English Craft

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TABLA DE CONTENIDO

PREFACE ....................................................................................................................... 5INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 6PREFACIO ..................................................................................................................... 7INTRODUCCION ......................................................................................................... 81. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STUDYING .................................................................. 9

1. RECOMENDACIONES PARA ESTUDIAR ................................................................ 102. GRAMTICA ESPAOLA BSICA .......................................................................... 11

2.1. Tipos de palabras ............................................................................................ 112.1.1. Sustantivo ................................................................................................ 112.1.2. Verbo ...................................................................................................... 122.1.3. Pronombre ............................................................................................... 132.1.4. Articulo ................................................................................................... 142.1.5. Adjetivo ................................................................................................... 152.1.6. Adverbio .................................................................................................. 152.1.7. Preposiciones .......................................................................................... 16

2.2. Grupos de palabras ......................................................................................... 163. PHONEMES ............................................................................................................ 173.1. Vowels ............................................................................................................ 173.2. Consonants ...................................................................................................... 18

4. SPELLING ............................................................................................................... 195. ENGLISH GRAMMAR ............................................................................................. 20

5.1. Types of words ................................................................................................ 205.1.1. Noun ....................................................................................................... 205.1.2. Verb ........................................................................................................ 215.1.3. Pronouns ................................................................................................. 225.1.4. Articles .................................................................................................... 235.1.5. Adjectives ................................................................................................ 245.1.6. Adverbs ................................................................................................... 255.1.7. Prepositions ............................................................................................. 25

5.1.7.1. Space ............................................................................................... 255.1.7.2. Time ................................................................................................ 30

5.2. Groups of words .............................................................................................. 316. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SENTENCES ......................................................................... 327. SENTENCES WITH VERB TO BE ............................................................................. 33

7.1. Affirmative sentences ....................................................................................... 337.2. Negative sentences .......................................................................................... 34

7.3. Interrogative sentences .................................................................................... 357.3.1. Simple questions (yes/no) ......................................................................... 357.3.2. Wh- questions ......................................................................................... 35

7.4. Contractions & answers ................................................................................... 367.4.1.To Be contractions .................................................................................... 367.4.2. Simple question answers .......................................................................... 367.4.3. Wh-questions answers ............................................................................. 37

8. POSSESSIVE FORMS ............................................................................................... 38


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8.1. Possessive adjectives ....................................................................................... 388.2. Possessive pronouns ........................................................................................ 398.3. Genitive........................................................................................................... 408.4. Other possessive forms .................................................................................... 408.5. Possessive wh-questions .................................................................................. 41

9. CONTRAST & SIMILARITY FORMS ......................................................................... 429.1. Comparative forms .......................................................................................... 42

9.2. Superlative forms ............................................................................................. 439.3. Irregular comparative & superlative forms ........................................................ 449.4. Equality ........................................................................................................... 459.5. Proportionality ................................................................................................. 45

10. OBJECTS ............................................................................................................... 4610.1. Direct Objects ............................................................................................... 4610.2. Indirect Objects ............................................................................................. 4610.3. Object personal pronouns.............................................................................. 4810.4. Actions as objects .......................................................................................... 49

11. TENSES ................................................................................................................. 50

11.1. Simple Tenses ................................................................................................ 5011.1.1. Simple present ....................................................................................... 5011.1.2. Simple Past ............................................................................................ 51

11.1.2.1 Regular past form pronunciation ..................................................... 5311.1.3. Simple Future ......................................................................................... 5311.1.4. Future connected to present ................................................................... 5411.1.5. Past cancelled ........................................................................................ 56

11.2. Progressive tenses .......................................................................................... 5611.2.1 Present progressive.................................................................................. 5611.2.2. Past progressive ..................................................................................... 5811.2.3. Future progressive .................................................................................. 59

11.3. Perfect tenses ................................................................................................. 6011.3.1. Present perfect ....................................................................................... 6011.3.2 Past perfect ............................................................................................. 6111.3.3. Future perfect ......................................................................................... 62

11.4. Perfect progressive tenses............................................................................... 6311.4.1. Present perfect progressive ..................................................................... 6311.4.2. Past perfect progressive .......................................................................... 6511.4.3. Future perfect progressive ...................................................................... 66

11.5. Table of tenses ............................................................................................... 6712. WH-questions ....................................................................................................... 68

12.1. Wh-expressions ............................................................................................. 7012.1.1. What ...................................................................................................... 7012.1.2. Who ...................................................................................................... 7112.1.3. Where .................................................................................................... 7212.1.4. How ...................................................................................................... 7212.1.5. Whatlike ............................................................................................ 7312.1.6. When ..................................................................................................... 7312.1.7. What time .............................................................................................. 74


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12.1.8. How long .............................................................................................. 7412.1.9. How old ................................................................................................ 7512.1.10. Whose ................................................................................................. 7512.1.11. Why .................................................................................................... 7612.1.12. How much .......................................................................................... 7612.1.13. How many ........................................................................................... 7712.1.14. How often ........................................................................................... 77

12.1.15. How (description) ................................................................................ 7812.1.16. What type of ........................................................................................ 7812.1.17. What (something) ................................................................................ 7912.1.18. Which (something)............................................................................... 79

12.2. Auxiliary verbs .............................................................................................. 8012.2.1. BE .......................................................................................................... 8012.2.2. DO ........................................................................................................ 8012.2.3. HAVE .................................................................................................... 8112.2.4. WILL ...................................................................................................... 81

12.3. Protagonists ................................................................................................... 82

12.4. Principal action ............................................................................................. 8212.5. Complements ................................................................................................ 8312.5.1. Objects .................................................................................................. 8412.5.2. Manner .................................................................................................. 8412.5.3. Place ..................................................................................................... 8412.5.4. Time ...................................................................................................... 85

12.6. Asking for protagonist .................................................................................... 8512.7. Wh-questions with prepositions ..................................................................... 86

13. Indicating existence ............................................................................................... 8713.1. Simple forms ................................................................................................. 8713.2. Tenses ........................................................................................................... 8813.3. Wh-questions indicating existence ................................................................. 88

14. Adverbs of frequency ............................................................................................ 8915. Connections .......................................................................................................... 9016. Imperatives............................................................................................................ 93

16.1. Orders ........................................................................................................... 9316.2. Negative orders ............................................................................................. 9316.3. Invitations ...................................................................................................... 94

17. Passive voice ......................................................................................................... 9417.1. Alternative structures ..................................................................................... 96

18. Modal auxiliary verbs ............................................................................................ 97

18.1. Can could be able to ................................................................................ 9718.2. May might be allowed to ......................................................................... 9918.3. Will would ............................................................................................... 101

18.3.1. Conditions ........................................................................................... 10118.3.1.1. Possible imaginary situation ......................................................... 10118.3.1.2. Improbable imaginary situation .................................................... 10218.3.1.3. Impossible imaginary situation ..................................................... 102

18.4. Shall should ought to had better .......................................................... 103


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18.5. Must have to have got to be to ............................................................. 10618.6. Need dare used to .................................................................................. 10918.7. Modal auxiliary verbs wh-questions ............................................................. 112

19. COMPOUND PRONOUNS & ADVERBS ............................................................ 11420. QUANTITY ......................................................................................................... 116

20.1. Any some no .......................................................................................... 11721. HAVE .................................................................................................................. 119

21.1. Have possession ....................................................................................... 11921.2. Have completed action ............................................................................. 11921.3. Have obligation ........................................................................................ 12021.4. Have causative ......................................................................................... 121

21.4.1. To cause someone to do something ..................................................... 12121.4.2. To cause something to be done ............................................................ 121

22. CONTRACTED SENTENCES ................................................................................ 12222.1. Contracted affirmative sentences .................................................................. 12222.2. Contracted negative sentences ..................................................................... 12222.3. Contracted contrasting sentences ................................................................. 123

23. REPORTED SPEECH ............................................................................................ 12323.1. Reporting sentences ..................................................................................... 12423.2. Reporting simple questions .......................................................................... 12423.3. Reporting wh-questions ............................................................................... 12423.4. Reporting commands ................................................................................... 125

24. Question tags ...................................................................................................... 12525. Two words actions .............................................................................................. 125

25.1. Phrasal actions ............................................................................................. 12625.2. Prepositional actions .................................................................................... 126

26. APPENDIX........................................................................................................... 12726.1. Date & time ................................................................................................. 12726.2. Differences between British and American orthography ............................... 12726.3. Differences between British and American pronunciation ............................ 12826.4. Numbers table ............................................................................................. 12826.5. Irregular verbs .............................................................................................. 129


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ENGLISH CRAFT 5

PREFACE

The purpose of this book is not to be worked alone, but with appropriate assistance. It isdesigned to be used along the English Craft, Grammar & Practice classes, or at leastwith an audio, web or professional support.It was planned as a tool for students who have had over difficulties with other Englishmethods, and it resolves them according to:

Method: In this method, it is not supposed the student has a previous, developedenough knowledge of Spanish basic grammar, as other methods guess, being that hardfor the students to be introduced to basic English grammar. Therefore, to begin thisbook, the student will find a complete Spanish grammar basis.

