist separately for hatever reason' voluntarily or forced' they' in time'develop different language habits and nuances' personalities' perceptions of themselves andothers' and values and norms hich guide their behavior. They become culturally different. The



differences' in turn' become reasons for e$clusion by those in poer. In the 1nited States' to thedegree that racial and ethnic minorities are different from the dominant group' they are e$cludedfrom e"ual opportunity. In the case of racial minorities' primary e$clusion variables are color of s*in' curl of hair' and slave heritage. These are genetically transmitted! that is' if one or both, parents have the characteristics' the offspring ill have this also' at least to some e$tent.

Although 3slave heritage4 is not biological trait' the fact that one=s forebears ere slaves ishistorically indelible. The dominant group reacts to the primary e$clusion variables ith varyingdegrees of curiosity' ignorance' fear' abhorrence and hostility. These reactions effectively isolatevisibly different minorities from e"ual membership in ma&ority communities and producenumerous potent secondary e$clusion variables' such as differences in language' values' income'housing and general culture and life style < factors generally cited by ma&ority group observers toe$plain lac* of e"ual opportunity in the 1nited States.

Indeed' citi2ens in American society are separate and une"ual < a fact evidentthroughout the social order. >henever and herever ma&ority group members meet and greetmembers of minority groups' the li*elihood of misunderstanding and ill ill is great.Counseling' the largest helping profession in this country has not gone untouched by the lac* of

understanding and goodill beteen the ma&ority and minorities. As a process' counseling is psychological interaction involving to or sore individuals. ?ne or more of the interact ants isconsidered able to help the other person or persons to live and function more effectively at thetime of the involvement or at some future time. Specifically' the goal of counseling to assistdirectly or indirectly the recipient in ad&usting to or otherise negotiating the variousenvironment hich influence their on or someone else=s psychological ell < being. In order toaccomplish this goal' counselors must relate and communicate ith client' determine their stateof ad&ustment' decide alone or ith them the course of action needed to improve their current or future situation and intervene at some level of competency to assist the clients.

The purpose of this chapter is to indicate the effect of racial and ethnic factors on thecounseling process. i.e.' to point out ho cultural differences affect the ability of counselors torelate and communicate ith client therapeutically to discuss problems counselors maye$perience in inherent in ma*ing recommendations to assist minority group clients' and toconsider briefly intervention problems often encountered in cross,cultural counseling.

The RelationshipCounseling is a dynamic process. The psychological environment in hich it occurs changesconstantly and imperceptibly. It is influenced by clients < their social' racial' and ethnic bac*ground' their e$pectations and their social' racial and ethnic bac*ground' their e$pectationsand their e$periences ith helping professionals ! by the counselors < their race' se$' age' professional training' and personality @ by the nature of the clients problems and by numerousother variable. In spite of the fluid nature of the relationship an attempt is made here to e$aminevarious aspect of the interaction as they relate to assisting minority group individuals.

Rapport.As a relationship beteen to in more individuals' counseling suggests ipso facts theestablishment of a mutual bend beteen the interactants. The emotional bond beteen .thecounselor and the counselee is referred to as rapport' a concept hich pervades therapeuticliterature. Simply defined' it connotes the comfortable and unconstrained mutual trust andconfidence beteen to or more persons Buchheimer Balogh' 67860 In a counseling dyad'



it implies positive feelings combined ith a spirit of cooperativeness. In therapeutic groupsrapport is the e$istence of a mutual responsiveness hich encourages each member to reactimmediately' spontaneously' and sympathetically to the sentiments and attitudes of every other member insie Campbell' 678:0.

Rapport should not be misconstrued as merely initial 3small tal*4 design to put be

maintained throughout the intervie. uring the relationship' the participant continuously ta*estoc* of each other. The notice ho each individual present himself@ hat is said and ho it issaid. The nature of communication' e$plicit or implicit' can cause the counselee to alternate fromtrust to tacit reserve or even overt hostility. $ploring content that is threatening to the egogenerally re"uires a more positive relationship bridge than is otherise needed.

It is a matter of common e$perience that individuals find it more difficult to establishempathy ith those unli*e themselves than they do ith their confreres Dat2' 678E0. ifferencesin racial and ethnic bac*ground' in socioeconomic class' and in language pattern <these and other factors singly or interactively create rapport problems in the counseling relationship. ?ften thedifferences or similarity are so imperceptible that counselees cannot verbali2e them. They canonly feel them. +or e$ample' they can e$press good feelings toards the counselor only by the

statement 3e tal*s li*e us 3 hich is e"uivalent to saying 3e is one of us4In general' counselors should curtail their small tal* in the beginning of the intervie' especiallyif they do not *no hat small tal* is appropriate. Small tal* may be perceived as an attempt bycounselors to delay the unpleasant. Therefore it can be an$iety,producing. Counselors shouldstart intervies ith a direct but courteous 3ho can I help youF4. This ill allo their clients tochitchat' if they are uncomfortable going immediately into the reason for coming for counseling.Some Spanish heritage clients may annoy Anglo counselors ith the penchant to pry into their personal lives. In such eases' the counselor should not be alarmed and reply to such a "uestionas 3Are you married F4 and get on ith the intervie.

Structuring

?n the hole' disadvantaged minority group members have had limited e$periences ithcounselors and ,related therapeutic professionals. Their contacts have been mainly ith peopleho them hat they must or should do in order to receive ages' to get ell' or to stay out of trouble. Relationship ith professionals ho place ma&or responsibility upon the individual for solving his on problem are fe. Therefore' the counselor or*ing,ithin such a conte$t shouldstructure or define their role to clients that is' they should indicate hat' ho' and hy theyintends to do hat is planed. Its also important to communicate to clients and sometimes to their loved ones hat is e$pected of them in the relationship. +ailure to structure early and ade"uatelyin counseling can result in unfortunate and unnecessary misunderstanding' simply because thecounselors interest and concerns are unclear to the clients' their parents' and significant others.

Counselors may find it particularly difficult to conduct an intervie in hich personalissues must be e$plored. Appalachian hites' for e$ample find personal "ueries hichcounselors may perceive as innocuous to be very offensive Coles' 67G60. ?ften parent of counselees are the first inform counselors of this' especially if the counselors happen not to be3from round here4.

In general' more than usual attention should be paid to structuring hen thensubstructural group is typically suspicious of outsiders and hen the sociali2ation patterns in thegroup encourage a structured' ell ordered approach to life. for e$ample' the ell,defined roles



and e$pectations for members of the orderly Chinese American family probably e$plain hyhigh school and college student from such families preferconcrete and ell,strutured situationsin and out of the classrom SueSue' 67GH0. The ambiguity in the counseling process is terriblydisconcerting to them' to say the least

Resistance

The counselee=s opposition to the goals of counseling is usually referred to as resistance.It may manifest it self < devaluation' intellectuali2ation or overt hostility. Although counselorsmay recogni2e these various manifestation hen they counsel middle,class hite counselees'they often fail to recogni2e the phenomenon in minority group client' possibility because thevisible or perceived differences of their clients are so overhelming.

TransferenceTransference refers to client reacting to counselors in a manner similar to ho they have

responded to other persons in their life )agacher' 679H0. In the ords' phenomenon is a

repetition or ne edition of an old relationship. >hether positive or negative' it is anunconscious form of resistance to the goals of counseling arrison Care*' 67880. Common inmost psychotherapeutic involvement' transference is especially *notty in the ma&ority < minoritycounseling dyad or group because minority group members bring to the relationship intenseemotions derived from e$periences ith the ma&ority group Carter ai2lip' 67GH0.

In Counseling' clients e$pect counselors to give succor and support or to punish andcontrol BrammerShostrom' 6780. -inority group counselee usually anticipate ma&ority groupcounselors to e$hibit the latter behavior' either because of direct e$periences ith people of hom counselors remind them because of sociali2ation hich taught them to be suspicious of ma&ority group members or those ho identify the ma&ority group.

Counter transferenceCountertransference is transference of the counselor to counselee. The counterpart of transference' it may lead to persistently inappropriate behavior toards the counselee' resultingin untold strains in the counseling relationship. Although counselors are "uic* to recogni2etransference as reality' they find it difficult to admit to the possibility that they may not accept'respect' or li*e many of their counselee arisson Carre*' 67880.

In general' counter transference is problematic to the e$tent that be client and counselor are racially and culturally dissimilar. ifferences real or imagined' pollute the psychotherapeuticenvironment ith misinformation' pre&udgment' preconceived e$pectations' and perceptualdistortions.

)anguage)anguage is a significant component of the of the culture or subculture of a people.

+ailure to understand their language is to some degree' failure to comprehend their culture. Inorder to communicate effectively ith minority group clients' counselors should be able tounderstand the verbal and nonverbal language of their counselees' for both aspect are dependenton each other. Converses ho listen only to spo*en ords may get as much communicativedistortion as they ould if they 3listened4 only to body language. To understand the meaning of



gestures' postures and inflections' it is important to *no a people' their institutions' values andlife,style.

Ideally' personal fluency in the client=s language is desirable' because so many customarycounseling techni"ue re"uire instantaneous comprehension. %araphrasing' reflection andinterpretation presuppose an understanding of the client=s language. In order to reflect accurately

hat the client is e$periencing and feeling the counselor should be able to derive meaning fromthe totality of the individual=s communicative behavior on the spot.











.'t6lAypicallyinherent in the counseling process ie terribly disconcert,ing to them' to say the least.,teaResistance.The counselee#s opposition to the goals#of counseling is usually referred to as resistance.It may manifest itselfin a variety of ays' such ae self,

devaluation' intellectuali2ation'and overt hoistility.Although the counselor may recogni2e thevariousmanifestatione hen he counsels a middle,class hite counselee heoften fails torecogni2e the phenomenon in the minority group client'probably because he is so overhelmed by the visible or perceiveddifferences of his client that he fails to follo his usualcounselingprocedures.Although many Spanish heritage clients are unable to conversefluently in ngliish' others mayreveal to the counselor#ssubsG"uentJsurprise that they are "uite ade"uate in that language.Theclient#salleged inability to spea*,nglish must be 0vieed therefore as resistance'eitherhe#counselor himself' to the Anglo establishment' or toboth -acDinnon'! -ichels' 67G6' p. E7K0.It has been observed also that many young blac*s' urban orrural'.apearto be shy and ithdranin the counseling' dyad or group.The counselor unfamiliar ith the nmances of blac* culture

may be "uic*to assess the behavior as &ust another unfortunate effect of socialand economicdeprivation.oever' the client#s perception of hison conduct nay be very different! he#s &ust(cooling it.(e *nosho to rap beautifully about hatever' but is unilling to do so'until he is#convinced that his audience is a person of good ill.6:



6::?n the other hand' such clients may be so tal*ative thatthey re#fu#se(to let #the counselor get a ord in edgeays.Although such deport,ment may be perceived an anindication of,positive rapport and dieirefor assistance' it dall,u.lso mean that the client is (playing along (Lthe counselor.It is momevihat

similar to a sandlot bas*etball gamein hich the ball im being passed to all players but one' theisoynte.In this case' the counselor is the outsider.,'?ther e$amplesresistance among einorities in the counselingrelationship can be cited.A very obvious one is failure to sho upfor an appointment.# American( Indians' for e$ample' are very reluctantLL'to .disagree or beouncooperative' especially ith someone of higher'statue than they.hchreludtancemay be observed also among manylo status Southern blac*s' vs,a,vis hites'although perhaps for6different reasons.Indians and blac*#s of 'all spa#s 'may agree to come#in for aK intervie 'or conference' hen' in fact' they have no in,tentionm orfolloing,through.' They promise to do so out of courtesy'respect' or fear.