Time: Perhaps, the most commonly known phenomenon of studying English is thedrop-outs. It is well known that only a small quantity of students who started anEnglish course, finishes it, and to get worse, just a few of them actually learns Englishproperly. The main reason is the time it gets (between 400 and 1000 hours), and thismethod is intended to take less than 200 hours of grammar class. This is possible due toa reorganisation of class activities, being vocabulary repetition the one takes time themost; so, if students can do that at home by themselves, time can be optimally used,reducing the quantity of hours dramatically.

Means: The student does not spend so much money as with other methods, being solittle time; and the low number of students per class guarantees the best approach andlearning, making of this an excellent investment.


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INTRODUCTION

English language is not only a talent anymore, it has become now a necessity, and thereare many reasons to support that.Currently - as seen ahead -, English may be considered the easiest language still in use

in the world. It can be learned fast and does not have useless grammar complications asthe rest of most spoken languages.A few centuries ago, English language started to spread around the world because ofwars and colonisations. That is one of the reasons it is spoken as a native language inCanada, New Zealand, Australia, India, Philippines, Belize, Jamaica, Hong Kong,Ireland, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Trinidad and some other Caribbean, African andAsian countries (besides Great Britain and United States of course). Besides this, it hasbeen taught almost in every country of the world, being, in fact, one of the mostimportant ways to communicate and travel pleasantly.Since North American technology and science have ruled worlds development lately,English language is seen everywhere: TV programmes, films, music, games, appliances,computers, Internet, food, arts, engineering, tools, education, etc.This is the first edition of a work planned to involve the student in the entire Englishenvironment, giving the best tool for personal and professional growth, and willing toimprove as necessary in the future.


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ENGLISH CRAFT 7

PREFACIO

Este libro tiene como propsito ser trabajado con la asistencia adecuada. Se diseo paraser usado en las lecciones English Craft, Grammar & Practice, o como mnimo, consoporte de tipo profesional, en lnea o recursos de audio.Fue planeado como herramienta para los estudiantes que han tenido importantesdificultades con otros mtodos de ingles, y las resuelve teniendo en cuenta:

El mtodo: En este mtodo, no se da por hecho que el estudiante tenga unconocimiento de gramtica espaola bsica previo y suficientemente desarrollado, tal ycomo otros mtodos suponen, haciendo difcil al estudiante la presentacin a lagramtica inglesa bsica. Por lo tanto, al comenzar este libro, el estudiante encontrarauna completa base de gramtica espaola.

El tiempo: Tal vez, el fenmeno mas comnmente conocido al estudiar ingles es el delas deserciones. Es bien sabido que solo una pequea cantidad de estudiantes quecomienza un curso de ingles lo termina, y peor aun, solo unos pocos aprende inglescon propiedad. La razn principal es el tiempo que toma (entre 400 y 1000 horas), y seplaneo que este mtodo tome menos de 200 horas de clase gramatical. Esto es posibledebido a una reorganizacin de las actividades en clase, siendo la repeticin devocabulario la que toma ms tiempo; as, si los estudiantes pueden hacerlo en su hogarpor si mismos, se puede emplear ptimamente el tiempo, reduciendo dramticamentela cantidad de horas.

Los medios: El estudiante no invierte tanto como con otros mtodos, debido al cortotiempo; y el bajo numero de estudiantes por clase garantiza el mejor enfoque yaprendizaje, haciendo de esta una excelente inversin.


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ENGLISH CRAFT8

INTRODUCCION

El idioma ingles no es solo una aptitud mas, ahora se ha convertido en una necesidad, yhay muchas razones para respaldar esto.Actualmente como se comenta mas adelante -, el ingles puede ser considerado elidioma ms fcil todava usado en el mundo. Puede aprenderse rpido y no tiene

complicaciones gramaticales intiles como el resto de idiomas mas hablados.Hace unos pocos siglos, la lengua inglesa comenz a difundirse alrededor del mundodebido a guerras y colonizaciones. Esta es una de las razones por la que es habladocomo lengua nativa en Canad, Nueva Zelanda, Australia, India, Filipinas, Belice,Jamaica, Hong Kong, Irlanda, Sur Africa, Zimbabwe, Trinidad y algunos otros pasescaribeos, africanos y asiticos (adems de Gran Bretaa y Estados Unidos porsupuesto). Adems de esto, se ha enseado en casi todos los pases del mundo, siendode hecho, una de las formas ms importantes de comunicarse y viajar agradablemente.Teniendo en cuenta que la ciencia y tecnologa norteamericana han orientado eldesarrollo mundial en los ltimos aos, el idioma ingles se ve en todas partes:programas de televisin, cine, msica, juegos, electrodomsticos, computadoras,Internet, comida, artes, ingeniera, herramientas, educacin, etc.Esta es la primera edicin de un trabajo planeado para involucrar al estudiante en uncompleto ambiente en ingles, proporcionando la mejor herramienta para el crecimientopersonal y profesional, y preparado para desarrollarse como sea necesario en el futuro.


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ENGLISH CRAFT 9

1. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STUDYING1. English is the easiest language to learn2. Everybody has the same learning skill3. Spanish is one of the most difficult languages to learn4. It is necessary to mechanise and to apply given rules5. The ability of deducing must be acquired and used6. It is not necessary to translate for understanding7. Expressions must be given sense truly

8. In order: reading, writing, listening, speaking, and understanding9. Look for any chance to speak without postponing it10. Every rule has an exception11. Spanish must be learned properly12. When something seems complex, it is due to ask13. Do not compel to study, create the need to do it14. It is due to study with importance, looking after every detail15. Profit from clues and extract all the data from questions16. Encourage studying. Do it with energy17. Committing mistakes is the best way to learn18. Be persevering. End what you start19. Be positively demanding with yourself20. Learn to think with a different logic21. Logic is the greatest tool22. Pronounce properly, aloud, and completely23. Make known with the English expressions around, which you have not noticed24. Breed credibility in what you learn25. Encourage a confidence environment


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1. RECOMENDACIONES PARA ESTUDIAR1. Ingles es el idioma ms fcil de aprender2. Todos tenemos la misma capacidad de aprendizaje3. Espaol es uno de los idiomas ms difciles de aprender4. Se debe mecanizar y aplicar las formulas dadas5. Se debe desarrollar y emplear la habilidad de deducir6. Para entender no es necesario traducir7. Se debe dar sentido a las expresiones fielmente

8. En orden: leer- escribir- escuchar - hablar - pensar9. Buscar cualquier oportunidad para hablar sin posponerlo10. Toda regla tiene excepcin11. Se debe aprender espaol bien12. Es obligatorio detenerse y preguntar cuando algo se ve complicado13. No se obligue a estudiar, cree la necesidad14. Se debe estudiar con seriedad cuidando de cada detalle15. Aproveche las pistas y squele toda la informacin a las preguntas16. Motvese para estudiar, hgalo con energa17. Cometer errores es la mejor forma de aprender18. Sea perseverante, termine lo que comienza19. Sea sanamente exigente consigo mismo20. Aprenda a pensar con lgica distinta21. La lgica es la herramienta mxima22. Pronuncie bien, fuerte y completo23. Familiarcese con las expresiones que lo rodean y no ha notado24. Fomente credibilidad en lo que aprende25. Promueva un ambiente de confianza


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ENGLISH CRAFT 11

2. GRAMTICA ESPAOLA BSICA

La gramtica es la estructura en que deben ir organizadas las palabras:PalabraUnidad mnima del idioma con significado.2.1. Tipos de palabrasPor importancia y frecuencia de uso:

2.1.1. Sustantivo algoPersonas Animales Cosas Ideas

estudiante perro casa inteligenciaJuan Pluto Londres vidafamilia jaura ciudades propsitos

Como se observa en los ejemplos, los sustantivos se dividen en personas, animales,cosas e ideas que pueden ser:

Nombres propios: Juan, Pluto, Londres (comienzan con mayscula).Nombres comunes: estudiante, perro, casa.

Nombres colectivos: familia, jaura, urbanizacin.

En espaol todos poseen gnero: masculino y femenino asignados a cosas e ideasirregularmente (sin seguir regla alguna).

Su nmero(singular = 1, plural > 1), depende de s son contableso no contables:


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ENGLISH CRAFT12

Contables No contables

Aqu llamados elementos.Reciben su nombre debido a quepueden enumerarse y formar plural.En singular generalmente vanacompaados de un articulo.Forman su plural de manera regular(siguiendo una regla), aadiendo s oes al final, adems de ciertas reglasortogrficas. Ej.Luz - luces.

Aqu llamados sustancias.Reciben su nombre debido a que nopueden enumerarse ni formar plural.Generalmente van precedidos dealgn tipo de medida la cual si puedevariar en nmero. Ej.poco queso - mucho quesoun kilo de queso - dos kilos de quesoComo excepcin, solo formaranplural para referirse a su tipo mas no asu nmero. Ej. quesos europeos

EJERCICIO: Nombre 20 sustantivos de cada tipo (persona, animal, cosa, idea)

2.1.2. Verbo ccinEn espaol se caracteriza por tener las terminaciones -ar, -er, -ir.Tambin por la conjugacin (adaptacin) - ciertamente compleja e irregular- que tieneque hacerse de este al tiempo y persona.Un ejemplo bsico de conjugacin muestra estos tiempos y conjugaciones distintas (de

acuerdo a la real academia).

Persona Presente PresenteSubjuntivo PretritoIndefinido PretritoImperfecto Futuro PotencialSimple PretritoImperfectoSubjuntivoYoTu

Ud./l/ellaNosotros

Ellos

LeoLeesLee

LeemosLeen

LeaLeasLea

LeamosLean

LeLesteLey

LemosLeyeron

LeaLeasLea

LeamosLean

LeerLeersLeer

LeeremosLeern

LeeraLeerasLeera

LeeramosLeeran

LeyeraLeyerasLeyera

LeyramosLeyeran

Infinitivo: leerGerundio: leyendoParticipio pasado: ledoImperativo: lee, lea, lean

Se tom como ejemplo la accin (verbo) leer, y como se puede ver las variaciones soncomplejas, numerosas (36 en este ejemplo) e irregulares; adems, los nombres dados


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ENGLISH CRAFT 13

pueden causar confusin a los estudiantes. Por esta razn se da a continuacin unaexplicacin sencilla de estos nombres:

Presente subjuntivo: se usa para complementos de futuro e indicar propsito (para queyo lea).Pretrito indefinido: se usa para una accin en pasado sin especificar cuando, pero s suterminacin.

Pretrito imperfecto: se usa para una accin en pasado interrumpida.Potencial simple: se usa para una accin posible pero condicionada (yo leera s...)Pretrito imperfecto subjuntivo: se usa para un propsito no cumplido y para dar unacondicin (... s yo leyera...).Infinitivo: es la forma pura de la accin (sin conjugar).Gerundio: forma tambin llamada participio presente, progresivo o continua, secaracteriza por las terminaciones -ando, -endo.

Participio pasado: se usa para indicar una accin terminada y formar los tiemposperfectos, adems de convertir las acciones en adjetivos; llamado aqu P.P., secaracteriza por las terminaciones -ado, -ido (a excepcin de formas irregulares. Ej.Escribir - escrito, no escribido.

Imperativo: se usa para dar ordenes o exhortaciones. En espaol tiene tresconjugaciones diferentes (tu, usted, ustedes). Ej. Estudia (tu), estudie (Ud.), estudien(Uds.)

EJERCICIO: Conjugue 5 acciones en todas las formas

2.1.3. Pronombre reemplaza algoSu funcin no es solo reemplazar nombres propios como parece a simple vista, sino atodo tipo de personas, animales, cosas e ideas. Por lgica, si reemplaza algo, no va allado de algo sino en vez de algo.

Explicando sencillamente su orden, se asimilan mejor los conocimientos bsicosobtenidos.Para llevar a cabo una comunicacin eficaz se requieren ciertos elementos mnimos, delos que alguna vez se habr estudiado; aunque si no se recuerdan, aqu se explican denuevo:

Emisor es quien comienza a comunicar, hablando o escribiendo (1).


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ENGLISH CRAFT14

Receptor es quien escucha o lee (2).Mensaje es acerca de que o quien se habla o escribe, o persona que no se involucraen el proceso (3).

Con estos elementos es suficiente para explicar la formacin y orden de lospronombres.

31 2

EJERCICIO: Estudie y aprenda los pronombres

2.1.4. Articulo identifica algoPor lgica, debe ir al lado de algo y nunca solo. Identifica algo, dicindonos si es algoconocido o desconocido, y en espaol tambin indica su nmeroygnero.

Definido

algo especifico o conocido

Indefinido

algo no especifico o desconocido

El libroLa claseLos librosLas clasesSe usa con elementos y sustancias.Ej. El quesoEn espaol tambin se usa para algo en

general o para algo ya especificado dealguna formaEj. Los perros ladran, el seor Gonzlez,la semana pasada.

Un libroUna claseUnos librosUnas clasesSe usa solo para elementosa menos quese refiera a las clases de sustancias Ej.Un queso francs

EJERCICIO: Estudie y aprenda los artculos

No. singular plural1 Yo Nosotros

2 Tu, usted Ustedes

3 l, ella Ellos, ellas


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ENGLISH CRAFT 15

2.1.5. Adjetivo descripcin de algoAqu lo dividiremos en dos tipos: caracterstica y estado

Caracterstica(descripcin fija)

Estado(descripcin temporal)

AzulGrandeDelgadoInteligenteVeloz

FelizAburridoFroCalienteBien

Responde a la preguntaCmo es?

Responde a la preguntaCmo est?

Por supuesto que el hecho de que una descripcin sea fija o temporal depende delalgo.Ej. La descripcin caliente es temporal refirindose a algo como el caf, pero fijarefirindose a algo como el fuego.

EJERCICIO: Nombre 20 caractersticas y 20 estados

2.1.6. Adverbio descripcin de una accinNo es difcil recordar esta definicin si descomponemos la palabra adverbio en dos:

ad- (adjetivo = descripcin) y -verbio (verbo = accin).Los tipos bsicos son:

Adverbio de modo cmodamente, asAdverbio de frecuencia siempre, frecuentementeAdverbio de lugar aqu, sobre la mesaAdverbio de tiempo ahora, en la maanaEJERCICIO: Nombre 5 adverbios de cada tipo (modo, frecuencia, lugar, tiempo)


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ENGLISH CRAFT16

2.1.7. Preposiciones conectan a algoAl conectar nos dan idea de lugar, tiempo o modo:

A, ante, bajo, con, contra, de, desde, en, entre, hacia, hasta, para, por, segn, sin,sobre, trasEJERCICIO: De un ejemplo del uso de cada preposicin

2.2. Grupos de palabras frase y oracinFrase 2 palabras = algo / accin.Ej. La mejor forma de vivir, estar trabajando .Oracin 2 palabras = algo + accin.Ej. Yo estudio ingles.EJERCICIO: De 10 ejemplos de frases y 10 de oraciones

NOTAS


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ENGLISH CRAFT 17

3. PHONEMESThey are characteristic language sounds and serve to guarantee optimal Englishpronunciation; so, it is necessary to memorise the ones different from Spanish and usethese symbols correctly

3.1. Vowels

// ea (in one movement)It is made pronouncing ea in only one mouth movement clearly// eo (in one movement)It is made pronouncing eo in only one mouth movement clearly/ / medium sound (in one movement)It is pronounced keeping the tongue from touching any part in the mouth and is nothingalike with a-e-o

/ i / iiIt is pronounced withdrawing side mouth muscles

/I/ i-eIt is pronounced with no mouth movement so that it tends to an e sound

/u/ uuIt is pronounced extending lips forwards

/U/ u-oIt is pronounced with no mouth movement so that it tends to an o sound

EXERCISE: Study and learn vowel phonemes


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ENGLISH CRAFT18

3.2. Consonants/b/ bilabialIt is pronounced by touching both lips each other

/v/ labiodentalIt is pronounced by touching the lower lip with the upper teeth

// sh (voiceless)It is pronounced as an s but lifting tongue just touching palatal part (voiceless)

// zh (voiced)It is pronounced as an s but lifting tongue just touching palatal part (voiced)

// th (s with tongue between teeth)It is pronounced as an s but drawing tongue slowly out of teeth /r/ backIt is pronounced by drawing tongue a little backwards

EXERCISE: Study and learn consonant phonemes


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ENGLISH CRAFT 19

4. SPELLINGThis is a quiet important instrument for you, if you are in a situation where either, youcannot understand something or you cannot get understood; so, you can ask somebodyto spell it or you can spell it if necessary.