Transference.Transference refers to an individual#s reactingto a person in the present in a manner similar to the ay he has re,+aacted to another person in his e$perience Mreenson' 678K' pp. 696,69H0.In other ords'transference is #a repetition or ne edition of an oldrelationship.It may be consoidus#Cr unconscious' positive or negative'and is considered aform of resistance to the goals of counselingarrison Care*' 6788' p. GG0.Common in most therapeutic involve,ments'transference is especially *notty in the ma&ority,minorityN.6.6



counseling dyad or group' because minority group Timbers bring totherelationship intense emotions derived fr?m,e$perienCesithand feelingstoard the ma&ority gro.In counseling' the client e$pects the couneelor to#be euoporablea%as a!upportirgor punishing anacontrolling'Brammer Shostrom! 678'

p. HEK0.-inority'group counselees usually anticipatehe ma&oritygroup counselor to e$hibit thelatter behavior #either because ofdirect e$periences ith people ho 'remind them of. thecounselor orbecause of sociali2ation hich tau ht them to react to members (of thema&ority group oi those ho identify ith that group ith suspicion.+or e$ample' pre,school %ueblo Indian children *no better than totell.the (hite man ( #about anything that is happening in die village-int2'p. H:G0.In barrios of#th Southest' the -e$ican,..#American#s fear #of'and hostility toard Anglos are evidenced by four and# five year@old children#s running ahead of any offilial loo*ingvehicle entering their neighborhoods screaming ()a migra' la migra'(the migration officials -oore' 67G:' p. 760.Such behavior#impliesthat these childien learn before they enter school that Anglos are notto be

trusted.It is easy to understand hy many of them associatea counselor in a private officeith the(policia( or some otherr.official ho does not have their best interest at heart.Blac* children#O so learn at an oarlyOage' often at the feetof their parents'. that hite people arenot to be trusted.As theymature in #decaying ghettos of great cities they have other e$perienceshich lead them# habitually to approach hites #*ith resentful an$iety'6H



6Ht2'distrust' hostility' and ambivalence.fn a similar ay' many Aii*lachianchildren learn thatoutsiders' hatever color thiy happen to be'arepeople ho (mean no good.(' Thus' their schpolcounselors' 'especiallythose perceived as,outsiders' find thatN mountain children appear to

befearful' shy' and reluctant to tal* ieller' 6788! p. K70.Countertransference' .Co1ntertransference'is the transference,,,:K\.of the counselorthe.counselee.Tlie. counterpart of trans*erende'it 666K6lead to persistent inappropriate beh"vior toard ,the oounselee(and' result in untold straine in the counseling relationship.Althoughcounselors are "uic* to recogni2e transference as .a reality' they #findit diffiCult to consider,the possibility that they may not accept'respect' or li*e many df their counselees arrison Care*'6788' p.67H0.Their professional training has tended to inculcate in,themthe notion thatthey'should#be imbued ith empathy' positive regard'unc?nditionality of positive regard' and adngruenoe.They' therefore'fail to admit that they are also mothers and fathers' voters'' propertyoners' ta$paye8' Portherners' and Southerners' and Republicans. andemocratsin a

ord' that they are human beings ith a variety ?fattitudes' beliefs' and values , ,, consciousand unconscioushichinvariably affect the counseling relationships hich they establishAith minority group 'peoplAs products of a society hichbeen characteri2ed as racist'6ftcounselors bring to the therapeutic relationshipprecianceiyed attitudesand ideas about racialand#e1nic minorities.The preconceptions mani,fest themielves in numerous ays.Becausema&ority group members occupy.6E



:6Ethe most poerful and prestigious positions in society' theyare often.K0perceived rightly or rongly by minority group peopleas (1gly Americans'as authoritarian and condescending.In counseling' this phenomenonmay be described,as (The'

Mreat >hite +ather Syndrome.(The counselorcommunicates to minority group clients thathe isnot only omnipotentprobably because he is a member of.the ma&ority group0 but thathemeaneothee nothing but good as ell.eliteraily guarantees #thesthat he ill (deliver'( iftheyill pit themselves in#his hands.Simultaneously#' he oommunicatis' albeit unconsciously' theimplication#that if theydo not#depend on him' they@6#in be doomedoto catastrophe.'The great hite father syndrome may be interpretedas countertransference'. because it suggests that the counselor inan$ious to demonstrate notonlyhiripoer and auth?rity but also#toprove that he is notli*erall the other ma&oritygroup peopletheminority group clients -ay have *non.#Anothergeneral manifestation of countertransference is thecounselor#s tendency to be e$cessively

sympathetic and indulgent ithminority clients.+or e$ampAeuhis definition of achievement for themmay be im ide variance ith his achievement yardstic* for members ofthe ma&ority group.,oes he vie achievement for minorities as thatlevel of attainmenteducational' social' occupational' andLeobnomicconsiAered meritorious'laudable' acceptable' or desirable as measuredby criteria' e$plicit or implicit' hich areestablished or espoused#by the dominant cultural group! or does he consider it appropriate8to use a different set of achievement oriteria f?r minorities' simplyo.6 K



6Kcause they' are minoritiesFIf the latter is the case' he is guiltyQ'saying' thin*ing' dr implying that his minoritygroup client ispretty good for a blac*' -e$ican,American' or an Indian.)anguage. ')anguage in a pa$,tot an individual#s culture orsub,culture.+ailure to understand

one#s culture is failurto com,prehe d much that he communicates in his language.In order to com,municaeffectively ith minority group clients' the,counselor mustbe able to understand theverbal and non,verbal language of, his 0dun,selees,''for both astects are dependent on each.other'If the.conierser 'much@listensonly to the spea*er#s ords' he may'get asuch distortion ashe ould it he (listened(only to his body language.understandthe meaning df gestures'postures #ind inflections' it isimportantto *no a people' their institutions' values! and lifestyle.TheAunselorencounters varying degrees of difficulty com,municatingAhracial and ethnicminorities.+or e$ample' on Indianresrvati?nsvariations in facility to use nglish can beillustratedon the o e hand by sore of the %ueblos of Pe -e$ico' here no nglishis spo*eineveryday life' and on the other by.the +ort BertholdReseriratiIndians of Porth a*ota here

almost everybody spea*snglish.?n the Chocta,Reservation in -ississippi' about four percentof the families usee$cellent nglish! fifty,seven percent' good! andthirty,nine percent use poor nglish 1. S.epartment of )abor' 678'p. 6E:0.Although this description is fairly typical of nglishfacilityamong reservation Indians in general' young Indiana' as might be e$,pected' having goneto school in nglish' use that,language ithgreater facility than do their elders.ven so' Indians of hatever



ti69age communicate ith great economy of languagsvandthey are given tothe use ofrete' as opposed to abstract' ords,.Therefore' oouaselore.find that' Indian clients are limited in the ability tbeipresspersonalfeelings' hich is considered

necessary by mootcounselors.In the Southest' Spanish heritage people customarilylive isenclaves isolated from the nglish spea*ing community.In many coun,.,ties in Te$as and Pe -e$icor#the cifildrea enter thenglish spea*ingorld for the first time hen they enroll if public schools.In class,'rooms children unable to spea* nglish are often threatened ith punish,.ment' if they dpea*in their native language Badly needed to assistthese children and their parents are bilingual counselors ho spea*Spanish natively' becausemany Anglo counselors ho have studiedSpanish in school find that they are#still unable tocommunicate ith.alingual or biculturally illiterate children ho spea* neither nglishnor Spanish that ie standard gloori' 67G:' pp. GG,G0.

The counselor is less handicapped is communicating ith AppalachianOelites than he is ith Aneridan Indiana and Spanish heritage clients.t'ven so' he usually finds therapeutic communication difficult' becausemountain people# tend to use simple Anglo,Sa$on ords as opposed to)atinic ?nes'Their speedh\As characteri2ed by a reduction in "ualifiers'ad&ectives' and adverbs' especially thosehich "ualify feelings>eller' t788' p. 6KK0.Therefore' the counselor e$pecting his#Appa,lachianclients,to tal*a great deal about ho they feel is apt to bedisappointed.1ni"ue idioms and pronounciatione also may constitutecommunication bairiers' at least until the counselor#s ears become



68attuned to the language patterns.KA-ong loer,class blac*s',the.counselor' blac*or hite' oftene$perienoes#difficulties, in understanding not only slurredpronunciations'but also idioms andslang endemic to the community.#Some counselors'not ishing to reveal that they cannot or do

not,understand the counse,..lee#s argot' continue .the dialogue' hoping to catch up later one.1n,,fortunately' they often discover that the more they allo the clientto tal* ithout clarificatibn'the more confused they become' as tohat he is /saying'If the counselor fails to understand the,clientfor hatever reason' the most.honest thing toLdo is to as* him foran e$planation or repetition of his statement.,The counselor probably e$periences more difficulty understanding.implicit language in theloer,class.lac* community than he doesdo#s,prehending the e$plioit.>achtel' 678G0.Individusspea* not &ustith their voices alone! they use their entire bodies either to ma*ea completestatement or to punctuate one Dris' 67K60.+or. e$ample'the (hip( shuffle of the young blac* male' his slouched #sitting positionith chin in hand' his erect stance ith genitals cupped' the

apparentlyunconscious ipe at the chin or mouth ith his hand hethere is nothingvisible toipe aay,',all'of these non,verbal e$pressions are filledithsignificantmeaning' if thecounselor can interpret then Beier'6788' p. HG70.To .arrive at the correct interpretation' thecounselormust understand both their general and conte$tual#neanings.e #geodeto recogni2e .that the more emotionally charged the verbal language'the less definite is itsmeaning and more important are the accompanyingnon,verbal e$pressions Qetter' 6787' p. 6H90.



ts6G?ccasionally' the counselor may#need tuse an interpreter ithIndian and Spanish heritageclients.If an interpreter is #aded hoacounseling or communicating ith ispania people' it isiloportant touse someone hom the individual can respect idalgo' a. d.' p. 6E0.+fr e$ample' the

Anglo counselor ould be advised not to as* a thirdor fHurth grade Spanish spea*ing student tointerpret for him hoa heconsults ith a Spanish @pea*ing parent.Because of the demandforrespect so characteristic among %ie Spanish sfea*ing the, counselorshould obtain someonehom the parent can respect asshe respects#himthe counselor.Dnoledge of the client#s language and its nuances is importantin counseling' ine1S? so manycustomary counseling techni"ues demandfluenoy in this area.%araphrasing! reflection'sid'iaterpretatioa'presuppose understanding the clieat#i language.In order to l#eflectaccuratelyhat the client is e$perienoiag asreeling' the counselorshould be able to interpret non,verbal behavior.e lust not allos*in color or accent to blind him to oues hich ould beotheriseobvious if ,he ere counseling a ma&ority group client.%sychosocial barriers.Several psychosocial characteristicsof racial and ethnic minorities

constitute' singly or interactively'barriers to the achievement of therapeutic goals in thecounselingrelationship.These barriers are usually unconscious aspects of theG perhonality and are derived piimarily from the American culture hich both sociali2es aid oppresses its minorities simultaneously.?ccasionally.'current #behavior patterns can be traced bac* to the old country.Someof the barriers are discussed belo.



6t#\self,disolosure.Self,Aisclosure' or'the illingn stolet another person *no hat you,,thin*' feel'or ant' is bait lc tothe counseling process.(' It is particularly crucial &.n the rapportestbliehment phase of the relationship' because itis the most directeans by hich an individual can ma*e

himself *non to another personand is' therefore' prere"uisite to Kchieving the goals,of counseling..%eople of African descent are especially reluctant to disclose timm,selves to others' probabl#y because of the hardships hich they andtheir forebears have e$perienced in the 1nitedStates..-ani of them'especially the males' are devoid of confidence in human relationsDardiner ?vesey' 678H' p. E:0.Reluctance to disclose is a problem in the hite,blac* dyad'because fe blac*s initially perceivehites as individuals of goodill.The client ,discloses himself hen he feels that he can. trustthe target person' not necessarilyhen he feels that he is beingunderstood ;ourard' 678K' p.K0.In fact' the blac* client fearsbeingunderstood ! for itLcarriesith it the idea of engulfment' ofloss of autonomy' of being *non'and that is the same as being,#destroyed in a sooiety hich he perceives as racist.?bviously'

thefear of being underst?od has grave implications for individual andgroup counseling.It isconceivable that' in the case of the blac*client' the counselor ho understands too much is to befeared or even hated.H. Self,hatred.>hen one is a member of an ostraci2ed' e$,eluded' or oppressed group' he tends not only to'despise his group'but also to hate himself for being a member of the group. Inthe67



71nited tatest blac*s' more thanany other minority' have unconsciouslyidentified ith thema&ority group' theirperceived oppressors! and'conse"1ently' have developed contemptfor' andhatred of' themselvesQontress' 67G60. In vie of thegener lly ac*noledged positiveCorrelationtean self,re&ection nd the re&ection ofothers' the

counselor may e$pect repulsion' passiveor overt' from the blan* client for this mason alone.The counselor#s helping the blac*..counselee to accept himself more positively shouldresult in the client#s progressive acceptande of the counselor.,E. -achismo.>hen counseling the ispanic male' it is importantto 1nderstand the meaning of machismo' hich refers to one#s manhood'the manly treate ofanddignity' to the courage' to fight' to.*eeping one#s ord' and to# protecting one#s@name Steiner' 6787'!p..6E80.'It also.refers to a man#s running hishome' (controlling( his Oomen'and#directing his children.Therefore' -achismo'' hich provides respectfrom a.male#s peers' is notto be ta*en for granted.It also suggestsrathet clearcut separation of the se$es.The male' ipso

facto' en&oysrights and privileges denied orsen' .ho Are generally reluctant to de,mende"uality.It is probably because of machismo that Spanish heri,tage boys and girls are often more 1ncomfortable and uncommunicative sincoed. groupcounseling than is the ease ith groups composed entirely ofAhglos.Another'implication of machismo is that Anglo female counselors.should.not be too aggressive or forard in thecounseling intervie ithispanic0 males' not even ith preadolescents.The right amountofdeference must be shon at all times.H :