A /ei/B /bi/C /ci/D /di/

E /i/F /ef/

G /i/H /eich/I /ai/

J /ei/K /kei/L /el/M /em/

N /en/O /ou/P /pi/Q /kiu/

R /r/

S /es/T /ti/U /iu/V /vi/

W /dabliu/X /eks/Y /uai/Z /zi/

EXERCISE: Spell your name and 20 words more


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ENGLISH CRAFT20

5. ENGLISH GRAMMARAfter studying and getting confident about basic Spanish grammar, we can go on toEnglish grammar being sure of recognising its basic elements.

5.1. Types of wordsWord smallest part of language with meaning5.1.1. Noun something

People Animals Things Ideas student dog house intelligenceJohn cow London lifefamily cattle cities purposes

Regular plural forms (according to a rule)As in Spanish most of plurals are formed adding an -s at the end of the word

E.g. student studentsAdditional rules are formed as follows

-Words ending in -ss, -sh, -ch, -x add -es

E.g. class classes, fish fishes, beach beaches, box boxes -Words ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y and add -ies

E.g. family families-Most words ending in -f, and -fe change and add -ves

E.g. life lives


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ENGLISH CRAFT 21

Singular PluralStudentCommon endings StudentsAdd -sClassFish

BeachBox-ss, -sh, -ch, -x

ClassesFishes

BeachesBoxesAdd -es

Family(cons.)-y FamiliesChange -y by -iesLife-f, -fe LivesChange -f, -fe by -ves

Irregular plural forms (no rule).Singular Plural

Man MenWoman Women

Child ChildrenMouse MiceLouse LiceTooth TeethFoot Feet

Goose GeeseKitty KittenOx Oxen

Things have no specific gender (male or female), but informally, ships, boats and carsare female

EXERCISE: Write 20 nouns of each kind (person, animal, thing, and idea), give 4examples of each regular plural form, and study and memorise irregular plural forms

5.1.2. Verb actionIn English, verbs are not so complex to conjugate as in Spanish, as you can see it intenses.But unlike Spanish, in English it is quiet important to note several types of verbs: Full,auxiliary, and modal auxiliary.


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FULL: is the principal action. It is the most common verb and can not be used to makequestions or negative sentences. E.g. I studyAUXILIARY: as seen, helps principal verb to indicate tense, and mainly to makequestions and negative statements. They are:BE (am, is, are, was, were),

DO (do, does, did), andHAVE (have, has, had)

E.g. I am studying, I do not study, have I studied?MODAL AUXILIARY: as auxiliary verbs, help principal action to make questions andnegative sentences, but instead of indicating tenses, indicate a special intention ormessage. They are: CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, WILL, WOULD SHALL, SHOULD,OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER, MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO, BE TO, NEED, DARE,USED TO.

E.g. I can study abilityI should study recommendationI must study obligationEXERCISE: Write 20 principal actions

5.1.3. Pronouns replace somethingFollow the same rules as in Spanish, but it is necessary to detail them more in English.Here are four kinds:

Subject Personal replace the protagonist onlyObject Personal replace the objectof the actionPossessive replace possessorReflexive replace objectwhen it is protagonist and agent(when is self acted), and arealso used to emphasiseDemonstrative replace something indicating distance and quantity

Demonstrative Singular PluralNear This TheseFar That Those


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Personal subject Personal object Possessive ReflexiveI Me Mine Myself

You You Yours YourselfHe Him His HimselfShe Her Hers Herself

It It Its ItselfWe Us Ours OurselvesYou You Yours YourselvesThey Them Theirs Themselves

EXERCISE: Study and learn pronouns

5.1.4. Articles identify somethingThey always accompany something; so, they cannot stand alone. They identifysomething as either specific-known or uncertain-unknown:

Definite(Specific-known)

Indefinite(Uncertain-unknown)The bookThe eraserThe books

The erasersThe cheeseCan be used with no restrictions forsingular, plural and substances.It is not used when generalising oralready specified in any way. E.g.The milk is white Milk is white The next week Next week

A bookAn eraserUsed only for singular elements.For plural and substances, use someSome booksSome erasersSome cheese

Are not used before

- Proper names (with or without titles) Mr. Brown, President Reagan. Except forfamilies: The Smiths

- Lakes or mountains: Lake Guatavita, Mount Everest- Meals: breakfast, lunch, and dinner- Sports: I like football (substances in general)


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- Illnesses (British): I have toothache- Body parts or clothes (use poss. adj.): Put your hat on your head- Places as institutions: home, work, church, school, bed, court, hospital, prison,

and town

EXERCISE: Study and learn articles

5.1.5. Adjectives description of somethingThey always precede something, and do not get plural s. Can be used as somethingby adding the word one-ones. E.g.

The big one, the big onesWhen more than one adjective precedes something, the word AND is not used. E.g.

A big, fast carThe beautiful, large houseDemonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) can also be used as adjectivespreceding something to indicate distance and quantity

They can be fixed or temporal descriptions.

Characteristic (fixed) State (temporal)They do not change easilyColourBlack, redSizeBig, smallPhysicalTall, beautifulMentalIntelligent, honest

They change easilyTemperHappy, angryTemperatureHot, coolHealthSick, fine

Answer the questionWhat.like?

Answer the questionHow.?

EXERCISE: Write 20 characteristics and 20 states


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5.1.6. Adverbs description of an actionAre used to indicate how, how often, when and where an action is carried out.Adverb of manner mostly adjectives + ly: happilyAdverb of frequency neveralwaysAdverb of time preposition+ time: on Monday, nowAdverb of place preposition+ something: at home, hereEXERCISE: Give 5 examples of each kind of adverb (manner, frequency, time, andplace)5.1.7. Prepositions connect to somethingConnect something/pronoun with the rest of the sentence indicating space, time andmode

5.1.7.1. Space5.1.7.1.1. PositionThese prepositions are supposed to be used with actions implying position, ormovement but keeping the same position (to convey their appropriate meaning).

1. AT: Indicates presence with no specific position.E.g. I am at home (It is not necessary to specify)

2. IN

3. ON

5. UNDER

4. OVER

8. BEHIND

7. BELOW

6. ABOVE

9. IN FRONT OF

1. AT


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2. IN: Indicates an internal position, as contained by the reference place. E.g. I am inthe classroom (contained by).3. ON: Indicates a contact position, out of reference place.E.g. I am on the chair (external and supported by).4. OVER: Indicates a superior, vertical, and covering position. E.g. the second floor isover me (covering me).5. UNDER: Indicates the opposite of OVER: Inferior, vertical, and covered position. E.g.I am under the second floor (covered by).6. ABOVE: Indicates a superior position, but not necessarily vertical or covering asOVER. E.g. The clouds are above me (superior but not vertical nor covering me).7. BELOW: Indicates the opposite of ABOVE: Inferior, but not necessarily vertical orcovered position. E.g. I am below the clouds (inferior but not vertical nor covered by).8. BEHIND: Indicates a back position, covered horizontally. E.g. My chair is behind mydesk9. IN FRONT OF: Indicates the opposite of BEHIND, a face, covering horizontalposition. E.g. My desk is in front of my chair

10. AMONG: Indicates a centred position, in the middle or surrounded by more thantwo elements (or not referring to identity). E.g. I am among the people11. BETWEEN: Indicates a centred position, in the middle of two elements (or referringto identity). E.g. I am between him and her12. ON TOP OF: Indicates the same as ON, but refers to limited size (external position).E.g. the antenna is on top of the building13. AT THE TOP OF: Indicates a high, unspecific position, not necessarily ON thereference place (internal position). E.g. The upper floors are at the top of the building

10. AMONG 11. BETWEEN


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14. AT THE BOTTOM OF:Indicates a low, based position (internal), Not under-underneath-beneath (external position). E.g. The lowerfloors are at the bottom of the building

15. AT THE BACK OF: Indicates an interior positionbehind the reference place. E.g. The yard is at theback of the house16. AT THE FRONT OF: Indicates an interior frontalposition. E.g. The entrance is at the front of the house

17. OPPOSITE: Indicates a similar position to IN FRONT OF, but necessarily facing thereference point. E.g. I am opposite you

12. ON TOPOF

UNDERNEATH BENEATH

15. AT THEBACK OF 16. AT THEFRONT OF

17. OPPOSITE

REFERENCEPLACE

18. AT THESIDE OF

22. BEYOND21.FARFROM0. NEAR CLOSE TO9. BESIDES

NEXT TO BY

13. AT THETOP OF

14. AT THEBOTTOM OF


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18. AT THE SIDE OF: Indicates lateral, bordering position to the reference place(interior). E.g. He is sitting at the side of the sofa 19. BESIDES, NEXT TO, BY: Indicate immediate lateral, bordering position to thereference place (exterior). E.g. He is standing besides the sofa20. NEAR, CLOSE TO: Indicate proximity, relative short distance to the reference placebut not necessarily BESIDES. E.g. San Francisco is near Los Angeles21. FAR FROM: Indicates the opposite of NEAR, CLOSE TO; a remote, relatively longdistance to the reference place. E.g. Chicago is far from Los Angeles22. BEYOND: Indicates a more distant position than a point far from the referenceplace. E.g. New York is beyond ChicagoEXERCISE: Study and learn prepositions seen

5.1.7.1.2. Movement

These prepositions are supposed to be used with actions implying movement (to conveytheir appropriate meaning).

3.INTO

1.TO 2.FROM 6.ONTO

4.OUT OF

7.OFF

5.AROUND11.ALONG

10. DOWN9. UP

8.THROUGH 12.ACROSS

13. PAST BY


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1. TO: Indicates the movement destination (final point). E.g. I travel to France2. FROM: Indicates the opposite of TO, a movement origin (initial point). E.g. I travelfrom Spain3. INTO: Indicates a movement interior destination (destination as container). E.g. Theygo into the classroom4. OUT OF: Indicates the opposite of INTO a movement interior origin (origin ascontainer). E.g. They go out of the classroom5. AROUND: Indicates circular movement. E.g. I travel around the world6. ONTO: Indicates a movement two-dimensional destination (as from above). E.g. Thecat jumps onto the table.7. OFF: Indicates the opposite of ONTO, a movement two-dimensional origin (as frombelow). E.g. The cat jumps off the table.8. THROUGH: Indicates a movement from beginning to end in a three dimensionsreference place, passing it. E.g. The submarine goes through the ocean9. UP: Indicates an ascending movement (from a lower to a higher position). E.g. I goup the mountain in the morning10. DOWN: Indicates the opposite of UP, a descending movement (from a higher to alower position). E.g. I go down the mountain in the afternoon11. ALONG: Indicates a parallel movement beside the reference place (adjacent to or inline with). E.g. I walk along the river.12. ACROSS: Indicates a movement similar to THROUGH, from beginning to end, buton a two dimensions reference place (transversely) . E.g. The ship goes across the ocean13. PAST, BY: Indicate a movement to and beyond the reference place (passing it). E.g . Idrove by your house but I didnt enter.EXERCISE: Study and learn prepositions seen


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5.1.7.2. Time5.1.7.2.1. Position

These prepositions are supposed to be used when indicating a precise moment (positionin time).

SaturdayON May 5thMothers day

6 oclock8:30 p.m.noon - midnightAT dawn - dusksunrise - sunset

breakfast - lunch - dinnerNIGHT*

2000IN JanuarySummer - Autumn - Winter - Springthe morning - the afternoon - the evening

ON DAYSON is used when indicating days with their names, precise dates, and special dates.

AT HOURSAT is used when indicating hours in every way: with numbers, sun positions, andmeals.NOTE: Night is not actually a precise hour, it is a period of the day, but has mostly beenindicated as an hour.

IN YEARS, MONTHS, SEASONS & PERIODS OF THE DAYIN is used when indicating the rest of specific moments not indicated with ON or AT:Years, months (remember that in English names of months and days are written withcapital letters, even if they are in the middle of a sentence), seasons and periods of theday except night*.

EXERCISE: Write 5 adverbs of time with each time preposition seen


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5.1.7.2.2. Movement

These prepositions are supposed to be used when indicating an action beginning, end,or duration.

FROM TOSINCE UNTIL(TILL)

AFTER: Indicates the time later than the point of time mentioned (following). E.g. I go tobed after I have dinnerBEFORE: Indicates the time previous to the point of time mentioned (preceding). E.g. Ihave dinner before I go to bedDURING, FOR: Indicate the quantity of time employed (period of time). E.g . I sleep foreight hoursBY: Indicates the limit of time for accomplishing an action. E.g. The homework is byMondayFROM, SINCE: Indicate the beginning of an action (starting time). E.g. The class is since7 a.m.TO, UNTIL: Indicate the end of an action (final time). E.g. The class is until 8 p.m.EXERCISE: Write 5 adverbs of time with each time preposition seen

5.2. Groups of wordsPhrase and sentencePhrase 2 words = something / actionIt is a group of two or more words that represents either, something (something phrase)or an action (action phrase).E.g. The tall woman, to have been working

AFTER BEFORE DURING FOR BY


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Sentence 2 words = something + actionIt is a group of two or more words that represents both: something (something or apronoun, called here protagonist), plus an action.E.g. I study, the tall woman has been working for 5 hoursEXERCISE: Study and learn the difference between phrase and sentence

6. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SENTENCES RULESIt is necessary to learn by heart the following rules, in order to mechanise and applythem communicating properly. They are based on conventional grammar rules, but

now to make it easier and friendly, their basic components are represented as follows:

Subject (something/pronoun), called here protagonist, is the star of the action) Verb, called here action() Complement (optional)Aux.Auxiliary verbWh-exp.Wh-expressionAffirmative (+) = + + ()These are the most used. E.g. You study English

Negative (-) = + aux. + NOT + + ()Indicate the opposite of an affirmative sentence. E.g. You do not study English

Interrogative (?) questions = There are two main types:Simple (yes/no) = aux. ++ + () ?Asks for a single answer of two options: yes or no.E.g. Do you study English?

Wh- (informative) = Wh-exp. + aux. + + + () ?Asks for precise information, it is not answered as simple question.E.g. What do you study?

EXERCISE: Study and learn rules seen


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7. SENTENCES WITH VERB TO BEThis is the most important English verb, and the one with the most variations. That iswhy it is the first and most practised English verb. Different from Spanish, it is possibleto learn it fast and easily (remember its double Spanish meaning besides Spanishcomplex conjugations)

PRESENT PAST FUTUREI am was will be

You are were will beHe, She, It is was will be

We are were will beThey are were will be

Now we have a protagonist (something/pronoun) and an action (to be). For

complement, something, adverbs of place/time and descriptions can be used.

7.1. Affirmative sentences = + + ()Using nouns (something) as complements must be done according to protagonist andlogic sense. E.g.

I am a studentThey are studentsIt is a bookHe was a studentYou were studentsThis will be a book

(Remember to use an article when referring to one element -singular countablesomething-).

Using adverbs of placeis easier; it is not necessary to do it according to protagonist, justusing any preposition of space-position, and adding something (remember to use anarticlewhen referring to one element -singular countable something-). E.g.

I am at homeThey are in EnglandIt is under the tableHe was behind JohnYou were between John and MaryThis will be beside the book

In order to use adverbs of time, it is necessary to place first an adverb of place and tokeep sense with verb tenses. Remember adverbs of place are mostly time prepositions+


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something (since, until, before and after can be followed by a sentence too), but theycan also be independent expressions as yesterdayand last week). E.g.

I am at home on MondayThey are in England for two weeksIt is under the table since this morningHe was behind John at breakfastYou were between John and Mary last weekThis will be beside the book after it is clean

Using adjectives (descriptions) is simple. Difference must be made betweencharacteristics and state when they may get confused. Remember descriptions do notchange for plural in English. E.g.

I am intelligentThey are intelligentIt is hotHe was sadYou were sickThis will be fine

EXERCISE: Write 20 affirmative sentences of each complement (something, place, time,description)7.2. Negative sentences = + aux. + NOT + + ()In this case it is important to know that if verb TO BE is in present or past, it is the onlyone that can be its own auxiliary verb, for negative and interrogative sentences.So it results that in present and past, the word NOT (adverb of negation), is placed afterTO BE; and in future it is placed according to the rule (after WILL). E.g.