H:K. %ersonalism.%ersonalism is a rather stubborn counselingbarrier among Appalachian hites'Spanish heritage people'and blac*s.Although a precise definition is difficult' it suggests thatindividualsare more interested in and motivated by considerations for people thanthey are by, bureaucratic protocol.The mountaineer# derives,solt,

'.identification mainly from his relationships ith others +etterman'67G60. Therefore' he puts alot of stoo* in being neighborly.+or him'it is more important to pass the time' of day ith afriend ncountered#en route to an appointment than it is to arrive at the destinationpunctually.Refusing to be enslaved by cloc*s' mountain people transacttheir business by feeling' not protoCol >eller' 6788'p6970.%eopleadherent to appointments' promptness' hnd protocol aresuspect.Incounseling' personalism encounters the counselor in getting his clientsto ma*e and*eep appointments. They prefer to drop by to (pass a simpll(and (visit( and may get around todiscussing something that has been(bothering my mind'( hile they are there'.Ap suggested earlier' as*ing a counselor personal "uestionsmay be the. ispanic person#s ay of getting close to an individual hoImight otherise remain impersonal.Althoughoer,class blac*

isreluctant to as* a counselor direct parson"uestions' he is generallymore comfortable relating to him after hes obtainer at least amodicum of information about thecounselor as a human be KK i. e.'he is apt to (chec* out the dude( before (spilling my guts( tohim.H6



H69. )istening. Counseling re"uires' among other things' listening'an area in hich many loer,class blac*s and Appalachian hites havelittle e$perience' probably because of their earlysociali2ation inlarge families.?ften their homes are filled ith din and confusion'ith everybodytal*ing simultaneously' as Surface 67G6' p. EH0 pointsout.In such an environment' young people

soon learn not to listen.to hat ords mean' but to emotions spea*ers convey >eller! 6788' Q.K70.This is v'8 the obdervant counselor may discern a blan* stare on the faceof his client' evenhen he perceives him elf to bethe young,star ith much needed insight.The empty ,facial e$pression indicatesthat' the client has tuned outthe couneelor until he stops tal*ing.The inability of blac* and mountain people to attend toa#siea*er mayhelp to e$plain hy their conversation seems to have,little continuityof ideas.Inability to listen hampers more directly group ooueleelingthan it does dyadicrelationships.8. -odesty. -odesty in the presence of superiors,is a relation,'ship barrier in counseling;apanese,Americans.The phenomenon may beattributed to the total respestomarily paid thefather' hose.authority in the,family is b yond "uestion' andtoardhom one isforbidden to

e$press overt negative feelings Ditano' 6787' pp. 8K,8G0.-any young ;apanese,Americans areso imbued ith ae of authority that#C%they hesitate to e$press their feelings on any sub&ect' hen they arein the presence of higher status individuals' or hen they are e$pectedto articulate# their vies in groups.It is easy tounderstand hotheir hesitancy intrudes in the counseling relationship' dyadic or group.



HHCharacteristic reserve in the ;apanese'Knerican personality.ma*es it difficult to deteilmine herecultural patterns'end and psycho,logically debilitating symptomatology begins KRitano'67G:0.The calm,'aelor must have to perceptual yardstic*s for measuring normal behavior!

i. e.' he must be able (to determine hat is deviant behavior in theApaneae,American sub,culture he ellas hat is aberrant in the cul,ture at large.Reserve among many %uerto Rican females and rural loer,classblac*s in general correspondsclosely that of ;apanese,Americans. Theell,bred %uerto Rican girl often avoids eye,to,eyecontact' especiallyith men' a fact hich may cause #the Anglo counselor to dra false con,clusions about her character and personality.er hesitancy to volun,tarily interact in groupcounseling may be attributed to sociali2ationin the %uerto #Rican culture in hich boys aree$pected to assert theirmanhood' hile girls re-ain 6Kstiring.Traditionally' Southern blac*seree$pected by Southern hitestKnon,aesertive and passive.Theresidue of such e$pectationsremains today' especially among loer,class blac*s in the South' and probably helpse$plain hy blac*

youngsters are often hesitant to interact in interracial counselinggroups.These' then' are but a fe psycholoocialbarriers the counselormay e$perience in therapeutic,interactions ith racial and ethnicminorities.?thers could be cited to illustrate the importanceofthe counselor#s being cognilant of sub,cultural factors hen relatingto culturally differentclients.HtE



HEitiagnosingIn drderto accomplish the' goals orconneeling'the counselormust be able to relate to' andcommunicate ith' hisclient! he mustbe able to determine the client#s state of ad&ustment!he issapeetotto ma*e#therapeutierecommendations designed to assist theclient! andhe must be 'able to

intervene personally to assist theindividual.Although relating to minority group people is proble-atic'as has been pointed out ma*ing an accurate diagnosis of culturally differentcoun,melees is probably fraughtith moredifficulties..Albeit his clients.are racially and ethnically different' the counselor perforce relieson the same aseeeement tools and procedures used in counseling ma&oritygroupclients.iagnostic techni"ues.Commonly usedd)ignoistictechni"ues'Ahether standardi2ed or unstandardi2ed' are generally "uestionablefor assessing minority group clients.The ones moat used today arestandardi2ed and ob&ectiKe! i.e.' their. procedure' apparatus' andscoring have been regulari2ed to allo replicatedadministration! andevery observer of performance arrives at the same repoit.Includedin this

category is a variety of commerically available instrumentslabelled proficiency' achievement'developmental' intelligence andpsrsonality tests' and a limited number designated interest..nventories.There are several problems inherent in usingothess instrumentsith minorities.The first one can be described as situational.+or,disadvantaged minority group individuals' e$tended structuredsitu,'atione de-anding assiduity are physically and psychologically annoying.HK



HK1nusual surroundings'ormal procedures' and unfamiliar pe?ple.sp char,acteristic of large group testing environmentai individually orcm,aggravate'their annoynance and often account for an$iety sufficient'..to depress scores of reluctant e$aminees American %sychological AsoU,

.'ciation',67870@In the case of blac*s' e$iminers ith regionil septethich put them on guard can influence performance.In general' hite pa iple ith Southern accents are associatd ith pre&udice and#discrimi,.naion! therefore' they as test administrators are apt to produce in blac*s an$iety hich may affect test performance.Steps can be ta*en to assure an environment most Conducive tooptimum performance of minority group individuald on standardi2ed testa.+irst' test administrators shouldOprepare thee$aminees in advance forthe test.Indiidual and group counseling is one vehicle hich canbe +eednot only to allay apprehension about test ta*ing' but to moti,dvat them toard optimum performance as ell.Secondly' in order toinsure the most favorable testing conditions' the a re of the testinggroup should be *ept' small! i.

e.' ten or tenty e$aminees to a room.erding groups of fifty' a hundred' or to hundredstudents into alarge arena is most itiesirable.Thirdly' test batteries re"uiring#from si$ to eighthours to administer should be given iesfegmntse$tending over several days.+inally' e$aminersand proctors of thecam racial and ethnic bac*ground as the e$amineesshould be usedhenever possible.In general' language constitutes a handicap forminoritiesta*ing standardi2ed tests' not necessarily because it serves as a



H9 people#s vehicle for communication' but because of its role in thetransmission of culture fromone generation to another. 'As a ma&oaspect of cultureg#it is also a barometer hich reflectschanges icultural demands# and e$pectations' hoever subtle Cohen' 6798' pp.G6H90.Those.ho observe that minorities are verbally destitute'and someho connect the

destitution ith depressed scores on stain,dardi2ed tests' overly simplify a comple$ problem.)anguage differencesare simply indicative of more glbaV#and significantdifferences'#cultural.The more assimilated a minority group' the feer problems#oits -embers are apt to e$periencein ta*ing standardi2ed tests.Mroupsmay loose their total cultural identity# as many ethnics have donsfthey/ne' accept selectivelymay do as ;eish and ;apanase,Americans have.achievement related aspects of the hostK6ture' hile simultaneouslyretaining many componentsof the old! they may become e"uicultural'moving comfortably bac* and forthacroes the lineseparating the oldculture from the ne! or they may remain essentially cultural isolates.Thema&ority of American Indians' Americans of African descent' and

-e$ican,Americans can be classified as cultural isolates' because they,are e$cluded physicallyand psychologically fromthe cultural mainrstream ofthoirlaericansociety. The language difficultyhich theyJ$,,perience in ta*ing standardi2ed tests is but one of the manifestationsof their#e$clusionary status.In vie of this problem'counselors,should determine infor-allythe degree to hich theindividual is assimilatedin the AmericanH8



H8culture'#before administering him a 6Kindardi2ed test.If 'i666is acultural isolate' insisting thathe ta*e a standardi2ed test in theidiom of the host Culture is "uestionable.The e$aminer shouldde,'termine also thi readingItel of the e$aminee before sub&ecting hiOto a test hich demands.ing facility. .If.the readibiliiy level, of thi teat is beyond the individual#s

reading ability' there islittle to be gained by using the test#.Because of the cultural barriers encountered#in using standardi2edtests ith racial and ethnicminorities' it is often felithat substi#hit# procedures should be employed.The obvious alternative is theimpressionistic approach! i. e. 'the counsel?r loo*s for significantcues by any means available. and integrates them into a totalimpressionof the individual#s ability' perionality' aptitudeor other traits.The unstandardi2ed proceduris include observations' aneddotal records'and interviesanalytic techni"ues ill *nosto counselors.1n,fortunately' for minorities' these, assessment approaches are probablymoreunreliable than the' ob&ective'standardi2ed techni"ues' becauseof cultural stereotypes hichimpair the counselor#s ability to diagnoseindiduals from sub,cultural. groups' of ihichgle ishotO(

member.Cu ture determines'tlespecific ays in hich individuayroperceiveand onceive of their environment and strongly influences the formsof ponicttehavior' and psychopathology that occur in members ofthe culture, orsey6e88'pp.6G8,6GG!UWorney' T7EG'pp. 6E,H70.This fact helps to e$plain hy' for e$ample'hite counselors generallyfind it difficult to determiii through an impressionisticintervieOHG



IHGhere the usual ;apanese,American modesty and reserve end and psycho,logical malady beginsDitano' 67G:0.Anglo counselors are alsogenerally inapt in assessing psychological morbidityirblac*s'

# mainly because for so long hiten have accepted' e$pected''or demanded. bi2arre behavior of'Pegross..Recurrine problems. Although each minority group cbunseleeshould be perceived and counselledas an individual' several commonproblems plague identifiable minorities in the unitedStates.ThKseverity of each pr"blem depends on' among other things' geographiclocation andlevel of assimilation and deprivation.. Three recurringproblems are economic deprivation'educational deficiencieacndnegative self,concept..In general' the une-ployme t rateof minorities far e$ceeds'that of the ma&ority group.:EHcountless reservations and in manyghettos and barrios' more abled,bodied people ate unemployed' than areemployed.conomic deprivation' resulting from unemployment and lo,

:'paying. &obs' in turn leads to i comple$ of psychosocialproi*ems.+or ..'...e$ample' inade"uate mnd high density housing fast give rise not onlyto family dissensioh but to increased morbidity K7 ell.)ife becomesso difficult that short,runhedonismnecessarily bedomesonela goal.Intertined ith economic disability are educationaldeficienciesso much in evidence in blac*'-e$ican,Aperteani,Imnd#Indian communitiea.Although there is no concensus onthecaunstimr,of educations0. ban*,ruptcy among minorities' it seams clear ,thst,acompla$.of factors suchas poor nutrition' inade"uatehousing' insufficient or improper familial



Hstimuli and role models' poorteachers' and limited school resourcesinteract to constitute aformidable barrier to e"1al educa%ion.-embers of sub,cultural groups enduring victim status inacountry' overperiod of history' sooncome to vie them,seives negatively.Illustrative are blac*s hoere abducted to

thiscountfstripped of their language' heritage' and religion' andassigned an inferior status fromhich#fe of their *ind have beenable to escape.Their lac* of identity and conse"uential self,contempthelp to e$plain their lac* of academic achievement' interpersonalconflicts' intra,grouphostility' and drug abuse' especially. amongyoung blac* males in urban areas.Among American Indians' confusion over cultural identity alsoleads to interpersonal probletsthat are OSprigged in terms of &ealousyand suspiciousness of ethers Samori et al.' 67890.nvyand distrustof one#sQpeers are reflected in the school performance of many Indiansho arereluctant to surpass the achievement of their classmates.! intheir heeitancy to,assume leadershiproles hich might lead to insidiouscomparisons! and in hostility and conflict beteen#adolescentsand theirelders.>idespread alcoholism amopg#Indians' even teenagers' may alsobe attributed tologs of cultural identity and the accompanying insti,tutional and ritustiettare,straints hich

provided significant meaningand direction in life Diev' 67GH' pe 66E! >hite man brings67GH0.H!9a