I am not a studentIt is not a bookHe was not behind JohnYou were not between John and MaryI am not at home on MondayThey are not in England for two weeksThey are not intelligentThis will not be fine

EXERCISE: Write the negative form of the affirmative sentences you did


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7.3. Interrogative sentences simple and wh-questions7.3.1. Simple questions (yes/no) = aux. + + + () ?As with negative sentences, the use of TO BE as an auxiliary verb, depends on tense:present, past, future.So, in present and past, verb TO BE is located at the beginning of the sentence,

changing place with the protagonist; and in future it is done according to the rule (WILLis separated from BE). E.g.

Are you a student ?Is it a book ?Was he behind John ?Were you between John and Mary ?Are you at home on Monday ?Are they in England for two weeks ?Are they intelligent ?Will this be fine ?

EXERCISE: Write the simple question of the affirmative sentences you did

7.3.2. Wh- questions = Wh-exp. + aux. + + + () ?The first and main component of wh-questions (informative questions), is the wh-expression (the information we want to know), which is not always made up of onlyone word; so, to start, it is necessary to know at least the ones corresponding to the

complements seen so far (see 7.4.3. Wh-questions answers). A complete list will beseen at the wh-questionssection.

In this course special approach and attention are given to this kind ofsentence, since they are fundamental for practising in conversation.What are you ?What is it ?Where was he ?Where were you ?When are you at home ?How long are they in England ?What are they like ?How will this be ?

EXERCISE: Write the wh-questions of the affirmative sentences you did


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7.4. Contractions & answers7.4.1.To Be contractionsAs in many other languages, for informal situations some abbreviations have been usedto make it shorter. In English it is mostly seen when using verb To Be.

They can be used according to type of sentence

Affirmative contractionsTO BE CONTRACTION EXAMPLE

am m Im a studentis s Shes a teacher

are re Youre in the classroomwas no contraction That was on the table

were no contraction They were fatwill be ll be Hell be tall

Negative contractionsTO BE CONTRACTION EXAMPLE

am no contraction Im not a studentis no contraction Shes not a teacher

are no contraction Youre not in the classroomwas wasnt That wasnt on the tablewere werent They werent fat

will be wont be He wont be tall

Note that depending on tense and whether they are affirmative or negative, possibilityof contraction changes

EXERCISE: Contract the sentences you did when possible7.4.2. Simple question answersRemember simple questions can be answered either, yes or no, followed of either, anaffirmative or negative sentence as it corresponds. However, such sentences may begiven complete (long answers) or abbreviated (short answers) to avoid uselessrepetitions.In order to give short answers, the next rules must be used:


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Affirmative short answer Yes, + aux. (no contraction)Affirmative contraction is only possible in long answersYes, I amYes, he isYes, you areYes, she wasYes, we were

Yes, they willNegative short answer No, + negative contractionNegative contractions for IS, ARE (isnt, arent), are only possible in short answers.No, I am not (this form is never contracted)No, he isntNo, you arentNo, she wasntNo, we werentNo, they wont

Note the option of contraction differs from affirmative to negative short answers.

EXERCISE: Give negative and affirmative short answers for the simple questions you did

7.4.3. Wh-questions answersThe way wh-questions are answered must not be after translation but after mechanizingthe following rule (in order to answer fast and precisely). E.g.

Wh-exp. + aux. + + + () ?What is it ?

How will this be ?How long are they in England?It is required to recognise first, the protagonist, then the auxiliary verb (tense), the fullverb, and finally what the wh-expression asks (wh-answer).


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What asks for something (see details afterwards)Where asks for an adverb of place: prep. + somethingWhen asks for an adverb of time: prep. + something, timeHow asks for a description stateWhatlike asks for a description characteristicWho asksfor a persons name or designationHow long asks for duration of an action (for,during)What time asks for a precise hour (at) + aux. + + wh-answer + ()It is a bookThis will be fineThe complement position is determined by its nature and logic: Remember that everycomplement of time (adverb of time) must be placed at the end of every sentence; so, itmeans that if a wh-answer is an adverb of time, it goes after any other complement. E.g.

+ aux. + + () + wh-answerThey are in England for two weeksIt is highly recommended to mechanise this rule applying it by frequent practice; so, itcould be possible to answer a question, understanding it without translating it.

EXERCISE: Study and learn wh-expressions answers

8. POSSESSIVE FORMSIt is very important to keep in mind that:

- Possessive forms gender refers exclusively to possessor, and not to possession. Ifpossessive is feminine the possession is not necessarily feminine. E.g. He is herhusband, John is Maries father

- Possessive forms do not change for plural. The s ofpossessive pronouns* nevermeans plural. E.g.

Singular: It is your car, plural: They are your cars,Singular: It is yours, plural: They are yours

8.1. Possessive adjectivesAs adjectives, describe something; so they must be used preceding something. Theycannot stay alone.


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POSSESSOR POSS. ADJECT. EXAMPLEI My That is my book

You Your This will be your bookHe

JohnHisHis

She is his wifeIt is his house

SheMary HerHer It was her bookThey will be her friendsIt

The carItsIts

It is its colourHe is its owner

We Our Those are our parentsThey

The dogsTheirTheir

He was their teacherIt is their food

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using possessive adjectives8.2. Possessive pronounsAs pronouns, replace something; so they must be used instead of something. Theycannot be preceded or followed by something (only by an action or a connector). Theycan replace possessor and possession together.Some of them are made up after possessive adjectives plus a final s (remember it doesnot mean plural)

POSSESSOR POSS. ADJ. POSS. PRON. EXAMPLE

I My Mine That book is mineYou Your Yours This book will be yoursHe

JohnHisHis

HisHis

She is hisThe house is his

SheMary

HerHer

HersHers

The book was hersThey will be hers

We Our Ours They are oursThey

The dogsTheirTheir

TheirsTheirs

He was theirsThe food is theirs

It is possible to replace possessions with subject personal pronounsto avoid repetitions.Note that HIS is used as both, possessive adjective and pronoun. There is nopossessive pronoun for possessor IT.

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using possessive pronouns


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8.3. Genitive possessor + s + possessionThis possessive form provides the name of the possessor separated by an apostropheand an s (s) before the possession. (Do not confuse genitive s with TO BE contraction s= is)

- If name of possessor already ends in s, only the apostrophe is placed.- It is only used when possessor is a person or an animal.- Definite article THE, must not be used for possession.- Can be used as either: Possessive adjective or possessive pronoun (preceding

possession or alone). That is why this form is widely used.

Its Johns house used as possessive adjectiveIts Charles house name of possessor ends in sIts my parents house plural possessorIts the dogs house article for possessor not possessionThe house is JohnsThe house is CharlesThe house is my parentsThe house is the dogs

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using genitive forms

8.4. Other possessive formsThe preposition -connector- OF can precede possessive pronouns and genitive whenpossession has the indefinite article: a, an, some; or a number

Its a house ofJohnsTheyre some friends ofJanesTheyre two friends ofJanes

Its one ofJohns housesTheyre some ofJanes friendsTheyre two ofJanes friends

Possession can be indicated in two ways if possessor is not a person or an animal, or ifpossessor is described in any way:

- Connecting possession to possessor with OF. E.g.The door of the house is redThe colour of the sky is blueIt is the book of the boy who studies English

used as possessive pronoun


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- Using possessor as a description, before possession. E.g.The house door is redThe sky colour is blueThe car speed is good

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using other possessive forms

8.5. Possessive wh-questionsWhose + possession asks for a possessive formRemember not to translate to understand but to apply the rule and memorise what wh-expression asks for.Wh-expression WHOSE is generally followed by the possession with no article in an

informal way, but it is also possible to avoid it when it is not necessary.

Whose car is this? InformalWhose is this car? FormalWhose book will this be ? This will be her book

This book will be hersThis will be Janes bookThis book will be Janes

This book will be hersThis will be Janes bookThis book will be JanesThis book will be hersThis will be Janes bookThis book will be Janes

Whose is it ? Its hisIts Johns

EXERCISE: Write 20 WHOSE wh-questions with their answers


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9. CONTRAST & SIMILARITY FORMSSo as to compare and distinguish descriptions of either, something or actions;comparative, superlative, equality and proportionality forms are used.