8Therapeutic RecommendationsRaving made a diagnosis of the client#s situation'the coun,selor needs to conceptuali2e hatneeds to be done' hy itshould bedone' and by hom it should AO done to alleviate' enhaince'or insurecontinuous development of the trait or condition diagnosed.Re alsoshould be able toanticipate the probable immediate'intermediate'and final conse"uences of each action

recommended.IA order to doH7.this' the counselor should *no the demaids and e$pectations of theclient#s sub , culture' not &ustthose of the dominant cultural gr?up.In counseling disadvantaged minorities' many of the counselor#srecommendations reflecte$plicitly or implicitly' directly or#indirect,ly' an immediate or longrange attempt to helptheclie66nt move from hisracial or ethnic cultural influences to mainstream statueor livingstyle.+or e$hmple' an Anglocounselor ne to' the blac* ghetto mayrecommend that a child be removed from his home hichthe counselorconsiders deplorable ithout reali2ing that by local community stan,dards the homeid "uite good.Another counselor insists that a %uer,to Rican girl ho has scored high on theSch?lastic Aptitude Testapply for admission to a college here she oan surely,get a scholar,ship'

ithout first consulting ith her father ho believes that anice %uertogeangirl should getmarried' have children' and obeyher husband.Illustrative also is.thKcounselor ho directs s blac*student to a predominantly hite college instead of a blac* institution'ithout reali2ing thatthe young man in an all hits environment isapt to Qery lonely for the culturally.glmiliar.E:'



IE:The e$amples are cited not to suggest that the counselor shouldrefrain from as*ing hat could betermed crees,cultural recommendations.Rather' the intent is to sho that most therapeuticrecommendations-ade by counselors are' in effect' slanted toard the mainetream life'style.As

such' they are often antithetical,to the demands and e$,pectations of the client#s particular sub,culture.Therefore' thecounselor must help his clients ma*e a series of intermediatead&ustbents prere"uisite to becomingcomfortablith the demands and e$,pectations of the host culture.?ftenthe problems are related toguilt feelings associated ith having left behind people ho stillsuffer as he has suffered.There is also fear of achievement hichis pervapive among disadvantaged.minorities.This phenomenon' uponcloser inspection' is essentially fear of the envy of one#sracialand ,ethnic fellos.InterventionIn. cross,cultural counseling' often the counseloris unable tointervene effectively on behalf of hisclient for several reasons.'The minority group clienthimself may be resistant to thegoals of /counseling.Intervention involves change' and that maytrigger a

personal social cataclysm' ith hich he isunilling to cope.+or,.e$ample' the mountain boyho is thefirst in his colmunity to go sayto college may orry that his friends stayingbehindill find himdifferent upon him return.A blac* youngster from theghetto maybe reluctant tdaccept ascholarship to a predominantly hiteuni,versity ' choosing instead toattend a smaller all, blac* college'E6



because he fears loosing his (blac*ness'( >hich himportant.friends #considerE6Alec' intervention can be bloc*ed directly by the client#ssignificant others.Counselors inAppalachia are chigrinedsometimeeto#discover that their counseling is undone by superstitious

parents,'once the child gets home to report the content of the counseling in'tervie.In e$tended?riental and ispanic families' it is importantto recogni2e that family members. rarely ma*eindividual decisions.Insuch situations' the counselCi may need to provide family counselinginorder to intervene on behalf of a single member'no matter ho oldhe happens to be.That the counselor typically or*s ithin an institutional settingsuggests that there are forcesoutside the Counselor#s officio hichcan hinder his intervention efforts.+or e$ample' ttie schoolcounselormay find that he alone cannot help Spanish heritage ?r blac* childrenad&ustto'a.predominantlyr Angle school' if the&anAs'teachers'fello students' and administrators arehoStileoto their presence.Ingovernment' although the personnel counselor places minority.grcupemployee in a position commensurate ith his e$perience as*ills'fhe may beunable to control the indifferent reception ofr employeesor the demeaning tas*s assigned by the

supervisor.Intervention on behalf #of minority grodp clients fre"udntly ismade difficult and sometimesimpossible bepause the community at largeis indifferent to the needs and problemi of theminority group in"uestion.+or e$ample' in the Southest' many Spanish heritage childrenEH.



EHare doomed to failure in the public schools' because nglish is thesole language of instruction.Although the counselor may recogni2ethat some of his Spanish,spea*ing clients hoare failing are in facte$tremely gifted' often he is unable scotch their, academic demisrbe,causethe Anglo community' hich controls the purse stringsduat doesnot care hen it comes to (those

*ids.(ConclusionsPumerous problems e$ist in counseling minority group counselees.They derive primarily fro@2eroes,cultural barriers hich cause communi,cation static and distortion ininteractions involving individuals fromculturally different bac*grounds.The fact that the clientcomes froma distinct sub,culture impairs the counselor#s ability to determinenot only hatdifficulties he may be e$periencing but also leaves himat loss as to hat to do to prevent. or alleviate them. beenPo that the,impedrimemte,have/described' hat should be doneFConcerned counselors as* for special techni"ues to use ith minorities.?thers ant to *nohether it is better for minorities to be counselorsto other minorities' since racial and ethnic barriers are so threaten,ing and'difficult to penetrate.+e counselors ever as* hat theycan do to

change themselves.! fe ant to *no ho they can becomebetter human beings in order torelate moreeffectiQely ith otherhuman beings ho' through the accident of birth' are raciallyandethnically different.The failure of counselors to as* these "uestionsindicates essentially hy counseling minorities continues to be a



EE problem in this countr.Counselors are products of a culture hichhas beencharactACi2edas racist.Theyin spite of a fe graduatecourses in counseling and,psychology' are shaped by that culture.66:'founselors in service and in training need to be e$posed to

ne e$perienoes ifthey are to become effective counseling minorities.Although a course incounseling racialand ethnic minorities may beanother e$citing and rearding cognitive e$posure'needed most areaffective e$periences designed to humani2e counselors.Therapeuticgroupactivities e$tending over long periods'practicums and intern,ships in minority groupcommunities' living in sub,cultural environ,ments' ind individual therapyN, ,these are &ust ato suggestions forhelping counselors troy as human beings.oever' thesee$periencespresuppose that counselor# educators andsupervisors have achieved7enough personalinsight and *noledge of mieoritiesato help othersdevelop in the manner suggested.+inally' research is needed badly.oever' there are so manscomple$ and imprecise dimensionsin cross,culturalcounseling thatthey elude traditional empirical scrutiny.Qariables such as trans,ference' countertransference' self,disclosure'machismo' and personalismare affective

considerations'hich demand novel research strategies.The investigator himself must becomfortably polycultural' in ?rderLto perceive clearly across racial andethniclines'diprere"uisiteto deeigning(research >hich allosre&ection or acceptance of the'assertions made in this paper.A glaring research pitfall is theinvestigator#s assuming thatracial andethnic identity is unidimensional.E K



EK+or e$ample' the researcher fails to control for thedegree ofaesinilation in the case of blac* clients and coueelors' or thee$tent of pre&udice in the case of hite clients ithblac* counselorsand hite counselors ith blac* clients.o r

o



sE9ReferencesAmerican %sychological Association' Tae* +orie on mployment Testingof -inoritylMroups.;ob testing and the disadvantaged.Ameri,can %sychologist' 6787' HK' 8EG,

89:#.Beier' P. M.The silent language ofpeychothelapy.Chicago@ Aldine'6788.hammer' ). Q.' Shostron' .Therapeutic psychology. Hnd. ed.0ngleood Cliffs' P. ;.@%rentice,ell,7,678S.Buchneimer' A.' Balogh' S. C.The Counseling relationship. Chicago@Science ResearchAssociates' 6786.Cohen' Q. %our une sociologie du langage.%arisi ditions Albino-ichel' 6798!+etterman. ;.The people of Cumberland gap.Pational Meographic@'67G6' 6K:' 976,8H6.Mreeneon' R. R. The techni"ue and practice of psychoanalysis.Qol. 6.,Pe Vor*@ International1niversities %ress' 678K.arrison' S. I.'# Care*' . ;.A guide to [email protected] Co.' 6788..

idalgo' . .The puerto rican.>ashington@ Pational Rehabilitation.Aseociation thnicifferences Series Po. K0' n@ d.insie' ). .' Campbell' P. ;.%sychiatric dictionary.Erd. ad.0Pe Vor*@ ?$ford 1niversity press' 678:.omey' D.Pe ays in psychoanalysis.Pe Vor*@ P. >. Porton' 6788.orny' D.The neurotic personality of our tine.' Pe Vor*@ >.>.Porton' 67EGDardiner' A.' ?vesey' ).The mar* of oppression.Cleveland P?> Vor*@ >orld Boo*' 678H.Date' R. ).mpathy.Pe Vor*@ The +ree %ress of Mlencoe'6789.Diev' A.Tranecultural psychiatry.Pe Vor*@ +ree %ress' 67GH.Ditano' . . ).;apanese Americans.ngleood Cliffs' P. ;.@%rentice ,all' 6787.EC



E8Ditano' . . ).-ental Illness in four cultures.;otrnal of Social'%eyoholsta' 67G:' :' 6H6,6EK.UA.Dris' .)aughter as an e$pressive process.International ;ournal of%sycho , Analysis' 67K6' H6'E6K,EK6.

;ourard' S. -. H6HK9trattslf. %rinceton' P. ;.@ . Qan Poetrand'678K.:-acDinnon' R. A.' -ichels' R.The psychiatrio&intervie in clinicalrepm1se.%hiladelphia@ >.B. Saunders' 67G6.-oore' ;. >.-e$ican Americans.ngleood Cliffs' P. ;.@ %rentice,all' 67G:.Samdra' ;. et al. Rural youth ith special problems ,, ,)o income' Pegro'Indian' Spanish,Anerican.In ). M. Burchinal d.0' Rural youthin crisis.>ashington' . C.@Superintendents. of oouments' 6789.Steiner' S.)a rasa. Pe Vor*@ arper Ro' 6787.Sue' p. >.' Sue' S.Counseling Chinese,Americans.%ersonnel andMuidance ;ournal' 67GH' ;R'8EG,8KK.Surface' B.The hollo.Pe Vor*@ Coard,-cCann' 67G6.

1nited States epartment' of )abor.Role of manpoer programs inassisting the A2ierioin Indians.>ashington' . C.@ 1nitedStates mploysivit Service#' circa 678.Qetter' . ;.)anguage behavior and communication.Itasca' Ill.@%. . %eacoc*' 67'7'Qontress' C. .The blac* male personality.The -ac* Scholar'67G6' H' 6:,68.'\',,Kaohtel' %.An approach to the study of body languagein psychotherapy.%sychotherapy' 678G'K' 7G,6::.>eller' ;. .Vesterday#s people@ )ife in contemporary Appalachia.)e$ington' Dy.@ 1niversity of Dentuc*y %ress'6788.>hite man brings boo2e' Pe oes tofrustrated estern Indian.%o,ye,da +riend0' 67GH' 6'66,6H@\D.Q.ducation acrossHnd. ed.0 ubu"ue' Ia.@Dendall,unt'#6787.EG



?C1-PT RS1- 66G 9HCM' :: KEGA1T?RQontress' Clemmont .TIT)Racial and thnic Barriers sinCoun6seling.%1BATvHG Aug GEP?TK'EGp.! %aper presented at the Annual -eeting of theA,meriea,n,%sych,elosicalAssociationXuebec' August 67GE0of#RS %RIC.-+,:.E C,

H.:8 %lus %ostage'SCRI%T?RSOCounseling! OCulturK6 ifferences! OisadvantagedMroups!.thnie Mroups! O-inority Mroup.af,'%sychological Characteristics! ORacial +actors!Social nvironment! State of the Art.Revies!TestingABSTRACTThere are numerous problems involved ,in counselingminority group members. Rapport isdifficult to establish because ofthe racial and/or cultural attitudes client and\counselor havetoardone another! conse"uently the client often finds' his on goals inopposition to those of counseling. The e$isting Cultural gap alsoleads to different patterns of transference and counter

transference!the client e$pects.punishment and re&ection from the counselor' hilethe latter might either be e$cessively sympathetic aend indulgent ithminority clients or convey (the greathite father syndrome( to hisclients. )anguage is another important factor hich hinderseffectivecommunications beteen counselors and clients coming from differentcultural bac*grounds. +inally' the psychological characteristics ofself,hatred' machismo' unillingness toself,disclose' and modesYyare other barriers to successful counseling. -any specific tests arenotrecommended for use ith minority groups that have beenculturally isolated and do not spea* nglish fluently. CounselorsNshould thoroughly understand all aspects of minority groupculturesand should be careful in recommendations that aim to help theirclier"s.S0)OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOocuments ac"uired by RIC include many informal unpublishedOO materials not availablefrom other sburCes. RIC ma*es every effort OO to obtain thebest copy available. Pevertheless'items of marginalOO reproducibility areL often. encountered and this affects the "ualityOO of themicrofiche and hardcopy reproductions RIC ma*es availableOO via the RICocumentReproduction Service RS0. RS is notO ,responsible for the "uality of the originaldocument. Reproductions OO supplied by RS are the Qest that can be bade from iheoriginal.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO



gtir #1 S %ART-PT ?+ *lA)TP'1CATI?P a >)+AR PATI?PA) IPSTIT1T ?+Racial and thnic Barriers in,Counseling#1CATI?P

byClemmont . Qontrees.The,Meo,rger/nrirhingterrIliive,rrityTIS ?C1-PT AS BP R%R1C gAC.T)V AS RCIQ +AT %RS?P?R ?RMAPI5ATI?P ?RIMATIPM IT %?IPTS ?+ QI> ?R ?%IPI?STAT ? P?T PCSSARI)V R?%SPT ?++ICIA) PATI?PA) IPSTIT1T1CATI?P %?SITI?P?R pc0?CVThe racial and ethnic diversity of people in the 1nited StateshKo never been denied.arlyobservers characteri2ed the nation as a(melting pt'( a fol*sy concept hich suggested thatculturally dif,ferent citi2ens eventually ould loose the distinct identities sopa,ratingthem.Theoondept aptly described many assimilated,orientedimmigrants' ho ere so committed to becoming (real#Americans( thattheir social and cultural interests' identities and

allegianceslaypredominantly in the#host society rather that in the ethnic communityor the oldcountry#.The least assimilated,oriented immigrants confinedathemselves t? their ethnic conclaves' spo*e their languages proudly'aorshipped intheir/onay' and in general *ept alive ethnic sub,.cultures.As racial and ethnie enelaves gre andbecsimi Iserebvious andoften annoying to the dominantcultural group' theconcept0(culturalpluralism( developed a special'appeal for. Americansverballycommittedto the ideals of democracy atd@tolorance5int2'6787'p. K:0. It impliedcooperatio'beteen ma&ority and minority! it suggested mutual respect'!appreciation and acceptance of cultural differences!and' it inferredthat minorities ould not have to fearrepressionor'oblitoration oftheir heritages.Cultural pluralism,as put to a severe test duringthe great push for Civil Rights in thefifties and si$ties'tAiK theOA revised and e$tended'version of apaper presented at theABA 6st Annual Convention'-ontreal'Canada' on August HGth' 67GE.H



KHlargest and most severely e$cludedaisority in the 1nited Stets.'American/ofAfrican descent' prenouicedasnever before great prideis their racial and ethnie heritage'in the course "f demaidiige"ualrights.C?ncurrently and subie"uently other racialand ethnic groups,,American

Indians! Spanish heritage people;eish Americans' and ethersN,,,edeclared aloud their ientities hile decryingsicultaneousl?he in,# e"ualities inflicted upon them by dominantgroup Americans.Theirvoices and the cries of Blac* %oer@annougedte all the orld thatthe 1nited States is a country ofmany sub,cultures' fromhich eonstituent minorities ac"uire language patterns' customs'valuest.andorld vies hichare often@ foreign to members of thedominant cultural'#group.The. protests for e"ual rightscauseda variety of reactionsfrost mainstream Americans.These ranged from humanitarian concern teevert anger and hostilitytoard the minorities forupsetting tbsocialstatue "uo.The social phenomenonAlgotdescribed reflects the fact thathei human groups e$ist apart for batelferreason' voluntarily srforced' they' in time' develop different language habits and

nuances'personalities' perceptions of themselves and others' and values and'norms hich guidetheir behavior.They become culturally different.The differences' in turial.beeill-e reasons for e$clusion by those in poer.In the 1nited States' racial aid ethnic minorities are e$cludedfrom e"ual epiettunity to thedegree that they are different from thedominant group.In the case of racial minorities' primarye$clusionvariables are color of s*in' curl of hair' and alave heritage.These



Eare genetically transmitted! that is' if one er beth,parents have thecharasteristies' the offspring ill have them also' at least te somee$tent.Although (slaveheritage( is net a biological trait' thenit,,that one#s forebears ere slaves is histerioallyindelible.adieus#of the dominant group#s intense reactions to visible and imaginedifferences'

primary variables' singly er interactively' eventuate#iiteAumerens,petent secondarye$clusionaryferees' such as differencesin language' values' education' income' housing' andgeneral cultureand lifestyle, ,the e$cuses dominant group Americans often give fore$cludingminorities' sines ono is less aptsondes# himself as abigot than he ould if he admitted toe$oludinhuman beings becauseof color' hair te$ture' or previous servitudefasters over hichthee$cluded have se control.Indeed' citi2ens ie the Amerisan society are separate and un,e"ual! and this fast is evidentthroughout the seeial order.>hen,ever and herever ma erity group members meet and greetmembers of theminerity groups' the li*liheed of misunderstanding and ill illisgreat.Counseling' the largest helping profession in this sountry'ha not gone 1ntouched by thelac* of understanding and# goodillbeteen the ma&ority and minorities.( As a proses.'

oeunseling,'is apsychological interaction involving to er mere individuals.?ne .rmere of theinteractants is considered able to help the otherpersoner persons to live and function mereoffectiTely at theti.. if theinvolvement or at some future time.Specifically' the goal of sous,.seling is'te assist directly er ildirectly#the recipient er reeipients



Kin ad&usting to er#ethervisenegotiating the various envireirentshish influen hisanother person#s psychological ell,being.InLmod er t Aectaisplinh,,tilts ,goal',csaitigelr, ittrat ,relate,SIII:6,666-I--Q!,,cats ith his client' he must determinehis state of ad&ustment' hemust decidealone r ith his thecourse of action needed to improvehis current er future situation'and he

should be able to interveneat seas level of competeney to assistthe @client.The purpose of this article is t indcatithe effects et racialand ethnic factors en thecounselingprocess! i. e.' to point out hecultural differences affect the ability ofthe counselor torelateand communicate ith# his client therapeutically' tel8lsoussproblemsthe#counseler naye$perience inma*ing a diagnosis of the minoritygroup client' to suggest ssse difficulties inherentin ma*ingrece,mendationg to assist minority group clients' andtaconsiderbrieflyintervention.problen often encountered,in erss,cultural counseling.The RelationshipCounseling is a dynamic process.lements shift and gals orloose nemententunas the#inteAactants'are replaced r increased andoas problems become mere r less demanding of their attention andcon,cern.ven se' an attempt is made here to e$amine various aspeets of

the relationship as they relate te Assisting minoritygroup individuals..Rapport.As a relatienihip beteen to er sore individuals'counseling suggests ipso facto theestablishment of a mutual bend be,teen the interaotasts.The emotionsbridge beteen thecounselor t.* and the counselee is referred to as rapport' a concept hich pervades6#:#



o9therapeutic literature.Simply defined''it connotes the comfortable#and unconstrained mutual trustand confidence beteen toorarmore,peroJons,K,Buchheimey, Balogh' 6786' p. K0.,, in a,ceuneKling dyad' itimplied positivefeelings combined ith a spirit o* cooperativeness.In th rapeutic groups' rapport is the e$istence

of a mutual responsive,nese hich encourages each member tp'reaot immediately'spontaneously'andsympathetically to the sentimentsnd attitudes of every othermember Binsie Campbell' 678:' p. 8H90.Rapport should not be misconstrued &ust as initial (small tal*(.designed to put the counaelee atease.It Is a dynamic emotional bridgehich must be maintained throughout the intervie.uringthe relation,ship' the participants continuously ta*e stoo* of each other.Theynotice ho eachindividual presents himself@ hat is said and ho itis said.The nature of the communication'e$plicit or implicit' cancause the couneelee to alternate from trust to tacit reserve or evenoverthostility.$ploring content that is threatening to the egogenerally re"uires a more positiverelationship bridge than is other,ise needed.It is a matter of,common e$perience that individuals find itmore difficult to

establishempKthyith thosl unli*e themselvesDat2' 678E' p. 80.ifferences in racial and ethnic bac*ground' insocio,economic class' and in language patterns,,,these and other factorssingly or interactivelycreate rapport# problems in#the oounselingrelationship.?ften the diffences or similarities are soimper,ceptible that the counselee can not verbali2e them.e can tly feelthem.nor e$ample' he can only e$press his good feelings toard the



counselor by the statement (e tal*sli*e us'( hich is e"uivalenttosaying (e is one of us.(oever' it is important to indicatethat differences ma*difference hen all other thingsaree"ual.In the 1nited States'minorities are no disadvantaged thatany one of their *ind hosucceedsoften is suspect by members ofhieon racial or ethnic group.?nthe one hand they vie the achieveras a collaborator ith the (enothy.(#

o else could he have risen above .themJ?n the other' they are con,#lammed by destructive envyof him because he isbetter than they hohave not achieved.The ambivalence isaggravated henself,hatredpervades the minority group in "uestion.+or e$ample' in order tounderstand thecomple$ dynamics of the blac*,blea*counseling dyad'one must consider the client#s ambivalencetoard the counselor randthe self,hatred of the interaotante.Self,hatred causes each to re,#&ect theother' as he re&ects himself.This phenomenon helps to e$,#plain hy hite couneelors may bemore effective counselingsomeblac* clients than are blac* coluiselors.In spite' of these observations' it,is still possible toofferome general advice for establishingrapport ith ino sties' especiallyith those. ho have not had a continuing relationshi'ithmembers of#the domimant'oultural#group.+irst' the counselor should try to avoide$tremes in behavior.+or e$ample' he should refrain from over,,or underdressing! i. e.' he shim Zd dress so as

not to call unduegattention to himself.American reservation Indian' appear to' be e$,.suspicious#tremely/of too much tal*ing' too many, "uestions' and too much(putting6@G



aGon the dog.(Similar attitudes are pervasiveamong Appalachian hites'ho historically have beensuspicious of the cityslic*er ith hisfoppish clothes and city ays.In general' the counselor should curtail his @malltal* in thebeginning of the intervie' especially

if he doesnot *no hat smalltal* is appropriate.Small tal* may be perceived as an attempt bycounselor to delay the unpleasant.Therefore' it can be an$iety,pro,'ducing.The counselor sho*d start the#intervieitha direct butcourteous' (o can I help youF(This ill allo the client toKchat' if he is uncomfortable going immediately into hisreason for #coming to the counselor.Some Spanish heritage clients may annoy theAnglo counselor ith the penchant to pry intortis pardonal life.Insuch a case' the counselor should not be alarmed andreply to sucha"uestion as (Are you marriedF(' and get on ith the intervie.;Structuring. ?n the hole' disadvantagedN minority group 'membershave had limitede$periences ith counselors and,related therapeuticprofessionals.Their contacts have been

mainly ithsople hothem hat they must or should do ib order to receive ages' to0get,ell' or to stay out of#trouble.Relationshipeith professionals >ho place ma&or responsibility upon the individual for solving his onproblemlare fe.Therefore' thecounselor or*ing,ithin such a con,te$t should structure or define his role to clients! i. e.' heshouldindicate hat' ho' and hy he intends to do hat he ill do.'It is8also important to communicate to the client and sometimes to his love,ones hat is e$pected of Sim or thein the relationship.+gilure to



'structure early and ade"uately in eounselingcan result in unfortunateand unnecessary tieunderetanding'nimply because the counselor#sinpterest and concyn are1nclear to theclient' his parole' or signi,ficant others.The counselor of deprived minorities needsto reali2e that heis or*ing ith people hX' because of their Culturaland e$perientialbac*grounds' are unable or unilling toparticipate in

introspectivee$plorations.Therefore' techni"ues such as prolonged .silencesshould be avoided' atleast 1ntil# positive rapporthas been established'for their use#tends to become a*ard and toincreasethe distancebeteen the counselor and his client -acDinnon el -ichels'67G6' p. E70The counselor -ay find it particularly difficult conductinganintervie in hich personal issuesmust be e$plored.Ap alachianhites' for e$ample' find very offensive personal "uerieshiohtheoounselor may perceive to be innocuous.?ften parents of counseleesare the first to lethim *no this' especially'if he happens not tobe (from #round here.(In general' more than usual attention should be' paid to Atructur,ing hen the sub,cultural groupis typically'suspitious of outs derv#for hatever reason and hen the, sociali2ation patterns inthegroupencourage a structured' ell ordered approach to life.+or e$ample'the ell,defined roles and e$pectations for members of the orderlyChinese,American family

probably e$plain hy high school and collegestudents from such,families prefer concrete andell,structured sittr,ations in and but of the classroom Sue 'Sue' 67GH0@The ambiguityE