9.1. Comparative formsIt is required to have at least two protagonists to compare, and an action base.Comparative forms are determined by the description used:

- Its size (number of syllables),- Its nature (regular-irregular),- Its purpose (increasing > or decreasing )or LESS to decrease (). For decreasing (


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She was thinner than herThey seem sadder than them

Two-syllable descriptions are added -er if they end in -y (change y by i). E.g.They seem uglier than they doEnglish is easier than SpanishI will be happier than he willYou look prettier than her

EXERCISE: Write 20 comparative sentences

9.2. Superlative formsWhen distinguishing something from a group, referring to a limit description (maximum

or minimum), superlative forms are used.As comparative forms, superlatives forms are up to the description used:

- Its size (number of syllables),- Its nature (regular-irregular),- Its purpose (maximising or minimising ),- If it describes something: adjective (when is TO BE or similar verbs)- If it describes an action: adverb = adjective + -ly (when is not TO BE or similar

verbs)

Definite article THE, must be placed preceding description, so the common rule is: + + THE + superlative form + ()

As comparative forms, when description contains more than one syllable, usuallyeither: THE MOST to maximise () or THE LEAST to minimise () are placed precedingdescription. E.g.

She is the most beautifulYou sing the most beautifully -lyHe is the least intelligentThey study the least intelligently -ly

As with comparative forms, when the description is of only one syllable, a particle (-est),is added at the end of the description instead of the word MOST for maximising (). Forminimising () (LEAST) there is no change. E.g.


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I am the tallestThey look the oldestI look the least oldJane was the fastestThese cars go the slowestThose cars go the least slow

Superlative forms change as comparative forms: Last consonant is repeated whenconsonant-vowel-consonant, and two-syllable descriptions are added -er if they end in -y (change y by i). E.g.

This is the biggest They seem the ugliestHe was the fattest English is the easiestShe was the thinnest I will be the happiestThey seem the saddest You look the prettiest

EXERCISE: Write 20 superlative sentences

9.3. Irregular comparative & superlative formsA few descriptions are not applied rules seen before. They must be memorised.

DESCRIPTION COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

good better The bestbad, ill worse The worst

little less The leastmuch, many, a lot of more The most

far further The furthest

They are used as regular forms. E.g.

This is better than thatYou work less than John doesWe speak English the bestI study the most

NOTE: The meat I like the most is fish = The meat I like best is fishEXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using irregular comparative and superlative forms


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9.4. EqualityWhen indicating similarity of descriptions, It may be used the structure asas foraffirmative and negative sentences, and the structure soas only for negative sentences.E.g.

They work as efficiently as her (she does)You do not run as (so) fast as JaneIts as easy as I thinkThis wasnt so (as) difficult as that

When expressing only equality without a description, the preposition LIKE can be used.E.g.

They work like her (she does)You do not run like JaneIts like I thinkThis wasnt like that

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences indicating equality with and without a descrption

9.5. ProportionalityWhen increase or decrease are proportional for two descriptions, it means that theydevelop at the same time. In English a particular structure is used:

The + comparative form, the + comparative formThe comparative form may be followed by a complement if necessary. E.g.

The bigger, the heavierThe more beautiful, the more expensiveThe less expensive, the betterThe more I study, the more I learnThe more they sleep, the less they workThe younger you are, the faster you run

EXERCISE: Write 20 examples of proportionality


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10. OBJECTSObjects are something affected by the action in some way: Directly or indirectly.Actions different from TO BE must be used, being possible to affect something, andconjugating them is easier than TO BE. We start using as protagonist only either: Anyplural form or the pronouns I and YOU; so, it is only necessary to place the action as

found in the dictionary (pure form); in any other way some changes must be done(singular protagonist).

10.1. Direct ObjectsA direct object is directly affected by the action. It means it is something part of theaction, necessarily present in some way at the same time of the action. It can bedetermined in any of the following ways:

- It is the victim of the action-

It is acted according to the action- It is the what or whom (to who) of the action- It is something following the action as a noun (possibly with an article) or an

objectpronoun, no any other kind of words (preposition or description)

Remember not to confuse a direct object with an adverb (place, time or manner), andthat not all the actions may have objects.The actions that are not followed immediately by something, like the actions implyingmovement, are not objective. When they may be followed immediately bysomething, they are reasonably objective. E.g.

Direct object + +

Cats drink milkI study EnglishYou read the bookWe see the teacherThey call him

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with direct object

10.2. Indirect ObjectsAs deduced, an indirect object is indirectly affected by the action; It is something notnecessarily present at the same time of the action, and receives the direct object in anyway.It can be placed in two different modes:


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Indirect object- After direct object, preceded by the prepositions TO or FOR

+ + + to/for +- Before direct object with no preposition + ++

Notice that when using TO or FOR (first mode), it is necessary to know if direct object isdirected to indirect object (TO), or if it is in benefit of it (FOR).

To + I.O. is directly implicated as a recipientBring, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, sell, send, show, take, teach,throw, and write.For + I.O.is benefited not being implicated in the actionBring, book, build, buy, cook, fetch, find, get, keep, leave, make, order, reserve, saveBoth ways can be used, but in common English for simplicity and avoiding use of eitherTO or FOR, it is preferable for the student to use the second mode. Of course, it isnecessary to use objective actions, and someone who can receive the direct object insome way. E.g.

I give milk to the catYou teach English to the studentsI read the book for MaryI give the cat milkYou teach the students EnglishI read Mary the book

It is understandable that if two objects are present with no connector (to or for), the firstone is the indirect object.

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with direct and indirect objects in both forms


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10.3. Object personal pronounsAs pronouns they are intended to replace, in this case, objects. They can be use toreplace both, direct and indirect, when connectors TO or FOR are used (first mode),

when not (second mode), only one of the objects can be replaced (usually indirectobject). E.g.

I give it to itYou teach it to themI read it for herI give it milkYou teach them EnglishI read her the book

NOTE: Write to me BritishWrite me American

For translating to Spanish, attention must be given to the fact that Spanish objectpronouns position differs from English. So, the following table is given to be used

Object

pronoun

Direct object

translation

Indirect object

translationme me me, miyou lo, la, te le, usted, tihim lo le, elher la le, ellait lo, la leus nos nos, nosotros

you los, las les, ustedesthem los, las les, ellos

Indirect object first translation is after using no connector (second mode). Secondtranslation is when using either TO or FOR (first mode)

EXERCISE: Replace the objects you can of the sentences you did


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10.4. Actions as objectsActions can also be used as objects, in such case they must generally be placed oneither: Pure form with TO, or ing form (gerund)

+ + Some exceptions and particular cases must be taken in mind:

Movement actions are always followed by -ing

Use to + pure form or ing form

Pure form without to after:Let, have, make, and, or, but, except, than, why, help-ing afterfeel like, look forward to, be accustomed to, be used to, limited to, restricted toI study swimming (means manner)I study to swim (means object)

Stop -ing = ending of an actionStop to = interrupt (to=in order to)Try -ing = experimentingTry to = effortMean -ing = involvingMean to = intentionPerception actions -ing = for a momentPerception actions to = entirelyCant help -ing = avoid

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with actions as objects

TO -ing


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11. TENSESEnglish tenses are one of its advantages; since they are quite easier than Spanish tenseswith all their variations. So, with just one of English tenses, it is possible to replace up tothree Spanish tenses. That is why it is not hard to understand and use them. Sometimes,comparisons with Spanish could be useful to show how simple English tenses are.It is necessary to remind some basic forms seen in Spanish grammar verbs:

- Infinitive called here pure form is usually seen preceded by the connector TOand has no specific tense.

- Gerund called here ing form due to its ending. It is used for progressivetenses and other forms.

- Past participle called here P.P., is made up in two ways: regular (adding ed),and irregular (memorised). It is used for perfect tenses and other forms.

11.1. Simple TensesThese tenses usually imply habitual actions, not necessarily done immediately at thetime of speaking. So, they may become some sort of indefinite tenses.

11.1.1. Simple presentIndicates an action done repeatedly in the present but not necessarily now.It is easily made just placing the pure form without TO, after the protagonist (when isplural or I/YOU) as seen in all the examples seen before. E.g.

You singThey studyThese cars goWe speak EnglishI sleepCats drink milk

If the protagonist is HE/SHE/IT or any other singular form (except I/YOU), an -s must beadded at the end of the verb (remember this -s does not mean plural). E.g.

He readsShe seesIt drinks milkJohn studiesThe car goesHe teaches English

See that if verb ends in consonant +y, the ending -ies, is placed instead of-y; and if itends in -ss, -sh, -ch or -o, the ending -es is added.