#Aypicallyinherent in the counseling process is.terribly disconcert,ing to them' to say the least.osigResistance.The counselee#s opposition to the goals#ofcounSeling is usually referred to ae resistance.It may manifest itselfin a variety of ayssuch as self,devaluation' intellectuali2ation'and overt hoStility.Although the counselor may recogni2e the

variousaanifestations hen he counsels a middle,class hite counseleeheyoften fails torecogni2e the phenomenon in the minority group client'probably because he is so overhelmed by the visible or perceiveddifferences of his client that he fails to follo his usualcounselingprocedures.Although many Spanish heritage clients are unable to conversefluently in nglish' others mayreveal to the counselor#s.eubse"uentsurprise that they are "uite ade"uate in that language.Theclient#salleged inability to spea* nglish must be 0vieed therefore as resistance'eitherta,thecounselor himself' to the Anglo establishment' or toboth -acDinnon. le -ichels' 67G6' p. E7K0.It has been observed also that many young blac*s' urban orrural'apearto be shy and ithdran inthe counseling' dyad 'or group.The counselor unfamiliar ith the nuances of blac* culture may be "uic*to assess the behavior as &ust another unfortunate effect of socialand economic

deprivation.oever' the client#s perception of hison conduct may be very different@ he#s &ust(cooling it.(e *nosho to rap beautifully about hatever' but is unilling to do so'until he isconvinced that his audience is a person of good ill.6:



6:?n the other hand' such clients may be so tal*ative thatthey refuse#to let #the counsel?r get aord in edgeays.Although such deport,ment may he perceived ai an indication of positiverapportand desire'.for asaistance' it daffalso mean that the client is (playinDalong(L the counselor.It is somehat similar to a sandlot bas*etballgame#in hich the ball is being passed

to all players but one'( the isolate.In this case' the counselor is the outsider.,?ther e$amples of reeietance among minorities in the counselingrelationship can be cited.A veryobvious one is failure to sho up.for an appointment. American! Indians' for e$ample' are veryreluctantto.dieagree or be'uncooperative' especially ith someone of higher'statue than they.)ehreluotancemay be observed also among manylo status Southern blac*s' vie,a,vie hites'although Perhaps fordifferent reasons.Indiana and blac*s ?f all ageslmay agree to come#in ,for an intervie 'or conference' hen' fit fact' they have no pa,'tentionm of folloing through.' They promise to do so out of courtesy'respect' or fear.Transference.Transference refers to an individual#s reactingto a person in the present in a manner similar to the ay he has re,

acted to another person in his e$perience Mreeneon' 678K' pp. 696,69H0.In other ords'transference is,a repetition or ne edition of an oldrelationship.It may be oonscious#?r unconscious' positive or negative'and is considered a..iform of resistance to the goals of counselingarrison Care*' 6788' p. GG0.Common in most therapeutic involve,ments' transference is especially *notty in the ma&ority,minorityU



66counseling dyad or group' beoauee minority group Timbers bring to therelationship intenseemotions derived fr?m.e$periehaesith'andfeelingstoard the ma&ority group'.In counseling' the client e$pects the couneelor to@be Auccorableopand supportingor punishingand controlling' Mrammer Shostrom' 678'

p. HEK0.-inority'group counseleem usually anticipatelica ma&oritygroup counselor to e$hibit thelatter behavior'(either because ofdirect e$perience[ ith people ho 'remind them of#. thecounselor orbecause of sociali2ation hich taught them to react to members of thema&ority groupor those ho identify ith that group ith suspicion.+or e$ample' pre , school %ueblo Indianchildren *no better than totell.the (hite man(ab?ut anythingthat is happening in triovillagelints' 6787(' p. H:G0..In barrios oe.th. Southest' the -e$ican,#American#s fear#of'andhoet>tyto>ard Anglo' are evidenced by four and# five year! old children#m running ahead of any offilial loo*ingvehicle entering their neighborhoods screaming ()s migra' la migra'(the migration officials -oore' 67G:' %. 760.Such behavior(impliesthat these childien learn before they enter school that Anglos are notto betrusted.It is easy to understand hy many of them associatea counselor in aprivate officeith the

(polioia( or some other2.official ho does not have their beet interest at heart.Blac* children\aso learn at an early #age' often at the feetof their parents', that hite people arenot to be trusted.Ae they.mature in#decaying ghettos of great cities they have other e$perienoeshich lead them(habitually to approach hites evith resentful an$pvty'6H



ri6Hdistrust' hostility' and ambivalence.fn a similar ay' many A%i*lachianohildren learn thatoutsiders' hatever,color they happen to be'arepeople ho (mean no good.(' Thus' their nchpolcounselors' 'especiallythose perceived as,outsiders' find thatN mountain children appear to befearful# shy' and reluctant to tal* Oeller' 6788! p. K70.

Countertransferencet o1ntertransference'is the transferenceL,or the counselor,It the counselee.#66!8 counterpart of trAiii*erendleo'.'.uit may lead to persistent inappropriate behaliior toard .the co1nseles,.,#...and'reeult in untold strainb in the counseling relationmhip.Althoughcounsel?ri ae'"uic* to recogni2e transference as a reality' they find,.'it difficult to consider the possibility that they may not accept'respect' or li*e many df their pounselees arrison Care*' 6788' %.67H0.Their professionaltraining has tended to inoulcate in,,themthe notion that they'shouldbi imbued ith empathy' positive regard'uno?nditionality of positive regard' andligruence.They' therefore'fail to admitthat they are also mothers and fathers' voters'. propertyoner.' ti$payKs' Portherners' andSoutherners' and Republioans'andemocratsin a ordthat they are human beings ith a variety

ofattitudes' beliefs' and Qaluisoonsciou and unconscioushichinvariably affect the counselingrelationships hich they establishith minority group peoplAs product. of a sooiety hich him been characteri2ed as racist'counselors bring to thetherapeutic relationship.prec?noeiyed attitudesand ideas about racial and ethnic minorities.The preconception# mani,fest themielves in numerous ays.Because ma&ority group membersoocupy.6E





?/6Kcause they' are minoritiesFIf the latter is the case' he is guiltyof sayin*' thin*ing' ?r implyingthat his minority group clientispretty good for a blac*' -e$ican,American' ortan

Indian.)anguage. .)anguage in a part#of an individual#s culturalorsub,culture.+ailure tounderstand one#s culture is failureto com,prehe d much that he communicates in his language.Inorder to corn,municaeffectively ith minority group clients' the,counselor mustbe able tounderstand the verbal and non,verbal language of his c?un,selees''for both aspects# aredependent on each. other.If the#co$ierser ,#66stenebnly to the' spea*er#s ord#' be may 'get ais much distortion as.he ould it he (listened( only to his body language.To understandthe meaning of gestures', postureb' find inflections' it is importantto *no a people' their institutions' values! and lifestyle.The counselor encounters' varying degrees of difficulty com,\,'municating ih racial and ethnic minorities.+or e$ample' on Indianreservatibnsvariations in facility to use nglish can be illustratedon the o e hand by sots of the

%ueblos of De -e$ico' here no nglishis spo*ein everyday life' and on the other by the +ortBertholdResertatiIndians of Porth a*ota here almost everybody spea*snglish.?n the Chocta,Reservation in -ississippi' about four percentof the families usee$cellent nglish! fifty,seven percent' good! andthirty,nine percent use poor nglish 1. S.epartment of )abor' 678'p. 6E:0.Although this description is fairly typical of nglishfacilityamong reservation Indians in general' young Indians#' as might be e$,pected' having goneto school in nglish' use that(language ithgreater facility than do their elders.ven so' Indiansof hatever L6 9



69age communicate ith great economy of languagev andthey are gives to]the use ofrete' as, opposed to abstract ords.Therefore' clouaselors.find that' Indian clients arelimited in the abilityto e$press personalfeelings' hich is considered necessary bymostcounselors.a'"In the Southest' Spanish heritage people customarilylive in#

enclaves isolated from the nglish spea*ing community.In many coun,r.'6ties in Te$as and Pe -e$icot,the children enter thenglish spea*ing#0orld for the first time hen they enroll ii publie'schools.In class,.rooms children unable to spea* nglish are often threatened ith punish,ent' if they Spea*'in their native language., Badly needed toassisttheme children and their parents are bilingual counselors ho spea*Spanish natively' because many Anglo counselorsho have studiedSpanish in. school find that they are#itill unable to communicate ith.alingual or biculturallyilliterateahildren ho spea*#neither nglishfor Spanish that IS standard Boori' 67G:' pp. GG,G0.

The counselor is less handioapped in communicating ith Appalachian'hites than he is ithAmeritan Indians and Spanish heritage clients.ven so' he usually finds therapeuticcommunication difficult' beoadeemountain people# tend to use simple Anglo,Sa$on ords asopposed to)atinic ?nes..Their speedh\is characteri2ed by a reduction in "ualifiers'ad&ectives' andadverbs' especially those hich "ualify feelings>eller' t788' p. 6KK0.Therefore' the counselor e$pecting his#Appa,6lachian clients,to tal*a great deal about ho they feel is apt to bedisappointed.1ni"ue idioms and pronounciations also may constitutecommunication beiriers' atleast until the counselor#s ears become68



68attuned to the language patterns.KA-ong loer,class blac*s' the#blac* or hite' oftene$perienodifficulties in understanding not only slurred pronunciations'but also idioms andslang endemic to the community.Some counselors'not ishing to reveal that they cannot or do

not,understand the ::6H6:,lee#s argot' continue,the dialogue' hoping to catch up later one.1n,,fortunately' they often discover that the more they allo the clientto tal* ithout clarificatitn' themore. confused they become as tohat heisipaying.If the counselor fails to understand the,clientfor hatever reason' the most.honeet thing toLdo is to as* him foran e$planation or repetition of hie statement.,The counselor probably e$perienoes more difficulty understandingimplicit language in the loer,class.(blac* community than he doesdon, prehending thee$plicit.>achtel' 678G0.Individu is spea* not &ustith their voices alone! they usetheir entire bodies either to ma*ea complete statement or to punctuate one Dris'67K60'por.e$ample'the (hip( shuffle of the young blac* male' his slouched #sitting positionithchin in hand' his erect stance ith genitals cupped' the apparentlyunconscious ipe at the chin or

mouth ith his hand hen there is nothingvisible to sipO aay,,,all'of these Ron,verbale$pressions are filledith significant meaning' if the counselor can interpret then Beier'6788' p.HG70.To'arrive at the correct interpretation' the oouneelormust understand' both their general andconte$tual #meanings.e Reedsto recogni2e,that the more emotionally charged the verballanguage'the less definite is its meaning and more important are the accompanyingRon,verbal e$pressions Qetter' 6787' p. 6H90.



6G:#?ccasionally' the counselor matneed to use an interpreter ith.Indian and Spanish heritage clients.If an interpreter is needed hoa.counseling or communicating ith ispania people' it isisiportant touse someone hom the

individual can respect idalgo' a. d.' po 6E0'+pr e$ample' the Anglo counselor ould be advisednot to as* a#thirdor fcurth grade Spanish spea*ing student to interpret for him hen heconeultsith a Spanish @pea*ing parent.Because of the demand forrespect so characteristic among theSpanish spea*ing' the.ccuneelorshould obtain someone hom the parent can respect as.herespects,him'the counselor.Dnoledge of the client#s language and its^nuances is importantin counseling' iecause so manycustomary counseling techni"ues demandfluency in this area.%araphrasing' reflection'and'iaterpretatiat''presuppose understanding the clientli lanfpage.In order to reflectaccuratelyhat the client is e$periencing anciyfeeling' the oounselorshould be able to interpret nonverbal behavil.e lust not allo's*in color or accent to blind him to cues hich ould be otheriseobvious ifhe ere counseling a ma&ority group

%sychosocial barriers.Several psychosocial characteristicsof racial and ethnic minorities#constitute' singlyor interactively'barriers to the achievement of therapeutic #goals in thecounselingrelationship.These barriers are usually unconsoious aspects of theG perionality and are derived primarily from the American culture hich both sociali2es and oppresses its minorities simultaneously.?ccasionally'current #behavior patterns can be traced bac* to the old country.Someof the barriers' are discussed belo.6



r.66. Self,disclosure.Self,@disclosure' or.the illingnestolet another person *no hat you,thin*'feel' or ant' is bfc tothe counseling process@#' It is particularly crucialthe rapportesi)blishment phase of the' relationship' bedause itis the most directeans by hich an individual can ma*e

himself *non to another personand is' therefore' prere"uisite to Kohieving the goals,of counseling..%eople of African descent are especially reluctant to disclose timp,r selves to others' probablV because of the hardships.ihich they andtheir forebears have e$perienced in the 1nited States..-any of them'especially the males' aredevoid of confidence in human relationsDardiner ?vosey' 678H' p. E:0.Reluotance to#disclose is a problem in the hite,blac* dyad'because fe blac*s initially perceivehites as individuals of goodill.The client discloses himself hen he feels that he can. trustthetarget person' not necessarily hen he feels that he is beingunderstood ;ourard' 678K' p. K0.Infact' the blac* client fearsbeing understood! for itLcarries,ith it the idea of engulfment' oflossof autonomy' of being *non' and that is the same as being,#destroyed iit a sooiety hich he

perceives as racist.?bviously' thefear of being understood has grave implications for individualandgroup counseling.It is conceivable that' in the case of the blac*client' the counselor hounderstands too much is to be feared oreven hated.H. Self,hatred.>hen one is a member of an ostraci2ed' e$,cluded' or oppressed group' he tendsnot only todespise his group'but also to hate himself for being a member of the group. In the6@7



7sited Stateblac*s' more than any other uinority'have unconsciouslyidentified ith the ma&oritygroup' theirperceived oppreesors! andsconee"nently' have developed contemptfor' and hatred of'themselvesQontress' 67G60' In vie of the generallyac*noledged positiveCorrelation beteenself,re&ectionand the re&ection of others' thecounselor may e$pect repulsion' passiveor overt'

from the blac*.client for this reasoalone.The counselor#s helping the blac*..counselee to accepthimself more positively shouldresult in the client#sprogressive acceptande of the counselor.E. -achismo.>hen counseling the ispanic male' it is importantto understand the meaning of machismo' hich refdre to one#smanhood'the manly treyitsofhonor and dignity'to the cogfage to fight' to*eeping one#s ord' and to( protecting one#s @name Steiner'. 6787'!p..6E80.6'It also 'refers to a man#s running hishomeK (controlling( his >omen'and#directing his children. #Therefore' machismo'' hichprovides respectfrom a.male#s peers' is notto be ta*en for granted.It also suggestsrather clearout separation of the se$es.The nale' ipsofaCto' en&oysrights and privileges denied omen'mhocre generally reluctant to de,'

and e"uality.It is probably because of machismo that Spanish heritage boys and girls are oftenmore uncomfortable and unc?mmunicative#in.coed. group counseling than is the ease ithgroups composed entirely of Another 'implication of machismo is that Anglo female counselors'.should not be too aggressive or forard in the counseling intervie ithispanic males' not even ith preadolescents.The right amount ofdeference must be shon at alltimes.H:



H:K. %ersonalism.%ersonalism is a rather stubborn counselingbarrier among Appalachian hites'Spanish heritage people'and blac*s.Although a precise definition is difficult' it suggests thatindividualeare more interested in and motivated by considerations for people thanthey are by, bureaucratic protocol.The mountainee* derives aelt,identification mainly f*om his relationships

ith others +etterman'67G60. %h refore' he puts a lot of stoc* in being neighborly.+or him'it ismore important to pass the time' of day ith a friend encountered#en route to an appointmentthan it is to arrive at the destinationpunctually.Refusing to be enslaved by cloc*s' mountain people transacttheir business by feeling' not protoCol >eller' 6788' p6970.%eopleadherent to appointments' promptness' hnd protocol aresuspect.Incounseling' personalise encounters the counselor in getting his clientsto ma*e and *eepappo,intments. They prefer to drop by to (pass a spell(and (visit( and may get around todiscussing something that has been(bothering my mind'( hile they are there'.AS suggested earlier' as*ing a counselor personal "uestionsmay be the. ispanic perSon#s ay of getting close to an individual ho/tmight otherise remain impersonal.Although teer ,clime blac* isreluctant to as* a counselor direct person"uestions' he is generallymore comfortable

relating to him after hes obtainer at leaet amodicum of information about the counselor as ahuman6!eifitilKi. e.'he is apt. to (chec* out the dude( before (spilling my guts( to him.H6



H69. )ietenina. Counseling re"uires' among other things' listening''an area in hich many loer,class blac*s and Appalachian hites havelittle e$perience' probably because of their earlysociali2ation inlarge families.?ften their homes are filled ith din and confusion'ith everybodytal*ing mimultaneously' as Surface 67G6' p. EH0 pointsout.In ouch an environment' young

people soon learn not to listento hat ords meraim' but to emotions spea*ers convey >eller!6788' v. K70.This isthe obsiervant counselor may discern a blan* stare on the faceof his client'even hen he perceives himself to be providing the young,stet, ith much needed insight.Theempty facial e$pression indicatesthat the client has tuned out the counselor until he stopstal*ing.The inability of blac* and mountain people to attend to a#aiea*er mayhelp to e$plain hytheir conversation seems to have,little continuityof ideas.Inability to listen hampers more directlygroup oou>elingthin it does dyadic relationships.8. liodeety. -odesty in the presence of superiorsis a relationship barrier in. counseling ;apanese,Americans.The phenomenon may beattributed to the total respestomarily paid the father'hoseauthority in thefamily is b yond "uestion' andtoard homone isforbidden to e$pressovert negative feelings Ditano' 6787' pp. 8K,8G0.-any young ;apanese,Americans are so

imbued ith ae of authority thatthey hesitate to e$press their feelings on any sub&ect' hen they arein the presence of higher status individuals' or hen they are e$pectedto articulate their vies in. groups.It iB eaey tounderstand hotheir hesitancy intrudes in the counseling relationship'dyadic or group.H+



,HHCharacteristic reserve in the ;apaneseGAmerican personalityJma*es it difficult to determine here cultural patterns end and psycho,logically debilitating

symptomatology begins Ditano' 67G:0.The coun,selor muet have to perceptual yardstic*s for measuring normal behavior!i. e.' he must be able io determine hat is deviant behavior intheApanese,American sub,culture he ellas hat is aberrant in the cul,ture at large.Reserve among many %uerto Rican females and rural loer,class.blac*s in.general correspondsclosely that of ;apanese,Americans. Theell,bred %uerto Rican girl often avoids eye,to,eyecontact' eepeciallyith men' a fact hich may cause the iiglo counselor to dra false con,clusione about her character and personality.er hesitancy to volun,tarily interact in groupcounseling may be attributed to sociali2ationin the %uerto #Rican culture in hich boys aree$pected to assert theirmanhood' hile girls remain 6Ktiring.Traditionally' Southern blac*s666ere e$pected by Southern hites tole nom,assertive and passive.Theresidue of such e$pectations remains today' especially among loer,

class blac*s in the South' and probably helpte$plain hy blac*Kyoungsters are often hesitant to interact in interracial counselinggroups.These' then' are but a fe psycho?ccialbarriers the counselormay e$perience in therapeutic,interactions ith racial and ethnicminorities.?thers could be cited to illustrate the importanceofthe counselor#s being cogni2ant of sub,cultural factors hen relatingto culturally differentclients.H'6



HEiagnosingIn ?rder,to accomplish the goals orconneelingthe counselor must be able to relate to' and communicate ith' hisclient! he mustbe able to determine theclient#s state of ad&ustment!he is empeetotto ma*e.therapeutiarrecommendatione assigned to

assist theclient! andbe must be 'able to intervene personally to assist theindividual..Althoughrelating to minority group people An proble-atic'as has beenpointed outtoma*ing an accuratediagnosis of culturally differentcoun,selees is probably fraught ith moiredifAculties.Albeit hisclientsare racially and ethnically different' the counasior perforce reliesan the same asiessmenttools and procedures used in counseling ma&oritygroup clients.iagnostic techni"ues.Commonly used dtiagnostio techni"ues'AhOther standardi2ed or unstandardi2ed' are generally "uestionablefor assessing minority group clients.The ones most used today arestandardi2ed and ob&ectiie! i.e.'their.procedurs' apparatus' andscoring have been regulari2ed to allo replicated administration!andevery obierver of performance arrives at thesame report.Includedin this category is a variety

of commerically available instrumentslabelled proficiency' achievement' developmental'intelligence andopersonality tests' and a li-ited number designated interest Inventories.There are several problems inherent in using&hess instrumentsith minorities.The first one can be described as situational.+or,disadvantaged minority group individuals' e$tended structured situ,.ations demanding assiduity are physically and psychologically annoying.HK



1nusual surroundingsformal procedures' and unfamiliar pe?ple #op char,acteristic of large grouptesting environmentO' individually or cam,8bi*ed' aggravate their annoynance and often account for an$iety sufficientto depress scores of reluctant e$aminees American %sychological Asso,ciation'.67870@In thecas.of blac*s' e$aminers ith region*l accIntshich put them on guard can influence

performance.In general' hitepa iple ith Southern accentO are associated ith pre&udiceand#dimcrimi,.na ion! therefore' they as test administrators are apt to produce in blac*s an$iety hich may affect test performance.?Steps can be ta*en to assure an environment most Conducive toptimum performance of minority group individualO on standardi2ed tests.K+irst' test administrators should prepare the e$aminees in advance for the test.IndiPfidual and group counseling is one vehicle hich can be treed not only to allay apprehension about test ta*ing' but to moti,.:vat them toard optimum performance as ell.Secondly' in order toinsure the most favorable testing conditions' this ae of the testinggroup should be *ept' small! i. .'

ton or tenty e$aminees to a room.erding groups of fifty' a hundred' or to hundred studentsinto alarge arena is most uridesirable.Thirdly' tat batteries re"uiring#from si$ to eight hours toadminister should be given il:fegmentse$tending over several days.+inally' e$aminers and proctors of thesame racial and ethnic bac*ground as the e$aminees should beusedhenever possible.In general' language constitutes ahandicap for minoritiesta*ing standardi2ed tests' not neoesearily because it serves as a



people#s vehicle for communication' but because of its role in thetransmission of culture fromone generation to another.As a sagoaspect of culture'#it in also a barometer hich reflectschanges icultural demandi and e$pectations' hoever subtle Cohen' 6798' pp.G,6H90.Thoseho observe tha#t minorities are verbally destitute'and someho connect the destitution ithdepressed scores on stan,dardi2ed teat##' overly simplify a comple$ problem.)anguage

differencesare simply indicative of more glaba*and significant differences'#cultural.The more assimilated a minority group' the feer problems#its -embers are apt to e$perience inta*ing standardi2ed tests.Mroupsmay loose their total cultural identity.as many ethnics havedonefthey//may do ai ;eish and ;apanese,Americans have .K",ne' acceptselectively.achievement related aspects of the hostocalture' hile simultaneouslyretaining manycomponents of the old! they may become e"uicultural'moving comfortably bac* and forth acrossthe line separating the oldculture from the ne! or they may remain essentially culturalisolates.The ma&ority of American Ihdians' Americans of African descent' and-e$ican,Americans can be classified as cultural isolates' because theyare e$cluded physically and psychologically from thecultural mainrstream oftheimericansociety. The language difficulty

hich they'e$,perlenes in ta*ing standardi2ed tests is but one of the manifestationsof their#e$clusionary status.In vie of this problem'colInselors,ihould determine infor-allythe degree to hich the individual isassimilated in the AmericanH



culture' #before administering hii a utIndardi2ed test.If 'he is a:cultural isolate' insisting that he ta*e a standardi2ed test in theidiom of the host Culture is "uestionable.The e$aminer should de,'termini Also the readingtrel of the e$aminee before sub&ecting hit'.&,fJ@

to a teat hich demands@'lag facility. #If'the readibili>y level, of the teat is beyond the individual#s readingability' there islittle to be gained by using the test#.H88Because of the cultural barriers encountered#in using standardi2edtests ith racial and ethnicminorities' it is often felt(ttat substitilt# procedures should be employed.The obvious alternative is thei-pressionisticapproach! i. e.'the counsel?r loo*s for significantcues by any means available andthem into a total impressionof the individual#s ability' perdonality' aptitude' or other traits.The unstandardi2ed procedures include observations'

aneddotal records'and intervies , ,, analytic techni"ues ill *non to counselors.1n,fortunately' for minorities'these, assessment approaches are probablymore unreliable than the' ob&ective'stinctardi2edtechni"ues' becauseof cultural stereotypes hich impair the cTunselorts ability todiagnoseindiduals from sub,cultural groups' of >hich lie ishotlmember.Cu ture determines'tlespecific ays in hich individualperceiveand,onceive of their environment and stronglyinfluences the formsof conictbehavior' and psychopathology that occur in members ofthe cultureorsey'6.788'pp.6G8,6GG!86Torsoy! 67EG'pp. 6E,H70.This fact helps to e$plain hy' for e$ample'hite counselors generallyfind it difficult to determine through animpressionistic intervie



.aIHGhere the usual ;apanese,American modesty and reserve end and psycho,logical malady beginsDitano' 67G:0.Anglo counselors are alsogenerally inapt in assessing psychological morbidity

iseblac*smainly because for so long@hites have accepted' e$pected' Por demandedbi2arre behavior ofyegrosi..Recurring problems. Although each minority group cbunaeleeshould be perceived andcounselled as an #individual' several commonproblems plague identifiable minorities inthe1nited States.ThKseverity of each problem depends on' among other things'geographiclocati?n and level of assimilation and deprivation.# Three recurringproblemsare'economic deprivation' educational deficienciescAndnegative self,concept..In general' the une-ploymerateof minorities far e$ceeds'that of the ma&ority group.:n countlessreservations and in manyghettos and barrios' more abled,bodied people ate unemployed thanareemployed.conomic deprivation' resulting from unemployment and lo,