Plural protagonist or I/YOU

Singular protagonist I/YOU


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So, a structure for simple present would be:

+ (+ -s if= singular I/YOU) + ()Notice that for affirmative sentences it is not required to use an auxiliary verb. But fornegative and interrogative sentences, either: DO or DOES (depending on protagonist),

must be used; DO NOT and DOES NOT are informally contracted DONT andDOESNT respectively. E.g.

You dont singThey dont studyThese cars dont goI dont sleepHe doesnt readShe doesnt seeJohn doesnt studyThe car doesnt goDo I sing?Do they study?Do these cars go?Do you sleep?Does he read?Does she see?Does John study?Does the car go?

For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2.. E.g.

Do you sleep? Yes, I doNo, I dontDoes he read? Yes, he doesNo, he doesnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 simple present tense sentences on their affirmative, negative,interrogative and short answer forms

11.1.2. Simple PastIndicates an action done in the past with no relating it to the present.The past form of an action depends on either: the action is regularor irregular.When it is regular, the past form is made just placing the particle -ed at the end of theaction (keeping some orthographic rules).


Singular protagonist I/YOU(DOES takes verb -s)


Singular protagonist I/YOU(DOES takes verb -s)


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When it is irregular (no rule), it is necessary to memorise them progressively, but it isnot hard. See appendix.So, to make a simple past sentence, it is just necessary to place the past form of theaction after any protagonist no matter if it is singular or plural. E.g.

You sang He readThey studied She sawThese cars went It drank milkWe spoke English John studiedI slept The car wentCats drank milk He taught English

So, a structure for simple past would be:

+ past formNotice that for affirmative sentences it is not required to use an auxiliary verb. But fornegative and interrogative sentences DID must be used; DID NOT is informallycontracted DIDNT. E.g.

You didnt singThey didnt studyThese cars didnt goI didnt sleepHe didnt readShe didntseeJohn didnt studyThe car didnt go

Did I sing?Did they study?Did these cars go?Did you sleep?Did he read?Did she see?Did John study?Did the car go?


regular + edirregularmemorize + ()

DID takes action past form

DID takes action past form


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Did you sleep? Yes, I didNo, I didntDid he read? Yes, he didNo, he didnt

11.1.2.1 Regular past form pronunciationThe particle ed must never be pronounced /ed/. It is generally pronounced /d/, butsome final consonant sounds make it difficult; so, depending of final consonant soundpronunciation may be:

/t/ When final consonant sound is some sort of /s/ sound (-ss, -sh, -ch or -x), or /p/,/k/, /f/ sounds. E.g.

She kissed him /kIst/I watched T.V. /Uatt/He fixed the car /fIkst/You helped me /jelpt/It stopped here /stopt/We liked lunch /laIkt/They worked a lot /Urkt/Mary looked pretty /lukt/Tom cooked last night /kukt/The boys laughed at her /lft/

/Id/ When final consonant sound is /t/ or /d/. E.g.John wanted to sleep /UantId/I waited for you /UeItId/They counted the money /kaUntId/He created it /krIeitId/Jane planted a tree /plntId/She invented that /InventId/You needed some rest /nidId/We ended the lesson /endId/

EXERCISE: Write 20 simple past tense sentences on their affirmative, negative,

interrogative and short answer forms

11.1.3. Simple FutureIndicates an action intended to be done in the future, but in an undetermined moment.It actually indicates intention to do it, volition with no specifying when.In English, there are verbal forms only for present and past. Future is expressed using amodal auxiliary verbindicating volition or desire: WILL.


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Simple future is made just placing WILL preceding the action, no matter the protagonistor the action.WILL is informally contracted ll for pronouns. E.g.

Youll singTheyll studyThese cars will goWell speak EnglishIll sleepCats will drink milk

Hell readShell seeItll drink milkJohn will studyThe car will goHell teach English

So, a structure for simple future would be:

+ WILL + + ()Notice that a modal auxiliary verbWILL is used for affirmative sentences. It mustalso be used for negative and interrogative sentences. WILL NOT is informallycontracted WONT. E.g.

You wont singThey wont studyThese cars wont goI wont sleepHe wont readShe wont see

John wont studyHe wont readShe wont seeJohn wont studyThe car wont go


Will you sleep? Yes, I willNo, I wontWill he read? Yes, he willNo, he wont

EXERCISE: Write 20 simple future tense sentences on their affirmative, negative,interrogative and short answer forms

11.1.4. Future connected to presentSince simple future establishes an undetermined future, an alternative form to indicate adefinite future connected to present is used.Indicates an action intended to happen in the immediate future as something in processto be done.


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It is made up of an auxiliary form of two parts: TO BE, which changes according to theprotagonist; and GOING TO, which is the same for any protagonist an action.Informally, TO BE is contracted as known, and the particle GOING TO may becontracted as GONNA. E.g.

Youre going to sing Hes going to readTheyre going to study Shes going to seeThese cars are going to go Its going to drink milkWere gonna speak English John is gonna studyIm gonna sleep The car is gonna goCats are gonna drink milk Hes gonna teach English

So, a structure for this future connected to present would be:

+ TO BE + GOING TO + + ()See that for this tense, more of one auxiliary verb is used; so, when doing negative andaffirmative sentences, use only TO BE and the particle GOING TO remains before theaction. E.g.

Youre not going to singTheyre not going to studyThese cars are not going to goHes not going to readIm not gonna sleepShes not gonna seeJohn is not gonna studyThe car is not gonna goAm I going to sing?Are they going to study?Are these cars going to go?Is he going to read?Are you gonna sleep?Is she gonna see?IsJohn gonna study?Is the car gonna go?

For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use only TOBE as auxiliary. E.g.

Use contraction GONNAonly informally

Use contraction GONNAonly informally


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Are you going to sleep? Yes, I amNo, I am notIs he going to read? Yes, he isNo, he isnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 future connected to present sentences on their affirmative, negative,interrogative and short answer forms

11.1.5. Past cancelledThe form TO BE + GOING TO, may express an action which was not carried out if TOBE is used in past tense. E.g.

I was going to sleepThey were going to readHe wasnt going to singYou werent going to seeWas she going to study?Were we going to go?

EXERCISE: Write 20 past cancelled sentences on their affirmative, negative,interrogative and short answer forms

11.2. Progressive tensesThese tenses receive this name as they indicate an action in progress at the referencetime, an action done simultaneously with the moment given expressing immediatenessbut incompleteness.Progressive tenses use TO BE as auxiliary and the gerund, -ing form, for the principalaction.

11.2.1 Present progressivePresent progressive refers to an action being done simultaneously with the time ofspeaking, the reference time is supposed to be now.Verb TO BE is applied on its present forms AM, IS, ARE as auxiliary according to theprotagonist, and the particle ing is placed at the end of the principal action regardingsome orthographic rules. E.g.

I am studying EnglishTom is drinking milkYou are reading this bookJane is sleepingWe are going home


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Shes singingHes speaking EnglishIm teaching youTheyre seeing the carYoure running

So, a structure for present progressive would be:

+ AM/IS/ARE + -ING + ()See that when using the action to run, the final n is doubled. It is due to an orthographicrule applied when a word ends in one consonant preceded by one stressed vowel:consonant-vowel-consonant. Final consonant is doubled when placing any particle(suffix*). E.g.

Youre running

Shes getting tiredHes hitting the ballIm swimmingWere putting itTheyre sitting on the chair

NOTE: Die - dyingLie - lyingFor negative and interrogative sentences and short answers, TO BE is used as seen. E.g.

Shes not singingTheyre not seeing the carYoure not running

Are you swimming? Yes, I amNo, I am notIs he hitting the ball? Yes, he isNo, he isntAre you going home? Yes, we areNo, we arent

EXERCISE: Write 20 present progressive tense sentences on their affirmative, negative,interrogative and short answer forms

TO BE may be contractedas known


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11.2.2. Past progressiveIndicates an action being done simultaneously with a reference action or moment in thepast. So, a past complement should be used.Verb TO BE is applied on its past forms WAS, WERE as auxiliary according to theprotagonist, and the particle ing is placed at the end of the principal action regardingsome orthographic rules. E.g.

I was studying English yesterdayTom was drinking milk last nightYou were reading this book last weekJane was sleeping when John went to visit herWe were going home at 9 oclockShe was singing before I saw herHe was speaking English last yearI was teaching you when you were in classThey were seeing the car this morning

You were running on Tuesday

So, a structure for past progressive would be:

+ WAS/WERE + -ING + () + past compl.For negative and interrogative sentences and short answers, the same rules of presentprogressive are followed. E.g.

She wasnt singing before I saw herThey werent seeing the

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