.paying. &obs' in turn leads to a comple$ of psychosocialproi*ems.+or e$ample' inade"uate and high density housing fast give rise not ?nlyto family disseneioh but to increased morbidity as ell.)ife becomesso difficult that short,runhedonismnecessarily bedomes one#s goal.Intertined ith economic disability are educationaldeficienciesso much in evidence in blac*'-e$ican,Apertastrilsnd#Indian communities.Although there is no concensus onthecauartten,of educational ban*,ruptcy among minorities' it seem. clear Othat,acompls$.of factors suchas poor nutrition' inade"uatehousing.' insufficient or improper familialH



Hstimuli and role models' poorteachers' and limited school resourcesinteract to constitute aformidable barrier to e"1al education.-embers of sub,cultural groups enduring victim status inacountry' over a #K:$tended period of history' soon come to vie them,selves

negatively.Illustrative are blac*s ho ere abductedto thisNCr countfy' stripped of their language' heritage' and religion' andassigned an inferior status fromhich#fe of their *ind have beenAble to escape.Their lac* of identity and conse"uential self,contempthelp to e$plain their lac*'of academic achievement' interpersonalconflicts' intra,grouphostility' and drug abuse' especially amongyoung blac* males in "rban areas.Among American Indians' confusion over cultural identity alsoleads to interpersonal probletathat are e_pressed in terms of ;ealousyand suspiciousness of others Samori et al.' 67890.nvyand distrustof onele\peers are reflected in the school performance of many Indianaho arereluctant to surpass the achievement of their classmates.! intheir hesitancy to,assume leadershiproles hich might lead to insidiouscomparisons! and in hostility and conflict betneen#adolescentsand theirelders.>idespread alcoholism among.Indians' even teenagers' may alsobe attributed to

logs,uf cultursi,identity and the accompanying insti,tutional and rituffitattc,$estraints hich provided significant' meaningand direction in life Diev'67GH' p.,669! >hite man brings..,.' 67GH0.H@0



H7Therapeutic Recommendationaving made a diagnosis of the client#s situation'the coun,selor needs to conceptuali2e hatneeds to be done' hy itshould bedone' and by hom it should he done to alleviate' enhance'or insurecontinuous development of the trait or condition diagnosed.e alsoshould be able to

anticipate the probable immediate'intermediate'and final conse"uences of each actionrecommended.In order to dothis' the counselor should *no the demaids and e$pectations of theclient#s #:o,culture' not &ust those of the dominant cultural group.In counseling disadvantaged minorities' many of ,the counselor#srecommendatione reflect e$plicitly or implicitly' directly or#indirect,K6ly' an immediate or longrange attempt to help the client move from hisracial or ethnic cultural influences to mainstream statue or livingstyle.+or e$ample' an Anglocounselor ne to' the blac* ghetto mayrec?mmend that a child be removed from his homehich the counselorconsiders deplorable ithout reali2ing that by local community stan,dardsthe home id "uite good.Another counselor instate that a %uer,to Rican girl ho has scored highon the Scholastic Aptitude Testapply for admission to a college here she oan surely get a

scholar,oship' ithout first consulting ith her father ho believes that anice %uertocan girl should get married' have children' and obeyher husband.Illustrative alsoie.thKcounselor ho directs a blac*student to a predominantly hite college instead of a blac* institution'ithout reali2ing that the young man in an all ,hite environment isapt to @very lonelyfor the culturallyAmiliar.E :'



6E:The e$amples are cited not to suggest that the counselor shouldrefrain from ma*ing hat could be termed cross,cultural recommendations.Rather' the intent is to sho that most therapeuticrecommendations-ade by counselors are' in effect' slanted toard the mainatream life.style.As

such' they are often antitheticalto the demands and e$,pectations of the client#s particular sub,culture.Therefore' thecounselor must help his clients ma*e a series of intermediateaa&ust,manta prere"uisite to becomingcomfortableith the demands and e$,pectations of the hostculture.?ften the problems are related toguilt feelings associated ith having left behind peopleho stillsuffer as he has suffered.There is also fear of achievement hichis pervasive amongdisadvantaged .utinorities.This phenomenon' uponcloser inspection' is essentially fear of theenvy of one#s racialand (ethnic fellos.InterventionIn. cross,cultural counseling' often the counseloris unable tointervene effectively on behalf of hisclient for several reasons.The minority group clienthimself may be resistant to the goals

of%.counseling.Intervention involves change' and that may trigger a personal social cataclysm' ith hich heis unilling to cope.+ore$ample' the mountain boy hois thefirst in hia cetmunity to go aayto college may orry that his friends stayingbehind illfind himdifferent upon hia return.A blac* youngster from theghetto maybe reluctant td acceptascholarship to a predominantly hiteuni,versity ' choosing instead toattend a smaller all,blac* college'OE6



E6 because he fears loosing hi[ (blac*ness'( hich hfriends Considerimportant.Also' intervention cite be bloc*ed directly by the client#ssignificant others.Counselors inAppalachia are [email protected] that their counseling is undone by superstitious parents,'once the child gets home to report the content of the counseling intervie.In.p$tended

?riental and ispanic families' it is importantA.to recogni2e that family members. rarely ma*e individual decisions.Insuch situations' thecounsel?rmay need to provide family counselingin order to intervene on behalf of a singlemember' no matter ho oldhe happens to be.That the counselor typically or*s ithin an institutional settingsuggests that there are forcesoutside the Counselor#s offiCe hichcan hinder his intervention. efforts.+or e$ample' :8 schoolcounselormay find that he alone cannot help Spanish heritage for blac* childrenad&usttoa.predominsntly Anglo school' if the&an*ilts'teachers'fello students' and administrators arehoetile'Gto their presence.Ingovernment' although the personnel counselor places a minorityL group@employee in a position commensurate ith his e$perience as*ills'Ihe may be unable tocontrol the indifferent reception ofemployeesor the demeaning tas*s assigned by the supervisor.

Intervention on behalf #of minority grodp clients fre"uantly ismade difficult and sometimesimpossible because the community at largeis indifferent to the needs and problemi of theminority group in"uestion.+or e$ample' in the Southest' many Spanish heritage childrenEH



EHare doomed to failure in the public schools' because nglish is thesole language of instruction.Although the counselor may recogni2ethat some of his Spanish,spea*ing clients hoare failing are in facte$tremely gifted' often he is unable scotch their academia demisfrbe,causethe Anglo community' hich controls the purse atrings'&ust doesnot care hen it comes to (those

*ids.(ConclusionsPumerous problems e$ist in counseling minority group counselees.They derive primarily from cross, cultural barriers hich cause communi,cation static and distortion ininteractions involving individuals fromculturally different bac*grounds.The fact that the clientcomes froma distinct sub,culture impairs the counselor#s ability to determinenot only hatdifficulties he may be e$periencing but also leaves himat loss as to hat to do to prevent' or alleviate them. beenPo that the,impeKiment,hsve/described' hit should be domeFConcerned counselors as* for special techni"ues to use ith minorities.?thers ant to *nohether it is better for minorities to be counselorsto other minorities' since racial and ethnic barriers are so threaten,ing and'difficult to penetrate.+e counselors ever as* Ohat theycan do to

change themselves! fe ant to *no ho they can becomebetter human beings in order torelate moreeffectiQely ith otherhuman beings ho' through the accident of birth' are raciallyandethnically different.The failure of counselors to as* these "uestionsindioates essentially hycounseling minorities continues to be aEE



EE problem in this country.Counselors are products of a culture hichhas beencharactKi2edasracist.They' in spite of a fe graduatecourses in counseling and, psychology' are shaped by thatculture..Counselors in service and in training need to be e$posed tone e$periences if they are to

become effective counseling minorities.Although a course in counseling racialand ethnicminorities may beanother e$citing and rearding cognitive e$posure' needed most areaffectivee$periences designed to humani2e counselors.Therapeuticgroup activities e$tending over long periods' practicumeand intern,ships in minority group communities' living in sub,culturalenviron,ments' ed individual therapr,,,these are &ustfe suggestions forhelping counselorsgro as human beings.oever' these e$periencespresuppose that counselor# educators andsupervisorshave achievedKenough personal insight and *noledge of minorities'to helpothersdevelop in the manner suggested.+inally' research is needed badly.oever' there are so manycomple$' and imprecise dimensionsin cross,culturalcounseling thatthey elude traditional empirical scrutiny.Qariables such as trans.,ference' countertransference' self , disclosure'machismo' and personalismare affective

considerations'hich demand novel research strategies.The investigator himself must becomfortably polyculturl' in order'.to perceive clearly across racial andethnic lines' K' prere"uisiteto designing# research >hich allos re&ection oracceptance of theassertions made inthis paper.A glaring research pitfall is theinvestigator#s assuming that racialand ethnic identity isunidimeneional.E K



EK+or e$ample' the researcher fails to control for the degreeofassimilation in the case of blac* clients andcou$aelore' or thee$tent of pre&udice it the case of hite clients ith blac*counselorsand hite counselors ith blac* clients.It

.E9



E9ReferencesAmerican %sychological Association' Titb* +oi,ie on nployment Testingof DinoritytMioups.;ob testing and the disadvantaged.Ameri,can %sychologist' 6787' HK' 8EG,89:.

Beier' . M.The silent language of psychotheiapy.Chicago@ Aldine'6788.Brammer' ). Q.' Shostros' .Therapeutic psychology. Hnd. ed.0ngleood Cliffs' P. E.@%rentice,slO',678-.Buchheimer' A.' Balogh' S. C.The ciounselin# relationehiChicago@Science ResearchAssociates' 67 6.Cohen' -. %our une eociologie du langage.%arisi ditions Albin-ichel' 6798.+etterman. ;.The people of Cumberland Map.Pational Meographic'67G6' 6K:' 976,8H6.,Mreenson' R. R. The techni ue andractice ofchoanal cis.Qol. 6.' Pe Vor*@ International 1niversities %ress' 67 K.arrison' S. 6.7#K Care*' . ;.A guide to psychotherapy.Boston@Bron co.' 6788.idalgo' . .The puerto rican.>ashington@ Pational Rehabilitation.Association thnic

ifferences Series Po. K0' n@ d.insie' ). .' Caapbell' R. ;.%sychiatric dictionary.Erd. ed.0Pe Vor*@ ?$ford 1niversity%ress' 678:.arney' D.Pe ays in psychoanalysis.Pe Vor*s.>. . Porton' 6788orny' D.The neurotic personality of our tine.Pe Vor*@ >. Q.Porton' 67EG.Dardiner' A.' ?vesey' ).The nar* of 'oppression.Cleveland Pe Vor*@ >orld Boo*'678H.ats' R. )[email protected] Vor*@ The +ree %ress of Mlencoe'6789.Diev' A.Transoultural piychiatry.Pe Vor*@ +ree %ress' 67GH.Ditano' . . ).;apanese Americans.ngleood Cliffs' P. 6.6%renti:e,all' 6787.



E8Ditano' . . ).-ental Illness in four cultures.;otrnal of SocialJVcholoRI' 67G:' :' 6H6 ,6EK..Dris' .)aughter as an e$pressive process.International ;ournal of%sycho , Analysis' 67K6' H6'E6K,EK6.;ourard' S. -.The transparent self.%rinceton' >. ;.@ . Qan Poatrand'678K.:

-acDinnon' R. A.' -ichels' R.Thea chiatric intervie in clinicalHractice.%hiladelphia@ >. .Saunders' 67G6'-oore' ;. >.-e$ican AeRerieane.ngleood Cliffs' >. ;.@ %rentice,all' 67G:.?Sam?ra;. et al. Rural youth its special problems)o income' Pegro'Iian' Spanish,American.In ). M. Burohinal d.0' Rural youthin Uvials.>ashington' . C.@Superintendents of ocuments' 6789.Steiner' S.)a ra2e. Pe Vor*@ arper Ro' 6787.Sue' v. >.' Sue' S.Counseling Chinese,Americans.%ersonnel andMuidance ;ournal' 67GH' -t'8EG,8KK.

Surface' B.The hollo.Pe Vor*@ Coard,-cCann' 67G6.1nited States epartment of )abor.Role of manpoer programs inassisting the Americin Indians.>ashington' . C.@ 1nitedStates mployint Servicei circa 678.Qetter' . ;.)anguage behavior and communication.Itasca'+. . %eacoc*' 6787'Qontress' C. .The blac* male personality.The FRee* Scholar'67G6' H' 6:,68.',,'>achtel' %.An approach to the study of body languagein psychotherapy.%sychotherapy' 678G'K' 7G,6::.#>eller' ;. .yesterday#s people@ )ife in contemporary Appalachia.ntu)e$ington' Dy.@ 1niversity of ec*y %ress'6788.>hite man brings boo2e' Pe oesto frustrated estern Indian.yo,ye,de +riend0' 67GH' 6'66,6H@\Hint2' -.U Q.ducation acrossHnd. ed.0 ubu"ue' Ia.@Dendall,unt'# 6787.EG

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